AP PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 6:
Learning
Learning: Definition Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or
behavioral potential that is due to experience in the environment.
1. Relatively permanent to rule out behavioral changes that result from fatigue or
motivational changes Example: Throwing side arm in sports- fatigue or learned? Exception: Short-Term Memory recall ability only lasts about
30 seconds without rehearsal – learning happens, but it’s not “relatively permanent”
“A relatively permanent change in behavior or behavior potential due to experience.” (cont.) 2. Change in behavior or behavior potential
Behavioral potential is included because learning often takes place without immediately being shown in behavior (i.e. is Latent- Learning in class).
learning may create the potential for behavior change when the conditions are right – e.g. when there is an incentive (i.e. getting an A)
3. Due to Experience in environment rule out changes that result from maturation (return to
definition) Complication: maturation usually works together with
experience to change behavior. It speeds up the learning process (i.e. ability to walk- experience and maturation)
Learning: Learning vs. Maturation It is hard to separate experience from
maturation and say something is purely learned or purely genetic.
Maturation is generally seen as preparing a species to learn a skill rapidly
Maturation vs. Learning?
Do salamanders learn to swim?
Classic Experiment by Carmichael
Experimental Group Control Group
Salamander eggs were placed in chloretone solution, a chemical that prevents movement but permits normal growth.
Salamander eggs were placed in tap water.
Did I learn or just mature?
Maturation vs. Learning?
Do salamanders learn to swim?
Classic Experiment by Carmichael
Experimental Group Control Group
Do salamanders learn to swim?
Classic Experiment by Carmichael
Experimental Group Control Group
When salamanders in the Control group reached an age when they were swimming normally, the animals in the Experimental group were tested by placing them in tap water and waiting for the paralyzing chemical to wear off.
Maturation vs. Learning?
Classic Experiment by Carmichael
This experiment has been considered to be a clear example of maturation; it is said that the salamanders immediately started to swim normally.
On close examination, the results could be seen as evidence for either maturation or learning.
But
Maturation vs. Learning?
Classic Experiment by Carmichael
Carmichael noted that from the first twitch until normal swimming occurred, there was a period of about 45 minutes in which the animals showed increasingly complex swimming movements.This could be seen as evidence for very rapid learning.
It could be said the chemical was gradually wearing off and no learning occurred.
Or
Who knows…
Associative Learning
A simple form of learning in which we comprehend that certain events occur together
We will learn about several types:HabituationSensitizationClassical or Pavlovian ConditioningOperant or Instrumental or Skinnerian
Conditioning
Habituation and Sensitization:Adaptive Functions
HabituationDecreased response to a stimulus
judged to be of little or no importanceWe engage in this type of learning so
we can tune out unimportant stimuli and focus on what matters
Return to Development and Babies? Sensitization
Increased response to a stimulus when we are anticipating an important stimulus
We engage in this type of learning so we are prepared for dangerous situations
Both concepts demonstration learning
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
WOOF.
Classical Conditioning: Definition and History Learning in which a response naturally caused by one
stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus:
1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned Response (UCR)2. Neutral Stimulus (NS) + UCS UCR3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)
Ivan PavlovAccidentally discovered classical conditioningHis experiments on digestion in dogs turned into research on learni
ngAlso worked with conditioning a defensive reflex
What did the dog “habituate” to?What had he become sensitized to?
Elements of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that naturally and automatically causes a specific response in an organism
And example of a UCS would be food Unconditioned response (UCR)
The response caused by a UCSThe UCR is automatic and unlearnedAn example of a UCR is salivation in response to
food
Elements of Classical Conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A formerly neutral stimulus (NS) that is paired with a UCS and eventually causes the desired response all by itself
An example of a CS is the bell in Pavlov’s studies
Conditioned response (CR)The learned response to the CSAn example is salivation in response to the
bell
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Experiment
Before Conditioning
Food (UCS)
Salivation (UCR)
Bell (NS)
No Response
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Procedure
During Conditioning
Bell (NS)
Food (UCS)
Salivation (UCR)
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Procedure
After Conditioning
Bell (CS)
Salivation (CR)
Classical Conditioning In Humans
UCS = Loud Noise
UCR = Fear of Noise
NS = Rat
CS = Rat
CR = Fear of Rat
The “Little Albert” experiment demonstrated a classically
conditioned fear of white fluffy things
Real or not, Santa is scary!!!!
Classical Conditioning in Humans:Class Demonstration
Lick your finger and dip it into your cup of lemonade powder, but DO NOT EAT IT.
When you hear the tone, immediately eat the powder on your finger, and then dip your finger back into the cup to prepare for the next trial.
You must eat some of the powder immediately after each tone, but not any other time.
After several “learning” trials, you will be instructed to simply listen to the tone without eating the powder.
What happens? Label the UCS, UCR, NS, CS and CR in your notes based on the demo.
I’d say something, but, sadly, I have no
mouth.
New Learning Based on Old:Higher Order Conditioning Once a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned
stimulus, it may function as an unconditioned stimulus to elicit new learning.
For instance, in Pavlov’s experiment, once the bell produced the salivation response in the dogs, it could be paired with a new neutral stimulus, such as a red light, until the dogs learned to salivate to the red light alone.
However…
The new neutral stimulus would have to be presented at a different time than the now CS for learning to occur
i.e. if a dog learns that the metronome predicts the shock, and the metronome is SIMULTANEOUSLY paired with a light, the light alone will not predict the behavior.
Classical Conditioning: Key Variables In order for Classical Conditioning to work the
following variables must exist:
STRENGTH - Stimuli (UCS, NS) must be noticeable enough to provoke a response.
TIMING - UCS and NS must be paired close together so that an association is made between the two. Best case: NS precedes UCS.
FREQUENCY - UCS and NS must be paired together many times so that an association is made between the two and the NS can come to elicit the same response as the UCS.
Classical Conditioning: Predictability Blocking – previous learning prevents
conditioning to a second stimulus when the two stimuli are presented together
Kamin’s Work – rats that learned to fear a tone which had been followed by a shock. When the tone was simultaneously paired with a light and followed by the shock, the rats failed to fear the light alone.
Backward Conditioning – NS may come before OR after UCS, but not before AND after.
Rescorla’s Work – tone could either mean be fearful or relax, depending when it occurred with shock (signals it has ended)
Classical Conditioning:Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction –
After a period of time passes when CS is not paired with UCS, CS returns to being an NS
e.g. Baby Albert would eventually cease to be afraid of white fluffy things after they were not paired with a horrible and frightening noise (Mary Cover Jones)
Spontaneous Recovery – Just because extinction occurs, does it mean that the learning is gone?
No! After extinction, it is not unusual to see the recurrence of the conditioned
response This proves the learning never disappeared; it was just obscured by new
learning - like interference
Classical Conditioning:Generalization and Discrimination
Generalization – An organism may learn to respond
not only to the CS, but also to other stimuli that are similar to the CS.
e.g. Baby Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, but also feared cotton balls, rabbits, white sweaters, etc.
Discrimination – Organisms can also learn to decipher
between similar stimuli when only particular stimuli are paired with a UCS.
Classical Conditioning in the Real World:Taste Aversion and the Garcia Effect Some learning mechanisms are so
powerful they do not require frequency of pairings.
Taste Aversion – Occurs when organism becomes ill
following consumption of a particular food.
Organism may never be able to eat the food again.
WHY? Discrimination and Generalization?
Garcia Effect – Using principles of taste aversion, John
Garcia put this phenomenon to good use Sprinkled carcass of sheep with a
chemical that caused illness in coyotes Coyotes did not attack the livestock
following this experience
No more livestock? Now what?
Classical Conditioning in the Real World:Preparedness and Contrapreparedness Some conditioned responses
come naturally, others do not. Preparedness
Conditioned behaviors that work well with organism’s instinctive behaviors and are easy to train
e.g. phobia of snakes or spiders Contrapreparedness
Other conditioned behaviors go against the organism’s instinctive behaviors and are difficult or impossible to train.
e.g. phobia of chairs or tables?
Scary.
Not Scary.
Classical Conditioning in the Real World:Treating Phobias
Many phobias are learned responses and can be unlearned This can be done gradually or all at once Systematic Desensitization
Therapist and client generate “fear hierarchy” of situations that are increasingly threatening
Client then learns relaxation techniquesClient experiences “in vivo” therapy to directly experience
each item on fear hierarchy to gradually unlearn his/her fear Flooding
Client faces worst-case scenario involving fearIf they can survive this, they have no reason so be fearful
every day
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Skinner BoxSkinner “Crib” containing
Skinner’s child
The Ultimate Skinner Box
Operant Conditioning Learning in which an organism
engages in a spontaneous behavior which is followed by a consequence - a reward or punishment
Organism learns to perform behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid a punishment
Law of Effect If a behavior is reinforced, it is MORE likely
to occur If a behavior is punished, it is LESS likely to
occur
History of Operant Conditioning
E.L. Thorndike Researched cats in a puzzle box Cats learned to escape from box to attain a reinforcement of food
B.F. Skinner Created a device called a Skinner Box to train organisms using operant conditioning Also did research on superstition (pigeons) and connected it to the principles of
operant conditioning
Elements of Operant Conditioning
ReinforcerA stimulus or event that
follows a behavior and makes that behavior more likely to occur again
PunisherA stimulus or event that
follows a behavior and makes that behavior less likely to occur again
Types of Reinforcement Positive reinforcer
(+)Adds something
rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again
Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example
Negative reinforcer (-)Removes something
unpleasant from the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again
Types of Reinforcement Primary reinforcer
Adds something intrinsically valuable to the organism
Giving a dog a food for shaking hands
Secondary reinforcer Adds something with
assigned value to the organism
Giving a person $100 for each “A” on their report card
Types of Punishment Positive Punishment (+)
Adds something undesirable to decrease a behavior
Spanking a child for swearing
Negative Punishment (-) Removes something
desirable to decrease a behavior
Taking a child’s toy away for swearing
Also called omission training
Types of Punishment Primary Punishment
Method of decreasing behavior is directly threatening to organism’s survival
Beating a prisoner for trying to escape
Secondary Punishment Method of decreasing
behavior is undesirable, but not life-threatening
Taking away a prisoner’s recreational privileges for trying to escape
Complex Behaviors and Shaping Some behaviors are too complex to occur
spontaneously For these behaviors, shaping must be
usedShaping reinforces successive approximations to t
he desired behaviorOrganism eventually learns what the desired
behavior is in small stepsSimilar to playing “hot and cold”Our class demonstration?
Preparedness and Contrapreparedness in Operant Conditioning
Some changes in behavior are easily trained Preparedness
Conditioned behaviors that work well with organism’s instinctive behaviors and are easy to train
e.g. Brelands’ “Dancing Chicken”- scratch pattern Contrapreparedness
Other conditioned behaviors go against the organism’s instinctive behaviors and are difficult or impossible to train.
e.g. Brelands’ raccoon – “washing” pattern
Reinforcement vs. Punishment?
Punishment not as effective as reinforcement
Does not teach proper behavior, only suppresses undesirable behavior
Causes upset that can impede learning May give impression that inflicting pain
is acceptable
Effective Punishment? Effective punishment must be
SWIFT○ Should occur as soon as possible after the
behaviorCERTAIN
○ Should occur every time the behavior doesSUFFICIENT
○ Should be strong enough to be a deterrentCONSISTENT
○ Should apply to all individuals the same way
Impact of Punishment When punishment is given
haphazardly, learned helplessness can result.Learned Helplessness occurs
when NO MATTER WHAT THE ORGANISM DOES, it cannot change the consequences of behavior.
Martin Seligman’s experiment with dogs showed that dogs given a series of inescapable shocks stopped trying to escape the shocks even when given the opportunity to escape later.
Another example would be finding that whether or not you study for your calculus tests, you fail, so you stop trying altogether.
Alternatives to Punishment An alternative to punishment if known as
AVOIDANCE TRAININGthe organism is given a “warning” before
punishment occurs so it may change its behavior in order to avoid an unpleasant consequence like a punishment.
Ex: “Counting to three” before punishment is delivered to provoke a child to stop misbehaving.
Behavioral Change Using Biofeedback
Biofeedback is an operant technique that teaches people to gain voluntary control over bodily processes like heart rate, “focus”, and blood pressure
When used to control brain activity it is called neurofeedback
Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement vs. Intermittent
reinforcement? Interval schedules
Reinforcement depends on the passing of timeFixed-interval schedule
○ Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed
○ An example would be receiving a paycheck every two weeks
Variable-interval schedule○ Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a variable
amount of time has passed○ An example would be pop quizzes
Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedules
Reinforcement depends on the number of responses made
Fixed-ratio schedule○ Reinforcement follows a fixed number of behaviors○ For example, being paid on a piecework basis
Variable-ratio schedule○ Reinforcement follows a variable number of behaviors○ An example would be playing slot machines○ Yields the most rapid response rate
Subject does not know when reward is coming - works consistently
Subject must WORK to get reward
Response Patterns to Schedules of Reinforcement
Which schedule yields the fastest response rate?
What happened in our class demonstration?
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Reinforcement can sometimes come from within
and be intrinsically motivatede.g. Playing on a swing set is intrinsically
motivated in children Reinforcements can also be extrinsically
motivated, or come from an exogenous sourcee.g. Adults get paid for going to work – no pay, no
work. What happens when we give extrinsic
reinforcements for intrinsically motivated behavior?
Implications?
Compare and Contrast:Classical and Operant Conditioning
Cognitive Learning
Cognitive Learning Sometimes learning involves more than
simply reacting to stimuli – it involves THINKING!
Cognitive LearningLearning that depends on mental activity that is
not directly observableInvolves such processes as attention, expectation,
thinking, and memory While behaviorists typically focus on
learning that is based on reactions, cognitive psychologists explain learning in terms of additional mental processes.
Generative Learning and Insight
Generative learningUsing what you know to figure out
something you don’tE.g. realizing a new song is by a favorite
group of yours Insight
After thinking about a problem for a bit, you suddenly figure it out
E.g. Kohler’s chimps; “Genius” Chimp; Kohler's chimps
Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps Latent learning
Edward Chance Tolman and the “Tolmaniacs”learning that takes place before the subject
realizes it and is not immediately reflected in behavior
Taking a test on material learned over the course of a few weeks
Cognitive mapping latent learning stored as a mental image
Demonstration of Latent Learning and Cognitive Mapping
Latent Learning
Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment(Tolman & Honzik,
1930)Three groups of rats were given practice trials in a maze, 1 trial per day.
The maze consisted of a series of components
shaped like the letter T.
A trial started when the rat was placed in the Start box and ended when he entered the Goal box, after which he was removed from the maze.
Latent Learning
Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment(Tolman & Honzik,
1930)
TSTART
TTT
i
TT
...
GOAL
When the rat went up the stem of the T, he reached a choice point.If he turned one way, he came to a dead end.If he turned the other way, he came to the entrance of the next component.
Latent Learning
Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment(Tolman & Honzik,
1930)
TSTART
TTT
i
TT
...
GOAL
Each time the rat turned into the dead end, it was counted as an error.The measure of performance (dependent variable) was the number of errors on a trial.
If learning occurred, the number of errors should decrease as more and more trials were given.
Latent Learning
Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment(Tolman & Honzik,
1930)GROUP 1: On every trial, these rats received food when they reached the goal box.
GROUP 2: These rats never received food. They were simply removed from the maze when they got to the goal box.
GROUP 3: These rats got no food on Trials 1 to 10. But on Trial 11, and every trial afterwards, they received a food reward.
Latent Learning
Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment(Tolman & Honzik,
1930)
1 10 11 17
Trials (1 Trial per Day)
Avera
ge
Err
ors
0
2
4
6
8
1
0 GR 1 — GR 2 — GR 3 —
The day-to-day decrease in errors represented a “relatively permanent change in behavior” that resulted from practice.
This was clear evidence for learning.
Latent Learning
Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment(Tolman & Honzik,
1930)
1 10 11 17 Trials (1 Trial per
Day)
Avera
ge
Err
ors
0
2
4
6
8
1
0 GR 1 — GR 2 — GR 3 —
Group 2 got no food but still improved slightly. Removal from the maze was a small reward.
There was little evidence for learning.
Latent Learning
Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment(Tolman & Honzik,
1930)
1 10 11 17 Trials (1 Trial per
Day)
Avera
ge
Err
ors
0
2
4
6
8
1
0 GR 1 — GR 2 — GR 3 —
Getting no food on Trials 1 – 10, Group 3 performed like Group 2 through Trial 11.
Latent Learning
Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment(Tolman & Honzik,
1930)
1 10 11 17 Trials (1 Trial per
Day)
Avera
ge
Err
ors
0
2
4
6
8
1
0 GR 1 — GR 2 — GR 3 —
On the next trial, Group 3 matched Group 1, and then did even better!
Latent Learning
Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment(Tolman & Honzik,
1930) Interpretation
Group 3 learned the route to the maze on Trials 1 to 10 but didn’t show it because there was no motivation to perform.
They outperformed Group 1 because the shift from no reward to reward made the reward seem larger by comparison. This is called “positive contrast.”
Latent Learning
Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment(Tolman & Honzik,
1930) Conclusion
We must observe a change in behavior to say that learning has occurred, but if no change occurs, we can draw no conclusion. Learning may be present “beneath the surface.”
This supports a distinction between learning and performance.
Learning Sets and Trial and Error Learning Learning sets/Learning to Learn
refers to increasing effectiveness at problem solving through experience
organisms “learn how to learn”Figuring out how to study best
Trial and Error LearningLearn by your mistakes
Learning by Observing Social Learning Theory or
Observational Learning Theory focuses on what we learn from observing other peopleAlbert Bandura’s Bobo Doll
experiment (new link)Children imitated adult role model - adult
models behavior and child imitatesNon-human animals have even been
shown to learn through observation!Modeling refers to process of observing
and imitating a specific behavior
Prosocial and Antisocial behavior?
Evil Bobo Doll
Why, BanduraWHYYYY?
Wired for Imitation: Mirror Neurons Mirror neurons are specialized neurons in the frontal lobe
that not only fire when we are engaged in certain actions, but ALSO when we watch others perform those actions.
These neurons form the basis of imitation, empathy and our social nature.Yawning, smiling, laughing, etc.Monkey study?Impact of Vicarious reinforcement and punishment?
What happens to your brainWhen you watch Cheesy Lifetime movies
Learning by Observing