AP Psychology Unit 6: Learning Learning: Definition Relatively permanent to rule out behavioral changes that result from fatigue or motivational changes

AP Psychology Unit 6:

Learning

Learning: DefinitionRelatively permanent

to rule out behavioral changes that result from fatigue or motivational changes

Exception: Short-Term Memory recall ability only lasts about 30 seconds without rehearsal – learning happens, but it’s not “relatively permanent

Change in behavior or behavior potential Behavioral potential is included because learning often

takes place without immediately being shown in behavior. learning may create the potential for behavior change when

the conditions are right – e.g. when there is an incentive

Experience in environment rule out changes that result from maturation Complication: maturation usually works together with

experience to change behavior. It speeds up the learning process.

Learning: Learning vs. Maturation

It is hard to separate experience from maturation and say something is purely learned or purely genetic.

Maturation is generally seen as preparing a species to learn a skill rapidly

Maturation vs. Learning?

Do salamanders learn to swim?

Classic Experiment by Carmichael

Experimental Group Control Group

Salamander eggs were placed in chloretone solution, a chemical that prevents movement but permits normal growth.

Salamander eggs were placed in tap water.

Did I learn or just

mature?








When salamanders in the Control group reached an age when they were swimming normally, the animals in the Experimental group were tested by placing them in tap water and waiting for the paralyzing chemical to wear off.



This experiment has been considered to be a clear example of maturation; it is said that the salamanders immediately started to swim normally.

On close examination, the results could be seen as evidence for either maturation or learning.

But



Carmichael noted that from the first twitch until normal swimming occurred, there was a period of about 45 minutes in which the animals showed increasingly complex swimming movements.This could be seen as evidence for very rapid learning.

It could be said the chemical was gradually wearing off and no learning occurred.

Or

Who knows…

Associative Learning

A simple form of learning in which we comprehend that certain events occur together

We will learn about several types:HabituationSensitizationClassical or Pavlovian ConditioningOperant or Instrumental or Skinnerian

Conditioning

Habituation and Sensitization

HabituationDecreased response to a stimulus

judged to be of little or no importanceWe engage in this type of learning so

we can tune out unimportant stimuli and focus on what matters

SensitizationIncreased response to a stimulus

when we are anticipating an important stimulus

We engage in this type of learning so we are prepared for dangerous situations

We sure were annoying!

Yep. Annoying.

Classical ConditioningI love me some salivating dogskis

this guy’s a freak.

Classical Conditioning: Definition and History

Learning in which a response naturally caused by one stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral stimulus: 1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned Response (UCR)2. Neutral Stimulus (NS) + UCS UCR3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)

Ivan Pavlov Accidentally discovered classical conditioning His experiments on digestion in dogs turned into research on

learning Also worked with conditioning a defensive reflex

I LOVE dogski saliva!

Elements of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)A stimulus that naturally and automatically

causes a specific response in an organismAnd example of a UCS would be food

Unconditioned response (UCR)The response caused by a UCSThe UCR is automatic and unlearnedAn example of a UCR is salivation in response

to food

Elements of Classical Conditioning

Conditioned stimulus (CS)A formerly neutral stimulus (NS) that is paired

with a UCS and eventually causes the desired response all by itself

An example of a CS is the bell in Pavlov’s studies

Conditioned response (CR)The learned response to the CSAn example is salivation in response to the bell

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Experiment

Before ConditioningBefore Conditioning

Food (UCS)

Salivation (UCR)

Bell (NS)

No Response

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Procedure

During ConditioningDuring Conditioning

Bell (NS)

Food (UCS)

Salivation (UCR)

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Procedure

After ConditioningAfter Conditioning

Bell (CS)

Salivation (CR)

Classical Conditioning In Humans

UCS = Loud Noise

UCR = Fear of Noise

NS = Rat

CS = Rat

CR = Fear of Rat

The “Little Albert” experiment demonstrated a classically

conditioned fear of white fluffy things

Come hither, rattypants!Stop

touching me, creepy

baby…

Classical Conditioning in Humans:Class Demonstration

Lick your finger and dip it into your cup of lemonade powder, but DO NOT EAT IT.

When you hear the tone, immediately eat the powder on your finger, and then dip your finger back into the cup to prepare for the next trial.

You must eat some of the powder immediately after each tone, but not any other time.

After several “learning” trials, you will be instructed to simply listen to the tone without eating the powder.

What happens? Label the UCS, UCR, NS, CS and CR in your notes based on the demo.

I’d say something, but, sadly, I have no

mouth.

New Learning Based on Old:Higher Order ConditioningOnce a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned

stimulus, it may function as an unconditioned stimulus to elicit new learning.

For instance, in Pavlov’s experiment, once the bell produced the salivation response in the dogs, it could be paired with a new neutral stimulus, such as a red light, until the dogs learned to salivate to the red light alone.

Classical Conditioning: Key Variables

In order for Classical Conditioning to work the following variables must exist:

STRENGTH - Stimuli (UCS, NS) must be noticeable enough to provoke a response.

TIMING - UCS and NS must be paired close together so that an association is made between the two. Best case: NS precedes UCS.

FREQUENCY - UCS and NS must be paired together many times so that an association is made between the two and the NS can come to elicit the same response as the UCS.

Classical Conditioning: PredictabilityBlocking – previous learning prevents

conditioning to a second stimulus when the two stimuli are presented together

Kamin’s Work – rats that learned to fear a tone which had been followed by a shock. When the tone was simultaneously paired with a light and followed by the shock, the rats failed to fear the light alone.

Backward Conditioning – NS may come before OR after UCS, but not before AND after.

Rescorla’s Work – tone could either mean be fearful or relax, depending when it occurred with shock.

Classical Conditioning:Extinction and Spontaneous RecoveryExtinction –

After a period of time passes when CS is not paired with UCS, CS returns to being an NS

e.g. Baby Albert would eventually cease to be afraid of white fluffy things after they were not paired with a horrible and frightening noise (Mary Cover Jones)

Spontaneous Recovery – Just because extinction occurs, does it mean that the learning is gone?No! After extinction, it is not unusual to see the recurrence of the conditioned

response This proves the learning never disappeared; it was just obscured by new

learning - like interference

Classical Conditioning:Generalization and Discrimination

Generalization – An organism may learn to respond

not only to the CS, but also to other stimuli that are similar to the CS.

e.g. Baby Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, but also feared cotton balls, rabbits, white sweaters, etc.

Discrimination – Organisms can also learn to decipher

between similar stimuli when only particular stimuli are paired with a UCS.

DUDE! Get that white

furry evil away from me!

Which one

yields food?

Classical Conditioning in the Real World:Taste Aversion and the Garcia Effect

Some learning mechanisms are so powerful they do not require frequency of pairings.

Taste Aversion – Occurs when organism becomes ill

following consumption of a particular food.

Organism may never be able to eat the food again.

WHY? Garcia Effect –

Using principles of taste aversion, John Garcia put this phenomenon to good use

Sprinkled carcass of sheep with a chemical that caused illness in coyotes

Coyotes did not attack the livestock following this experience

Dude…I’m never eating

pumpkin

seeds again.

No more livestock? Now what?

Classical Conditioning in the Real World:Preparedness and Contrapreparedness

Some conditioned responses come naturally, others do not.

PreparednessConditioned behaviors that work

well with organism’s instinctive behaviors and are easy to train

e.g. phobia of snakes or spidersContrapreparedness

Other conditioned behaviors go against the organism’s instinctive behaviors and are difficult or impossible to train.

e.g. phobia of chairs or tables?

Scary.

Not Scary.

Classical Conditioning in the Real World:Treating Phobias

Many phobias are learned responses and can be unlearnedThis can be done gradually or all at onceSystematic Desensitization

Therapist and client generate “fear hierarchy” of situations that are increasingly threatening

Client then learns relaxation techniquesClient experiences “in vivo” therapy to directly experience

each item on fear hierarchy to gradually unlearn his/her fearFlooding

Client faces worst-case-scenario involving fear If they can survive this, they have no reason so be fearful

every day

Operant Conditioning

Skinner BoxSkinner “Crib” containing

Skinner’s child

The Ultimate Skinner Box

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which an organism engages in a spontaneous behavior which is followed by a consequence - a reward or punishment

Organism learns to perform behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid a punishment

Law of EffectIf a behavior is reinforced, it is MORE

likely to occurIf a behavior is punished, it is LESS likely

to occur

History of Operant Conditioning

E.L. Thorndike Researched cats in a puzzle box Cats learned to escape from box to attain a reinforcement of food

B.F. Skinner Created a device called a Skinner Box to train organisms using operant conditioning Also did research on superstition (pigeons) and connected it to the principles of

operant conditioning

Elements of Operant Conditioning

ReinforcerA stimulus or event that

follows a behavior and makes that behavior more likely to occur again

PunisherA stimulus or event that

follows a behavior and makes that behavior less likely to occur again

Types of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcer (+)Adds something

rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again

Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example

Negative reinforcer (-)Removes something

unpleasant from the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again

Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is an example

Types of Reinforcement

Primary reinforcer Adds something

intrinsically valuable to the organism

Giving a dog a food for shaking hands

Secondary reinforcer Adds something with

assigned value to the organism

Giving a person $100 for each “A” on their report card

Types of Punishment

Positive Punishment (+)Adds something

undesirable to decrease a behavior

Spanking a child for swearing

Negative Punishment (-) Removes something

desirable to decrease a behavior

Taking a child’s toy away for swearing

Also called omission training

Types of Punishment

Primary PunishmentMethod of decreasing

behavior is directly threatening to organism’s survival

Beating a prisoner for trying to escape

Secondary Punishment Method of decreasing

behavior is undesirable, but not life-threatening

Taking away a prisoner’s recreational privileges for trying to escape

Complex Behaviors and Shaping

Some behaviors are too complex to occur spontaneously

For these behaviors, shaping must be usedShaping reinforces successive approximations to the

desired behaviorOrganism eventually learns what the desired behavior is

in small stepsSimilar to playing “hot and cold”Our class demonstration?

Preparedness and Contrapreparedness in Operant Conditioning

Some changes in behavior are easily trainedPreparedness

Conditioned behaviors that work well with organism’s instinctive behaviors and are easy to train

e.g. Brelands’ “Dancing Chicken”Contrapreparedness

Other conditioned behaviors go against the organism’s instinctive behaviors and are difficult or impossible to train.

e.g. Brelands’ raccoon

Reinforcement vs. Punishment?

Punishment not as effective as reinforcement

Does not teach proper behavior, only suppresses undesirable behavior

Causes upset that can impede learningMay give impression that inflicting pain is

acceptable

Effective Punishment?

Effective punishment must beSWIFT

Should occur as soon as possible after the behaviorCERTAIN

Should occur every time the behavior doesSUFFICIENT

Should be strong enough to be a deterrentCONSISTENT

Should apply to all individuals the same way

Impact of PunishmentWhen punishment is given

haphazardly, learned helplessness can result. Learned Helplessness occurs

when NO MATTER WHAT THE ORGANISM DOES, it cannot change the consequences of behavior.

Martin Seligman’s experiment with dogs showed that dogs given a series of inescapable shocks stopped trying to escape the shocks even when given the opportunity to escape later.

Another example would be finding that whether or not you study for your calculus tests, you fail, so you stop trying altogether.

Alternatives to PunishmentAn alternative to punishment if known as

AVOIDANCE TRAININGthe organism is given a “warning” before

punishment occurs so it may change its behavior in order to avoid an unpleasant consequence like a punishment.

ex/ “Counting to three” before punishment is delivered to provoke a child to stop misbehaving.

Behavioral Change Using Biofeedback

Biofeedback is an operant technique that teaches people to gain voluntary control over bodily processes like heart rate and blood pressure

When used to control brain activity it is called neurofeedback

Schedules of ReinforcementContinuous reinforcement vs. Intermittent

reinforcement?Interval schedules

Reinforcement depends on the passing of timeFixed-interval schedule

Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed

An example would be receiving a paycheck every two weeks

Variable-interval scheduleReinforcement follows the first behavior after a variable

amount of time has passedAn example would be pop quizzes

Schedules of Reinforcement

Ratio schedulesReinforcement depends on the number of responses

madeFixed-ratio schedule

Reinforcement follows a fixed number of behaviorsFor example, being paid on a piecework basis

Variable-ratio scheduleReinforcement follows a variable number of behaviorsAn example would be playing slot machinesYields the most rapid response rate

• Subject does not know when reward is coming - works consistently

• Subject must WORK to get reward

Response Patterns to Schedules of Reinforcement

Which schedule yields the fastest response rate?

What happened in our class demonstration?

Intrinsic and Extrinsic MotivationReinforcement can sometimes come from within

and be intrinsically motivatede.g. Playing on a swing set is intrinsically

motivated in childrenReinforcements can also be extrinsically

motivated, or come from an exogenous sourcee.g. Adults get paid for going to work – no pay,

no work.What happens when we give extrinsic

reinforcements for intrinsically motivated behavior?

Implications?

Compare and Contrast:Classical and Operant Conditioning

Cognitive Learning

Cognitive Learning

Sometimes learning involves more than simply reacting to stimuli – it involves THINKING!

Cognitive LearningLearning that depends on mental activity that is not

directly observable Involves such processes as attention, expectation,

thinking, and memoryWhile behaviorists typically focus on learning

that is based on reactions, cognitive psychologists explain learning in terms of additional mental processes.

Generative Learning and Insight

Generative learningUsing what you know to figure out something

you don’tE.g. realizing a new song is by a favorite group

of yours

InsightAfter thinking about a problem for a bit, you

suddenly figure it outE.g. Kohler’s chimps; “Genius” Chimp

Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps

Latent learning Edward Chance Tolman and the “Tolmaniacs” learning that takes place before the subject realizes it

and is not immediately reflected in behaviorTaking a test on material learned over the course of a

few weeksCognitive mapping

latent learning stored as a mental imageSlideshow experiment

Demonstration of Latent Learning and Cognitive Mapping

Latent Learning

Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment(Tolman & Honzik,

1930)Three groups of rats were given practice trials in a maze, 1 trial per day.

The maze consisted of a series of components

shaped like the letter T.

A trial started when the rat was placed in the Start box and ended when he entered the Goal box, after which he was removed from the maze.

Latent Learning


1930)

TSTART

TTT

i

TT

...

GOAL

When the rat went up the stem of the T, he reached a choice point.If he turned one way, he came to a dead end.If he turned the other way, he came to the entrance of the next component.

Latent Learning


1930)

TSTART

TTT

i

TT

...

GOAL

Each time the rat turned into the dead end, it was counted as an error.The measure of performance (dependent variable) was the number of errors on a trial.

If learning occurred, the number of errors should decrease as more and more trials were given.

Latent Learning


1930)GROUP 1: On every trial, these rats received food when they reached the goal box.

GROUP 2: These rats never received food. They were simply removed from the maze when they got to the goal box.

GROUP 3: These rats got no food on Trials 1 to 10. But on Trial 11, and every trial afterwards, they received a food reward.

Latent Learning


1930)

1 10 11 17

Trials (1 Trial per Day)

Avera

ge

Err

ors

0

2

4

6

8

1

0 GR 1 — GR 2 — GR 3 —

The day-to-day decrease in errors represented a “relatively permanent change in behavior” that resulted from practice.

This was clear evidence for learning.

Latent Learning


1930)

1 10 11 17 Trials (1 Trial per

Day)

Avera

ge

Err

ors

0

2

4

6

8

1

0 GR 1 — GR 2 — GR 3 —

Group 2 got no food but still improved slightly. Removal from the maze was a small reward.

There was little evidence for learning.

Latent Learning


1930)


Day)

Avera

ge

Err

ors

0

2

4

6

8

1

0 GR 1 — GR 2 — GR 3 —

Getting no food on Trials 1 – 10, Group 3 performed like Group 2 through Trial 11.

Latent Learning


1930)


Day)

Avera

ge

Err

ors

0

2

4

6

8

1

0 GR 1 — GR 2 — GR 3 —

On the next trial, Group 3 matched Group 1, and then did even better!

Latent Learning


1930) Interpretation

Group 3 learned the route to the maze on Trials 1 to 10 but didn’t show it because there was no motivation to perform.

They outperformed Group 1 because the shift from no reward to reward made the reward seem larger by comparison. This is called “positive contrast.”

Latent Learning


1930) Conclusion

We must observe a change in behavior to say that learning has occurred, but if no change occurs, we can draw no conclusion. Learning may be present “beneath the surface.”

This supports a distinction between learning and performance.

Learning Sets and Trial and Error Learning

Learning sets/Learning to Learnrefers to increasing effectiveness at problem

solving through experienceorganisms “learn how to learn”Figuring out how to study best

Trial and Error LearningLearn by your mistakesClass demonstration - “Blind Maze” - what

happened?

Learning by ObservingSocial Learning Theory or

Observational Learning Theory focuses on what we learn from observing other peopleAlbert Bandura’s Bobo Doll

experimentChildren imitated adult role model -

adult models behavior and child imitatesNon-human animals have even been

shown to learn through observation!Modeling refers to process of observing

and imitating a specific behavior

Prosocial and Antisocial behavior?

Evil Bobo Doll

Why, BanduraWHYYYY?

Wired for Imitation: Mirror NeuronsMirror neurons are specialized neurons in the frontal lobe

that not only fire when we are engaged in certain actions, but ALSO when we watch others perform those actions.

These neurons form the basis of imitation, empathy and our social nature.Yawning, smiling, laughing, etc.Monkey study?Impact of Vicarious reinforcement and punishment?

What happens to your brainWhen you watch Cheesy Lifetime movies

Learning by Observing

Documents

AP Psychology Unit 6: Learning Learning: Definition Relatively permanent to rule out behavioral changes that result from fatigue or motivational changes