Hallertau-Gymnasium Wolnzach Abitur 2011
Facharbeit
aus dem Leistungskurs Englisch
Gender roles and social code in eighteenth-century Britain as portrayed in
Jane Austen's "Sense and Sensibility" and "Northanger Abbey"
Verfasser: Sabrina Henne
Kursleiter: Frau Meister
Erzielte Note: _____ In Worten:
Erzielte Punkte: _____ In Worten:
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction...............................................................................................4
2. About Jane Austen......................................................................................5
3. Synopses
3.1. Sense and Sensibility.............................................................................7
3.2. Northanger Abbey.................................................................................8
4. Gender roles and social code in Jane Austen's time
4.1. General facts.......................................................................................10
4.2. Social background
4.2.1. Revolution and wars....................................................................11
4.2.2. The Regency era.........................................................................11
4.3. The roles of men and women
4.3.1. Marriage and wealth...................................................................12
4.3.2 Education, professions and pastimes..............................................14
4.3.3. Laws of property and inheritance..................................................19
4.4. Social code
4.4.1. Politeness, manners and customs...................................................22
4.4.2. Propriety of male and female contact.............................................24
4.4.3. The cult of sensibility...................................................................26
5. Conclusion...............................................................................................29
6. Closing words..........................................................................................29
7. Works cited..............................................................................................30
8. Statement.................................................................................................32
4
1. Introduction
It is a sad truth, nevertheless universally acknowledged, that not so very long ago,
social and gender differences were great, freedoms were constricted, options were
limited and alternatives were not given. It was only over the course of the years
that, ever so gradually, the situation improved. Today we know all this, but in the
comfort of our freedom, dismiss it as past or as ridiculous.
Satirically portraying society as she observed it with her own eyes, Jane Austen's
timeless romantic fiction takes many a reader back in time and confronts them
with the obstacles laid in the way by strict codes of conduct, duty, and the
oppression of a social hierarchy.
This thesis presents and explains the gender roles and social code in Austen's time
as they are shown in her two works Sense and Sensibility and Northanger Abbey.
5
2. About Jane Austen
Jane Austen, born on 16 December 1775 in Steventon, was the sixth of seven
children and the second daughter of the Reverend George Austen and his wife,
Cassandra Austen (née Leigh).
Reverend Austen and his wife ran a small boys' boarding school at their home in
the rectory.1 As this boarding school was not seen proper for Austen's and her
sister Cassandra's education, they were instead sent to a boarding school at
Oxford, then to Southampton, where a typhus outbreak that nearly killed Austen
caused the girls to return home. Soon after, they were sent to the Reading Ladies
Boarding School for a year, after which they again returned home and continued
their education with the help of their father, their elder brothers and by reading.2
At the age of 12, Austen began writing "poems, stories and comic pieces for the
amusement of her family"3. In these writings some of Austen's characteristics are
reflected, such as her being a "tough and unsentimental child" and "drawn to rude,
anarchic imaginings and black jokes" 4. When she was 14, she wrote her first
novel, Love and Friendship, which she dedicated to her cousin Eliza.5
In 1811, thirteen years after its completion, Sense and Sensibility became her first
novel to be published. It was followed by Pride and Prejudice two years later.6 In
order to guard her privacy, her novels were published anonymously under the
alias "by a Lady"7, but "her authorship became an open secret"
8.
Because quite little of Austen's personal papers and documents have survived, if
many have ever existed, there has been much speculation about the
1 Cf. Dick, 86
2 Cf. Wang, 1
3 Wang, 1
4 Dick, 90
5 Cf. Dick, 90
6 Cf. Dick, 90
7 Cf. Harman, 1
8 Dick, 90
6
"uneventfulness"9 of her private life.
10 Still, there have been several attachments
to men in her life, though in the end, they all "came to nothing"11
. One of said
men was the Irishman Tom Lefroy, whom Austen had much in common with and
who she was openly attracted to. Still, it is supposed that he had been removed
from Steventon by his family, who did not want him to get involved with a
"clergyman's penniless daughter"12
.
When Austen was 26, her father retired and moved to Bath with his wife and
daughters. During this time, Austen and her sister undertook lots of visits, among
them a visit to Manydown. Here, Harris Bigg-Wither, who Austen had known all
her life, proposed to her. She agreed to his offer, but although she would have in
time become the mistress of a large estate, she regretted the decision the next day
and withdrew her acceptance.13
In 1805, Reverend George Austen died, leaving his widow and daughters without
a home and stopping Jane's writing activity. Their "endless round of visits"14
was
ended by the hospitality of Austen's brother Edward, who had been given away to
wealthy, childless relatives in his youth. He offered them a house to live in, in
which, once settled, Austen started writing again. By 1816, she had published
Mansfield Park and Emma. 15
The same year, she became ill with Addison's disease, resulting in her death the
following year and leaving her novel Sandition unfinished. Northanger Abbey,
which she had sold for publication in 1789, and Persuasion, completed in 1816,
were published posthumously.
Though her work received only little appreciation in her time, she has achieved
great popularity throughout the twentieth century, which is shown by the
numerous literary and film adaptations in existence today.16
9 Harman, 1
10 Cf. Harman, 1
11 Dick, 88
12 Dick, 88
13 Cf. Dick, 88
14 Dick, 89
15 Cf. Dick, 87ff
16 Cf. Wang, 2
7
3. Synopses
3.1. Sense and Sensibility
Upon Mr. Henry Dashwood's death, his wife and three daughters are at the mercy
of John Dashwood, Henry's son by his first wife. As John is by law the heir to the
estate the family had lived in, Henry, on his deathbed, had begged his son to
provide for his step-mother and sisters, which he agreed to do.
Despite this promise, his manipulative, greedy wife Fanny and his own mercenary
disposition lead him to deprive Mrs. Dashwood and her daughters of their home
as well as all money and status.
Elinor, the eldest of the Dashwood sisters, and Edward Ferrars, Fanny's brother,
spending lots of time together, soon become attached to each other.
Eventually, Mrs. Dashwood and her daughters move to a humble cottage, which a
relative, Sir John Middleton, offers to them at an affordable rent. Here, the second
of the Dashwood daughters, seventeen-year-old Marianne, meets Colonel
Brandon, a thirty-five-year-old friend of Sir John's, who is very attracted to her
and soon becomes sincerely attached to her. Marianne, who considers him
"impossibly ancient"17
meanwhile falls in love with the young and charming Mr.
Willoughby.
In the end, both girls are to be disappointed in love. Willoughby leaves the
neighbourhood without explanation and Elinor finds out that Edward has been
engaged to a Miss Lucy Steele for several years. Moreover, Willoughby soon
informs Marianne that he is engaged to the wealthy Miss Grey, leaving Marianne
heartbroken and making her fall ill. It is also revealed that Willoughby has
seduced, impregnated and left behind a young girl named Eliza, who is Colonel
Brandon's ward.
17
Dick, 9
8
When Lucy Steele's sister, Anne Steele, betrays the secret of Lucy's and Edward's
engagement to Edward's mother, Edward's younger brother Robert is made heir in
his place. In consequence, Lucy Steele shifts her affection to him and they soon
get married. This, in turn, leaves Edward free to propose to Elinor.
Colonel Brandon has been very attentively caring for the sick Marianne and after
her recovery, she agrees to marry him.18
3.2. Northanger Abbey
Catherine Morland, an innocent, young girl and fan of Gothic novels, who has
never left her home is invited to go to Bath with her wealthy and childless
neighbours, Mr. and Mrs. Allen. In Bath, she is introduced to the "social world of
balls and entertainments"19
.
At the first ball they attend, Catherine meets and dances with the young and witty
Henry Tilney. Also his sister Eleanor, who Catherine is yet to meet, is intelligent
and warm-hearted.
Soon after, she is introduced to Mrs. Thorpe, a friend of Mrs. Allen's, who has
three daughters around Catherine's age. The eldest, Isabella, shares Catherine's
passion for Gothic fiction and they quickly become friends.
As it turns out, Catherine's brother, James, and John Thorpe, Isabella's brother, are
friends from Oxford. When they come to visit Bath, the attachment between
Isabella and James becomes obvious and John, whose self-absorbed nature
Catherine cannot warm to, makes signs of courting her.
By lying to both Catherine and the Tilneys, John, Isabella and James repeatedly
hinder their scheduled walks, preventing Catherine from spending time with
Henry and Eleanor.
18
Cf. Dick, 9ff and The Jane Austen Society, http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_ss.htm 19
Wang, 15
9
Before long, Isabella and James announce their engagement, but when it is
revealed that James will have only a very modest income, Isabella is disappointed
and gives in to the attentions of the handsome Captain Tilney, Henry's older
brother, ultimately breaking off her engagement.
Meanwhile, in hopes of marrying her, John Thorpe spreads rumours of the wealth
Catherine is to expect as a favorite of the rich and childless Mr. and Mrs. Allen.
This causes General Tilney, Henry and Eleanor's father, to invite Catherine to visit
them at Northanger Abbey for an extended period of time. While Catherine's and
Henry's bond deepens, General Tilney's "oppressive courtesy"20
abruptly stops
when he learns that Catherine is in fact penniless and he instantly turns her out of
the house.
Within two days, however, Henry comes to visit Catherine and proposes to her.
As Eleanor conveniently soon after marries a wealthy viscount, the now good-
humoured General gives Henry his consent in marrying Catherine.21
20
The Jane Austen Society, http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_na.htm 21
Cf. Wang, 15f and The Jane Austen Society, http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_na.htm
10
4. Gender roles and social code in Jane Austen's time
4.1. General facts
Gender roles
"a set of behaviors that indicates one's gender, specifically the image projected
by a person that identifies their femaleness or maleness; an overt public
presentation of gender identity"22
Social code
"a set of conventional principles and expectations that are considered binding
on any person who is a member of a particular group"22
These two terms, gender roles and social code, are therefore closely connected.
Gender roles are merely the reflection of the specific social code of each the male
and female sex in society.
As these codes of conduct are, be they established over time, through habit or
consciously set up, results of society, one must understand how said society has
come to be and how it functions in order to comprehend the social code that
always accompanies it.
22
http://dictionary.reference.com/
11
4.2 Social background
4.2.1. Revolution and wars
Although Austen gives her readers only very little information of the "events of
the day"23
, the time in which her novels are set is one of political difficulty. The
American War of Independence had just ended and England's war with
Revolutionary France was ongoing. In order to contrast with France's "destructive
spirit of innovation"24
, the British governing class held on to tradition and
conservatism. Due to the war, an atmosphere of patriotism and the "intimate
connection between family and state"25
, the general role of women was a
conventional one - they were to be wives and mothers.26
4.2.2. The Regency Era
The time around 1890 and the beginning of the French Revolution also marked
the beginning of the Regency era - a time of great economic and social change.
The beginning industrialisation gave way to a new middle-class of entrepreneurs -
a threatening prospect for the upper classes and reason for them to enforce a
"hierarchical structure"27
and strict etiquette in order to distinguish between the
classes.28
With the Regency era, also fashion changed. Powdered wigs, heavy
fabrics and rich colours were replaced with natural hair, light and simple fabrics
and "subdued"29
or dark and sober colours. The aim was a simple, yet elegant
outline.
23
Dick, 94 24
Jones, 286 25
Jones, 286 26
Cf. Jones, 286 27
University of Southern Queensland, https://www.usq.edu.au/artsworx/schoolresources/emma/theregencyperiod 28
Cf. https://www.usq.edu.au/artsworx/schoolresources/emma/theregencyperiod 29
Eras of Elegance, http://www.erasofelegance.com/history/regencylife.html
12
4.3. The roles of men and women
4.3.1 Marriage and wealth
In Austen's time, marriages were much like a business transactions. As incomes
were to be the first consideration, to marry for love was not common. Neither
were arranged marriages any longer, but due to the Marriage Act of 1753, parental
influence increased. It stated that a marriage was only valid if it was performed in
a church and the Banns, public announcements of an impending marriage which
the parents could forbid, were read. Hence, elopements were only possible if the
couple left the country, going overseas or to Scotland. This, along with the chance
of disinheritance if the parents' consent was not earned, posed a great deterrence.30
Fortunes were racked up through family alliances and as people defined
themselves mostly based on their material wealth, very often, unhappy alliances
came to be. Examples of these can be found in both novels - especially in Sense
and Sensibility, very many ill-matched pairs can be found. The first is Sir John
and Lady Middleton, who have nothing in common and who mostly ignore each
other: "Sir John was a sportsman, Lady Middleton a mother"27
. As well as Mr.
Palmer, who can barely be moved to talk to his wife and if he does, is very rude
while she pretends to laugh about his ill treatment of her: "he is so droll! He never
tells me anything!28
. Also in Northanger Abbey, Mr. and Mrs. Allen, the first
being a "sensible, intelligent man"29
and the latter having "neither beauty, genius,
accomplishment, nor manner"30
. Further, Henry hints at the marriage of his
mother and father not having been a very happy one, as his mother often "had (...)
much to bear" and his father's "temper [had] injured her"31
.32
Lack of fortune is
also the reason Eleanor and Henry think Frederick's "marrying Miss Thorpe not
30
Cf. Jane Austen's World, http://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/2007/09/13/eloping-in-jane-austens-day/ and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_Act_1753 27
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 24 28
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 83 29
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 9 30
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 9 31
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 144 32
Cf. Wang, 9f
13
probable"33
, as neither his father, nor Frederick himself would be inclined to
consider marriage to a penniless woman tolerable.
On the contrary, General Tilney is, like very many characters in Austen's novels
and in her time's society, greedy and obsessed with wealth and status. Other
examples are Mrs. Thorpe and Mrs. Allen34
, John Thorpe, who spreads rumours
about Catherine's wealth in hopes of increasing his own reputation and social
status when marrying her35
, Isabella Thorpe, who breaks off the engagement with
James Morland when the richer Frederick Tilney makes signs of courting her36
,
Lucy Steele, who drops Edward after his disinheritance, as well as Fanny
Dashwood and John Dashwood, shown by their greedy and intolerable behaviour
towards Elinor, Marianne and their mother37
and Mrs. Ferrars, who expects both
her sons to "marry well"38
.
In the case of General Tilney, it is yet more extreme. He, like John Thorpe, had
"identified [Catherine] as an asset, a commodity"39
, an addition to the family's
wealth with no consideration of her character. This is further shown when,
although some days ago, he would have liked nothing better than for Henry and
Catherine to marry directly, he turns her out of the house without previous notice
and she is forced to travel back home by herself. Having turned out to be
penniless, he did not even consider her worth being accompanied by a servant.40
Society was, when it came to wealth, like an arena. General Tilney makes this
particularly evident when he repeatedly asks Catherine to compare his domestic
arrangements with those of Mr. Allen. For example at her first day in Northanger,
General Tilney states that she "must have been used to much better sized
33
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 149 34
Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 11 35
Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 180f 36
Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 147 37
Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 7 38
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 16 39
Blair, XI 40
Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 164 and Austen, Northanger Abbey, 180
14
apartments at Mr Allen's"41
. When Catherine contradicts this, his "good-humour
increase[s]"42
.43
Simply the number of these types of characters is enough to show that these
mercenary dispositions were far from uncommon in society.
4.3.2. Education, professions and pastimes
Everything begins with education - and the education of men and women in
Austen's time is very different. Most sons of the gentry were given a professional,
intellectual education. This included "classical and biblical languages, analytical
and scientific discourses, controversial writing, theology and mathematics"44
. Men
in Austen's novels are usually either clergymen (i.e. Henry Tilney and Edward
Ferrars), in the navy or militia (i.e. Frederick Tilney) or landowners (i.e. Colonel
Brandon). As estates were usually given to the first son, it was commonly the
younger sons who had to take up a profession, while the eldest sons would spend
their days managing their estate.45
These are the professions men were educated to
take up.46
Women, on the other hand, were educated to be the wives of these men. This was
"itself considered a profession by many women"47
. Aside from the basic learning
to read and write, they were taught so-called 'accomplishments', which included
needlework, painting, drawing, dancing, singing, playing music and fashionable
languages such as Italian or French. Most parents demanded for their daughters to
be taught such accomplishments, as it showed cultural distinction and made
women more attractive on the marriage market. Also in Sense and Sensibility, all
the Dashwood girls have been taught these accomplishments. Marianne is
41
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 120 42
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 120 43
Cf. Blair, VIII ff 44
Kelly, 258 45
Cf. Whalan, http://www.jasa.net.au/study/indivsoc.htm 46
Cf. Kelly, 254 47
Kelly, 254
15
especially fond of singing and playing48
, Elinor likes to draw49
and both, as well
as their mother, do needlework.
In Northanger Abbey, on the other hand, Catherine struggles with her family's
expectations of her taking up these accomplishments. Though she has learned
them, she is not very fond of them and possesses no specific talents. Her mother
scolds Catherine when she has no "inclination for needle-work"50
: "I do not know
when poor Richard's cravats would be done, if he had no friend but you"51
. She
further tells Catherine, that there is "a time for work" and that she must "try to be
useful"52
. Needle-work was therefore generally referred to as a lady's 'work'.
There were, in general, three options for a woman: She could be either
'accomplished', meaning she had been taught the accomplishments, she could be
'notable', meaning that she knew of little more than domestic matters, or she could
be 'learned', meaning she had gone through the kind of education normally
reserved for the male sex. Being learned was to be avoided at all cost, as it made
women "unfit for the marriage market"53
.
Stupidity was a particularly attractive trait in females, as is especially criticized
and mocked in Northanger Abbey:
"She was heartily ashamed of her ignorance. A misplaced shame. Where
people wish to attach, they should always be ignorant. To come with a
well-informed mind is to come with an inability of administering to the
vanity of others, which a sensible person would always wish to avoid. A
woman especially, if she have the misfortune of knowing anything, should
conceal it as well as she can. (...) I will only add in justice to men, that
though to the larger and more trifling part of the sex, imbecility in females
is a great enhancement of their personal charms, there is a portion of them
too reasonable and too well informed themselves to desire anything more
in woman than ignorance."54
48
Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 26 49
Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 13 50
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 175 51
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 175 52
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 175 53
Kelly, 256 54
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 80
16
This shows that Catherine, who is presented to be "ill-informed", "anti-
intellectual" and "trivial"55
is merely a product of her society.56
Henry, as
Catherine's male counterpart, tries to educate Catherine and may even be
considered a feminist in his egalitarian views57
, but nevertheless represents male
authority, as she bows to his greater knowledge, "believ[ing] that Henry Tilney
could never be wrong"58
and, eventually, finds her "perfect happiness"59
in this
condition.60
Also the characters' reading, a common pastime for both sexes, shows certain
aspects of gender definition. It is, again, particularly thematized in Northanger
Abbey:
"'I am no novel reader - I seldom look into novels - Do not imagine that I
often read novels - It is really very well for a novel.' - Such is the common
cant. -'and what are you reading, Miss --?' 'Oh! it is only a novel!' replies
the young lady; while she lays down the book with affected indifference,
or momentary shame."61
Novels had, therefore, a bad reputation. Many of them were written by women
and about women. Thorpe even calls novels "the stupidest things in creation"62
,
while Henry defends it, saying that "the person, be it gentleman or lady, who has
not pleasure in a good book, must be intolerably stupid."63
Novels as a mostly
female pastime are contrasted with books of history, which Catherine finds "very
tiresome"64
, as there are "hardly any women at all"65
. Although this is commonly
interpreted to show her said anti-intellect, she is right. Women were not allowed
to partake in all the areas of life that history tells of - "war, politics and religious
55
Blair, XVI 56
Cf. Blair XVI 57
Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 15 58
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 82 59
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 184 60
Cf. Blair XVI ff 61
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 23 62
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 30 63
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 77 64
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 78 65
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 78
17
conflict"66
. She can only think of a few men who enjoy to read history - her father,
Mr. Allen, two of her brothers and Henry.67
Female stupidity was therefore required to make men feel effortlessly superior -
something Catherine very easily fulfills which, as is made clear, also greatly
enhances her attractiveness to Henry.
Furthermore, there were so-called 'conduct books' for women, as "The Mirror"68
mentioned in Northanger Abbey might have been. They were different kinds of
works, often written by clergymen, focusing mostly on moral, ethical and social
education of women and aiming to prepare women for a domestic life. For
example An Unfortunate Mother's Advice to Her Absent Daughters (1774), which
advised "education for moral fortitude against the inevitability of female
suffering"69
in society and, especially in marriage.
Although these conduct books claimed to give advice to young women, their
"underlying concern was reproducing the dominant economic, social, cultural and
political order"70
. In other words, women were to be wives and mothers and it was
their duty to produce male heirs, as the upkeep of the world order meant the
upkeep of the male sex. 71
It was also believed that this kind of 'proper' education would deter women from
the one thing in their power to effectively endanger said male world order - the
production of illegitimate heirs.
That this concept, however, does not always work is shown by the character of
Isabella - had she been better educated and had the society she grew up in been
different, she would perhaps not have become the social climber that she has and
66
Blair, XVII 67
Cf. Blair XVII ff and Austen, Northanger Abbey, 79 68
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 176 69
Kelly, 253 70
Kelly, 253 71
Cf. Kelly, 253f
18
would not have betrayed one man for the chance of securing another more
wealthy.72
The incapability of taking up professions made women therefore dependent on
men and, were they to be widowed or to become 'old maids', dependent on the
kindness of relatives. To marry advantageously was therefore the only tolerable
way of obtaining financial security, which is why match-making was considered
an actual parental duty. In Sense and Sensibility, it is Mrs. Jennings who had seen
both of her daughters "respectably married"73
and now had "therefore nothing to
do but to marry all the rest of the world"74
.
As servants did most of the house work such as cleaning and meal preparation
(despite their very modest living conditions, the Dashwoods are still able to keep
three servants in their new home75
), members of both sexes had lots of time on
their hands.
While females stayed indoors most of the time, improving their accomplishments
or doing needle-work to make and mend clothing, men, if they were not managing
their estates or working, were mostly occupied outdoors, for much of the year
especially with sporting. There were a grouse-shooting season, a partridge-
shooting season, a pheasant-shooting season and a fox hunting season. Especially
Sir John Middleton is described as a "sportsman"76
, but also Willoughby77
, Henry
Tilney78
and John Thorpe.79
For men, also billiard, playing cards and gambling
were popular pastimes. Such things could be done for example at gentlemen's
clubs, which also General Tilney is a member of, as he says he cannot afford to
"fail attending the club"80
.
72
Cf. Kelly, 254f and Blair XVIff 73
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 26 74
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 26 75
Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 19 76
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 24 77
Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 123 78
Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 133 79
Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 24 80
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 153
19
There were, of course, balls and parties, at which young men and women danced,
played and where there was again the opportunity of gambling, as Mr. Allen
makes use of at the first ball they attend in Bath: "As for Mr Allen, he repaired
directly to the card-room"81
. 82
When the weather was fine, outdoor activities were not uncommon, but in damp
or cold weather, "it was not fit for a 'female foot' to venture out"83
unless the road
was paved, although the "well-booted men"84
were able to. This is especially
shown by Marianne's falling ill with a "violent"85
cold after taking a walk "not
merely on the dry gravel of the shrubbery, but all over the grounds, and especially
in the most distant parts of them"86
and afterwards failing to change her "wet
shoes and stockings"87
.
4.3.3. Laws of property and inheritance
That financial security even in marriage was not always given is shown very
vividly in Sense and Sensibility, where the unjustness of inheritance laws can be
seen.
Responsible for this was the so-called 'strict settlement', a practice not at all
uncommon. Its goal was to keep the estate intact by withholding it from younger
children and from it being sold in order to provide for daughters or younger sons.
In the case presented in Sense and Sensibility, the old gentleman, Elinor's and
Marianne's grandfather, makes this settlement. The first son is made tenant for life
and when he dies, the estate is entailed onto his first son. When this son, in turn,
dies, the estate is entailed onto his first son. This way, the estate is successfully
81
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 9 82
Whalan, http://www.jasa.net.au/study/indivsoc.htm and Gay, 337ff 83
Dick, 96 84
Dick, 96 85
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 234 86
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 234 87
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 234
20
kept in the "patrilineal line"88
for three generations. The son finally in possession
of the estate was then expected to make another strict settlement.
The old gentleman left the girls £1,000 each, as he "meant not to be unkind"89
,
though it was custom in the English inheritance law that an estate of £4,000 a year
"could afford to grant between £3,000 and £4,000 each to three younger sisters
without any damage to itself"90
.
They were, therefore, denied their very basis of life on and "deliberately cut
out"91
, an, as said above, not at all uncommon practice. Though the inheritance
law had certain customs, they were not obligatory and it all added to the "general
economic disenfranchisement of women"92
.
Additionally, as men and women were by law considered to be one person - "the
legal existence of the woman was suspended and incorporated into the personality
of her husband"93
- , women lost all legal control of their possessions when
married. In order to prevent this from happening, again settlements were required.
By these, though the woman's control when married was not necessarily given, it
was possible to ensure that when the wife died, these possessions were given to
her children instead of her husband. Henry, for example was "by marriage
settlements [to be] eventually secure"94
of a fortune, even should his father
disinherit him to prevent his marrying Catherine.95
As women were in marriage, by law the property of their husbands, it is only to be
expected that when a man 'used' the wife of another man, she became "damaged
goods"96
. Despite Isabella Thorpe's and James Morland's not being married, it is a
similar case for them. Although it is not explicitly stated that Isabella slept with
Captain Tilney, it is to be supposed that she did so in an attempt to secure him.
88
Copeland, liii 89
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 2 90
Copeland, liii f 91
Copeland, liii 92
Copeland, liii 93
http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~awoodley/regency/legalwomen.html 94
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 183 95
Cf. http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~awoodley/regency/legalwomen.html 96
Whalan, http://www.jasa.net.au/study/indivsoc.htm
21
Despite James' income being too little for her liking and their engagement already
being successfully broken off, Isabella still tries to make Catherine convince
James that it was all just a misunderstanding97
, as, due to his credulity, he is likely
to be her "last hope of an honourable establishment"98
, This and Henry's reserve in
his replies to Catherine's questions concerning Frederick's conduct99
hint at the
event and show the social consequences of such misconduct.100
If James and Isabella had been married, he would have been able to sue Frederick
for such an act and might have gotten up to £10,000.
The keeping of a mistress, however, was in many circles common, and if her
husband ran away with his mistress, a woman could demand no such
compensation.101
97
Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 157ff 98
Blair, XI 99
Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 159f 100
Cf. Blair, X f 101
Cf. Whalan, http://www.jasa.net.au/study/indivsoc.htm
22
4.4. Social code
4.4.1. Politeness, manners and customs
Respectability was, in Austen's time, rarely determined by one's profession, but by
manners and behaviour, as they were an indication of social status. Austen
especially thematizes the difference between 'good breeding' and real 'manners
and politeness', as she believes that "sincerely good manners are bound up with
goodness of heart rather than social status."102
This can be seen especially well in the conduct of General Tilney and Lady
Middleton. Tilney, described by Mrs. Allen and even by Catherine, who he had
just turned out of the house, to be "so polite, so well-bred"103
, nevertheless is also
cold-hearted, cruel and calculating enough as to outdo all this.
On the one hand, Lady Middleton is, unlike her rather vulgar yet good-hearted
husband, well-bred. On the other, she is also cold, dull and cares for little beyond
her children. When they were to receive visitors unknown to them - the Miss
Steeles - Lady Middleton is very displeased and "with all the philosophy of a well
bred woman, content[ed] herself with merely giving her husband a gentle
reprimand on the subject five or six times every day"104
.
Good breeding and politeness, in society, it appears, are things that one was
taught, and had the ability to make use of, but whether one did or not, and with
what motives, determined whether one was truly 'well-bred' in Austen's eyes. It is,
therefore, a matter of theory and practice.105
102
Byrne, 300 103
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 165 104
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 89 105
Cf. Arkin, VI
23
There was a specific code of conduct for nearly everything106
. The code of
conduct for conversation with one's dance partner, for example, Henry mocks
when first dancing with Catherine:
"'I have hitherto been very remiss, madam, in the proper attentions of a
partner here; I have not yet asked you how long you have been in Bath;
whether you were ever been before; whether you have been at the Upper
Rooms, the theatre, and the concert; and how you like the place altogether.
I have been very negligent - but are you now at leisure to satisfy me in
these particulars? If you are I will begin directly.'"107
There are also some customs of daily life in Austen's time mentioned in Sense and
Sensibility and Northanger Abbey. There were, for example the so-called 'calling
cards', an "essential part of introductions, invitations and visits"108
. The lady
would wait in the carriage while the servant took the card and showed it to the
mistress of the house. She, in turn, would then decide whether she wished to
receive this visitor - if not, it was said that the mistress was not at home.
These cards were left on a "silver salver or in a bowl"109
. It was good manners to
call on a neighbour who had left a card. A call was to be "returned with a call, and
a card with a card within one week"110
.111
However, there were plentiful of these small customs and, as they were a rather
uncontroversial part of Austen's and the characters' everyday lives, they are not
thematized and rarely even mentioned in her novels.
106
Cf. Whalan, http://www.jasa.net.au/study/indivsoc.htm 107
Austen, Northanger Abbey, 13 108
Byrne, 299 109
Byrne, 300 110
Byrne, 300 111
Cf. Byrne, 299f
24
4.4.2. Propriety of male and female contact
In Austen's time, premarital sex was not to be thought of. Much less was required
to ruin a lady's reputation, and a respectable woman would never have considered
it if she hoped to ever find a husband in the future.
In order not to give occasion to such an event, 'chaperoning' was "of vital
importance"112
. Young, unmarried women were never to be left alone together
with a man, but always had to be accompanied by either a servant, a man who was
a close friend or another lady.113
In Sense and Sensibility, Mrs. Jennings chaperones the Dashwood sisters in
London, and also Mrs. Palmer makes them the offer:
"Not go to town!" cried Mrs. Palmer, with a laugh; "I shall be quite
disappointed if you do not. (…) You must come, indeed. I am sure I shall
be very happy to chaperon you at any time till I am confined, if Mrs.
Dashwood should not like to go into public."114
In Northanger Abbey, it is of course Mrs. Allen, who chaperones Catherine. On
her walks with the Tilneys, Eleanor might be considered the chaperone.
Private conversations were, of course, possible if the two fell behind the group.
The function of chaperoning was only to ensure that nothing untoward took place.
It was also not considered proper for a young woman to travel by herself, which is
why General's Tilney's forcing Catherine to travel seventy miles by post without
sending someone else to travel with her115
was not only dishonourable, but also a
great danger to her reputation and her person.
Marianne breaks several rules in her conduct towards Willoughby. The first is, as
Elinor observed, that they got to know each other too quickly, Marianne having
112
Byrne, 300 113
Cf. Byrne, 300ff and Cf. http://chuma.cas.usf.edu/~runge/MasonJA1.html 114
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 83 115
Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 164
25
already "ascertained Mr Willoughby's opinion in almost every matter of
importance"116
in only "one morning"117
. Elinor's mild reproach shows that this is
not a grave breach, but it nevertheless shows how Marianne and Willoughby lose
sight of decorum. As they spent so much time together and "had no eyes for
anyone else"118
, they were "most exceedingly laughed at"119
.
Marianne had also, "without hesitation"120
, accepted the gift of a horse from
Willoughby. This was imprudent not only because of the effort and cost
connected, but especially because of the doubtful "propriety of her receiving such
a present from a man so little, or at least so lately known to her"121
- a rather
heavy breach of decorum.
His use of her Christian name 'Marianne'122
instead of 'Miss Marianne' further
hints at an intimacy - which, in order to be justified, would have required them to
be at the very least engaged.
Marianne's conduct this far and the revelation of Willoughby's having "a lock of
her hair"123
, a token of affection, convinces her family that they are soon to be
married.124
Both Marianne and Catherine commit a breach when they ride alone in a carriage
with a man they hardly know - be it, as it is in Catherine's case, involuntary or not
- without someone to properly chaperone them.125
Marianne's going to see the house Willoughby is to inherit is again a very severe
violation of decorum. Their having been alone and unattended together for a
rather long time is something that might very badly damage Marianne's
116
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 34 117
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 34 118
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 39 119
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 39 120
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 42 121
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 42 122
Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 43 123
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 43 124
Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 43 125
Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 49f and Cf. Austen, Northanger Abbey, 41f
26
reputation. This, however, as Willoughby at this point appears to have every
intention of marrying her, both of them seem to care nothing for.
One might say that Marianne was 'punished' for her misconduct - she lost her
love, fell ill and, in the end, marries Colonel Brandon, who she before despised
and ridiculed.
Willoughby's 'proneness' to misconduct can of course best be seen at the example
of the young Eliza, whom he seduced, impregnated and afterwards abandoned.126
Though Willoughby is disinherited when this is revealed, it is still Eliza who is
the most affected by it. Now living in the country with her baby, she is yet more
dependent on Colonel Brandon than before and her honour and reputation are
ruined. Willoughby's marrying a wealthy heiress removes all the discomfort he
suffered from the affair with Eliza, but even he is punished, in not being able to
marry the woman he loves.127
4.4.3. The cult of sensibility
During the time Austen wrote Sense and Sensibility, it had become fashionable,
so to say a cult, to show excessive emotion as a sign of a "superior character"128
.
Today, sensibility does not mean what it meant then - 'sense' and 'sensibility'
would today be translated to 'common sense' and 'sensitivity'. It was the
sentimental novel that brought on this fashion. 129
In McKenzie's Man of Feeling
(1771), for example, "the hero identifies so completely with the feelings and
sufferings of others that he spends his days weeping for them."130
Feelings were
believed to only be true if they were shown to the extreme. In Sense and
126
Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 151f 127
Cf. Byrne, 300ff; Arkin, VII ff; Dick, 49ff; Blair XI ff (related to entire chapter) 128
http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_ss.htm 129
Cf. The Jane Austen Society, http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_ss.htm 130
Arkin, VII
27
Sensibility, Austen parodies and criticizes this concept. With Elinor as a
representative for 'sense' and Marianne incorporating 'sensibility', the reader can
observe and judge both types of characters. A very common example is when
Marianne, deliberately fallen ill because of Willoughby's abandon, perhaps even
intended to die from her grief, receives all the attention - from her mother, Mrs
Jennings, Elinor - while the latter is badly suffering herself because the man she
fell in love with had turned out to be engaged to another woman. Nevertheless,
not wishing to trouble those around her, to neglect her social duties and trying to
make life possible for all of them, keeps it to herself and, on top of it all, is
accused by her sister of not feeling enough and perhaps not being in love with
Edward after all.
"'What! - while attending me in all my misery, has this been on your heart?
and I have reproached you for being happy!'
'It was not fit that you should then know how much I was the reverse.'
'Four months!' cried Marianne again. 'So calm! so cheerful! How have you
been supported?'
'By feeling that I was doing my duty. My promise to Lucy obliged me to
be secret. I owed it to my family and friends not to create in them a
solicitude about me, which it could not be in my power to satisfy.'"131
The irony of this clearly shows Austen's opinion on the subject: Excessive
sensibility is an egocentric social pretension. As much as one feels for another,
and as sincere and true one's feelings are, one creates unnecessary inconvenience
for everyone else and is blind to how the people around them who are not
excessively emotional feel.
Another point is the negligence of social duties. While Elinor believes that
everyone plays a part in society and thinks it necessary to tell white lies when
propriety requires it, Marianne refuses to be polite to people she dislikes. She "had
never had much toleration for anything like impertinence, vulgarity, inferiority of
parts, or even difference of taste from herself"132
and therefore shows an
131
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 196f 132
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 96
28
"invariable coldness"133
towards people such as the Miss Steeles134
or Colonel
Brandon: "'It is Colonel Brandon!' said she, with vexation. 'We are never safe
from him.'"135
Elinor is quite the opposite. When Fanny Dashwood, at the news of Edward's
being engaged, claims to have fallen ill, Elinor "began to feel it necessary to pay
her a visit"136
despite Marianne, who was "not contented with absolutely refusing
to go herself", hence being "very urgent to prevent her sister's going at all"137
.
When it is revealed that Lucy has broken off her engagement, Elinor "burst[s] into
tears of joy, which at first she thought would never cease"138
. She is, therefore,
very capable of showing her feelings, if she thinks it appropriate.
Austen neither says that emotion should be disposed of, nor that sense is the cure
to everything because, as it so very often is, a combination of both is required to
live.139
133
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 96 134
Cf. Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 96 135
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 151 136
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 223 137
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 224 138
Austen, Sense and Sensibility, 278 139
Cf. http://www.janeaustensoci.freeuk.com/pages/novels_ss.htm ; Cf. Arkin, VIIff ; Cf. Dick, 92
29
5. Conclusion
In this conservative and strict time, there was only a very little array of options
available. Women were made economically dependent on men, unable to earn an
income of their own and even by law, the odds were against them. Men, though
they presided over the women, were also bound by strict codes of conduct,
conceived by a hierarchical society determined to distinguish between classes on
the basis of behaviour and wealth. In order to be attractive on the marriage
market, one was to follow these codes of conduct.
Women were to take up their traditional role of loyal wives and mothers, whose
main function it was to produce male heirs. Women's education was mostly
focused on domestic and artistic work and to a large extent pointless, while an
intellectual and scientific education was denied them.
Men were to provide for their wives, as only they had any means of earning
money. It was for them to take up professions and to produce a male heir in order
to keep their estate in the patrilineal line.
All in all, it was a strict, male world order and as women were required for its
upkeep, they were subordinated by the structures and values of society.
6. Closing words
As much as Austen's novels have drawn in many of their readers, they also show
them that living conditions then are not to what they are now. Enjoying our
freedom, we dismiss this as past or ridiculous - but we should not.
We are no contemporaries of hers - we can neither completely understand the
world Austen lived in, nor can we correct the social evils of her time. But to learn
of them means to learn to prevent them in the future, and perhaps they even teach
us to appreciate this freedom of ours a little more.
30
7. Works cited
1. Text
- Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility. Woodsworth Classics. Hertfordshire 1992.
- Austen, Jane. Northanger Abbey. Woodsworth Classics. Hertfordshire 1993.
2. References
- Arkin, Stephen. "Introduction". In: Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility.
Woodsworth Classics. Hertfordshire 1992.
- Benedict, Barbara and Le Faye, Deirdre. "Introduction". In: Austen, Jane.
Northanger Abbey. Cambridge University Press. New York 2006.
- Blair, David. "Introduction". In: Austen, Jane. Northanger Abbey. Woodsworth
Classics. Hertfordshire 1993.
- Byrne, Paula. "Manners". In: Todd, Janet (ed.). Jane Austen in Context. New
York 2005.
- Copeland, Edward. "Introduction". In: Austen, Jane. Sense and Sensibility.
Cambridge University Press. New York 2006.
- Dick, Delia. Sense and Sensibility. London 2001.
- Gay, Penny. "Pastimes". In: Todd, Janet (ed.). Jane Austen in Context. New
York 2005.
- Harman, Claire. "Jane Austen". In: Parini, Jay (ed.). British Writers:
Retrospective Supplement II. Farmington Hills 2002.
- Jones, Vivien. "Feminisms". In: Johnson, Claudia L. and Tuite, Clara. A
Companion to Jane Austen. N.p 2009.
- Kelly, Gary. "Education and accomplishments". In: Todd, Janet (ed.). Jane
Austen in Context. New York 2005.
31
- Maletzke, Elsemarie. Jane Austen für Boshafte. Sinzheim 2009.
- Student's Academy. An Approach to Jane Austen's Novels - Three - Northanger
Abbey. N.p 2010.
- Wang, Mai. Northanger Abbey. N.p 2010.
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