41
CHAPTER II
JUDAISM IN THE HISTORICAL SETTING The triangular relationship between god, people and territory has been crucial
to the Jewish faith. The land was considered to be the divine gift to the nation and
the nation was considered to be the custodian of the divine habitation. The exi le in
to Egypt and other nations in captivity was a shattering of this divine destiny. The
Jews considered the exile as a punishment for their sins. “How shall we sing the
Lord’s song in a strange land? Thousands of homeless Jews in alien territories
normally lamented so1. The Jewish ideal was that of a royal priesthood, a holy
nation a kingdom of priests. Their habitation in the holy land was considered to be
the sacramental token.
But they had to experience exile in their history which was interpreted as2 a
punishment for their sins. They had to undergo retribution. In other words, this was
interpreted as a divinely decreed correction of their erroneous tenancy through the
painful interruption.
It is assumed, in this broad summary of the mind of the old testament, that we
are dealing with history in its true quality as both event and its meaning. This
conviction is basic to the Judeo-Christian tradition. However, this doctrine became
increasingly absent in the Islamic doctrine. History is essentially about what
happened and what is remembered and rehearsed. The Biblical Exodus and Exile
are in this nature as both the event and its meaning. The Judeo-Christian tradition
1 Abdal-Jafahum, ‘Doctrine’ in A J Arberryled, Religions in the Middle East,
Cambridge 1969, p. 367. 2 Ibid.
42
pursued this collective possession of historical meaning as the valid sense of what
was the event when it was known. Here, history was not just a narration. But the
process of creating a nation and ensuing not simply in a chronicle but in a destiny.
According to Martin Buber3, history need not be viewed dissevered from
historical wonder... the experience of the event as wonder is itself great history.
Whether there was a volcano at Sinai cannot be ascertained historically today. But
that the Jewish trebes gathered at the burning mountain comprehended the words of
their leader Moses as a message from their god, a message that simultaneously
established a covenant between him and their community is essentially a historical
process, historical in the deepest sense4.
According to Harvey Cox5 the biblical understanding of what happens in
history cannot rightly be isolated from its setting in nature. If human story is a
drama, territory is the stage. History has its local habitation. In the words of Andre
Neher, there is a ‘metaphysical intimacy between god and man, fulfilling itself in co-
operation, the marriage of soul and soil of land and labour, being the primary
foundation of every other shape of duty and adoration’. According to Neher 6,
passover can be interpretation as a “history festival”, but the offerings from the land
symbolises the metaphysical intimacy between god, man and nature. Thus, despite
their yearning for the promised canan land, the Jews had to spend much of their
3 Martin Buber, Moses, Oxford 1946, pp. 16-17.
4 Ibid.
5 See Harvey XCox, The Secular City, New York, 1965
6 Andre Neher, Moses and the Vocation of the Jewish People (trans), London,
1959.
43
history in exile. Therefore it is also necessary to know as to how the Jews survived
in the midst of other nations.
The Jews survived for hundreds of years in West Asia and north Africa,
performing their traditional occupations.
Jews and the Roman State
Around 143 B.C. continuous struggle was taking place, involving the
Parthians, Seleucids, Egyptians and the Romans. Simon Macabee, a Jewwrested
the independence of Judea from the Seleucid king. A popular Assembly of Judea
named him general and high priest of the second Jewish common wealth. The
council made the office of the priest and the genial hereditary in his Hasmonean
family. Thus Judea became a theocratic state with the combination of the role of the
high priest and the genial in one person.
The Hasmoneans knew the basic weakness of this kingdom. Therefore, they
decided to expand the territories through war and diplomacy. Around 78 B.C. the
regions of Samaria, Edom, Moab, Galilee, Idumea, Transjordama, Gadara, Fella,
Gerxsa, Raphia and Gaza. Thus the new Jewish kingdom became as wider as the
kingdom of Solomon. The descendants of those brave Macabees7 who had once
fought for religious freedom, now began to enforce Judaism on the subject
population, including the practice of circumcision. This was done at the point of
sword. The Pharisees, the conservative priestly classes of Judea were not happy
with the increasing Hellenic influences. During the period of Queen Salome
7 Josephus, Antiquities XIV 2.9. also Strabo, XVI, 240.
44
Alexandra (78-69 B.C) the Pharisees were brought to co-operation. However, her
sons Hyracannus II and Aristobulus II began a war of succession8.
It was during this period, that the Roman Consul Pompey had started his
operations in West Asia. Both the parties submitted their claims to Pompey. When
Pompey favoured Hyrcannus, Aristobulus fortified himself with his army at
Jerusalem. Pompey therefore laid seige to the capital Jerusalem and took
possession of several areas. Later Aristobulons and his men took refuge in the
temple and held for three months. Their piety on the Sabbath day helped Pompey to
overcome them and finally to capture the temple along with the occupants. When
the hamparts fell, 12,000 Jews were slaughtered and many leaped to death from the
walls. Fompeu ordered his men to leave the treasures of the temple untouched.
However he imposed a war indemnity of 10,000 talents (4 3,600,000) from the
Jewish nation Hyrcanns II was9 made high priest and nominal ruler of Judea. The
independent monarchy was ended. From then onwards Judea became part of the
Roman province of Syria.
In 54 B.C. Crassus, one of the Triumvirs of Rome on his way to Ctesiphon,
plundered the temple at Jerusalem to the tune of 10,000 talents. When Crassus
was defeated and killed in one of the Roman expeditions, the Jews reclaimed their
freedom. However, Longinus another Roman General who succeeded Crassus as
8 Jesephus, p. 240.
9 Will Durant, Ceasar and Christ – A History of Roman Civilization and of
Christianity from their beginnings to AD 325 , New York, 1944, p. 530.
45
Governor of Syria, suppressed the revolt and sold 30,000 Jews into slavery in 43
B.C.10
During the same year Antipater of Idumian region died, who had earlier
helped the Romans. The Parthians swept across the desert into Judea and set up,
as their puppet king, Antigonus, the last of the Hosmoneans. However, Antony and
Octavian countered the Partian attempt by naming Herod – the son of Antipater, the
king of Judea. Antony, and Octanian financed the Jewish army of Herod. With this
help, Herod could drive out the Partians. Jerusalem was protected from plunder and
pillage. Antigonnus, the puppet king was executed. Herod also executed the
supporter.
According to some historians, Herod was in fact the Augusts of Judea. Like
Augustus (Octavian) brought peace order out of Chaos in the Roman Empire, Herod
could establish peace and order within the Roman province of Judea. Herod
beautified the capital city with Greek architecture and sculpture. He enlarged his
territory, made it prosper. He married several times11. Josephus describes him as a
man of great physical bravery and ski ll, a perfect marksman with arrow and Jevelin,
a mighty hunter who once caught 40 wild breasts in a day. He also used his
diplomacy and corrupt channels to manipulate his enemies. We had excellent
relationship with Antony, Chopatra and Octavim. Each crisis with the Roman
Triumvirs was managed successfully by him. Octavian added the city of
10
Josephus, XIV, p. 11. 11
Antiquities, XV, 7, XVI, 5.
46
Hasmonean palestine to Judea and wished that Herod might one day rule Syria and
Egypt too12.
The Greek, Hellenic culture had a domineering influence on several areas of
West Asia. This was reflected not only in art, architecture which Herod had copied,
bvut also several manners and customs. Herod began to encourage Greek ways,
dress, ideas literature and art. He surrounded himself with Greek scholars entrusted
to them high affairs of state and made Nicholos of Damascus, the Greek his official
counselor and historian13.
Herod the Great, the Contemporary of Christ
According to Will Durant, Herod’s character was typical of an age, which
produced so many brilliant men, with lessor loose morals. Whoever tried to discredit
him with Marks Antony failed, became Herod could always 14 outsmart them. From
every crisis with the Triumvirs of Rome, he emerged with larger territory than before.
According to Augustus, Herod was ‘too great a soul for so small a dominion’.
Herod had an ambitions plan for demolishing and rebuilding the temple of
Jerusalem. he shocked the people by telling them that the temple which Zerubbabel
had15 constructed 5 centuries back was too small. Therefore he proposed to
demolish it and erect a larger and beautiful one. The Jews protested but he went
ahead with the demolition and reconstruction.
Thus on Mount Moriah, a new temple was erected. It was supported by
multiple rows of corinthian columns, each a marble monolith, so large that three men
12
Ibid. 13
Josephus XIV, pp. 11-12 14
Ibid. 15
Will Durant, Ceasar and Christ, Chapt. XXV, p. 533.
47
could barely join hands around it. In this main court were the booths of money.
Changers who for the convenience of pilgrims changed foreign coins to those
acceptable at Jerusalem. There were rooms or porticoes 16 where teachers and
students met to study, particularly the Hebew language and the Jewish law.
From this outer temple, a broad flight of steps led up to an inne r walled space
which non-Jews were forbidden to enter. There was a court of women, where such
men as were pure came in with their wives17.
Here, one could see an altar, upon which burnt sacrifice was offered to
yahveh (god). Still other steps led through bronze doors seventy five feet high and
twenty four wide, overhung with a famous golden wine, into temple proper, open
only to priests. It was built entirely of white marble, in set-back style and its facade
was plated with gold. The interior was divided cross-wise by a great18 embroidered
veil, blue, purple and scarlet. Before the veil were the golden seven branched
candle stick, the alter of incense and the table bearing the uncleavened ‘shewbread’
that the priests laid before Yahveh. The main structure of this historic edifice were
finished in eight yeas, the work of decoration continued for another eighty years. It
was just being completed when the Roman army under Titus 19 came to take revenge
on the Jews and destroyed the temple.
16
Ibid 17
Antiquities, XV, 7, p. 11. 18
Ibid. 19
Foakes Jackson and Lake, Beginning of Christianity I, pp. 5-7.
48
At the time of Jesus, the temple was intact. He used to visit the temple to
teach and interpret the law20. It is from here that he banished the money-changers
for desecrating the sanctity of the Synagogue (Jewish temple).
After Herod’s death, the kingdom was divided among three remaining sons.
To Philip went the eastern region known as Batanea, which contained the cities like
Bethsaida, capitolias, Gerasa, Philadelphia and Bostria. To Herod Antipas went
Peraca (the land beyond Jordan) and in the north Galilee, where Lay Esdraela,
Tiberias and Nazreth. To Archelaus fell Samaritis Idumea and Judea.
Jewish Religion and the State
As far as a Jew was concerned, religion was the source of their law, their
state and their hope and hence they were also worried about the increasing Pagani,
Hellenic influence over the society and the state. Hence, that mutual hatred of Jew
and gentile which kept the little nation in a kind of fever of ratial strife, political
turbulence and periodic war. Even the Jews of Judea scorned the people of Galilee
as ignorant backsliders. The Gali leans on the other hand, scorned at the Judeans
as slaves caught in the cobwebs of law. Again there ass constant feud between the
Samaritans and the Judeans21.
During the beginning of the Christian era, it was calculated that there were 25
lakhs Jews in the entire Palestine. In Jerusalem alone, there were one lakh Jews 22.
Most of them spoke Aramaic, only priests and scholars understood Hebrew. The
officials, foreigners and authors used Greek for communication. Judea and the
20 see Biblical references. 21
Baron, S. Social and Religious History of the Jews, New York, 1937, Vol. I,
p. 131. 22
Ibid.
49
surrounding areas were predominantly agricultural. They irrigated their lands and
cultivated foodgrains, fruits and vegetables. Wine was produced. During the time of
Christ, Palestine cultivated enough wheat for export a modest surplus . Dates, Figs,
Grapes and Olives, wine and oil were highly priced and purchased by the entire
Mediterranean. Handicrafts were largely hereditary and organized in guilds. Jewish
opinion honoured the workers dn most scholars had not only their intellectual
activities, but also toiled themselves on the land.
The Jewish Synagogni itself functioned23 almost like a national bank.
Although commercial activities were limited from the days of Herod, the Law of
Deuteronomy which required the cancellation of the debts every seventh year was
abolished. And thereafter, money lending and commercial activities began to
increase24.
The Jews were traditionally divided into Sadducees, Pharisees, Scribes and
Essenes. Most of the upper clergy and the upper classes belonged to the
Sadducees (Zadokim), so named after their founder Zodok. They were extremely
nationalistic in politics and orthodox in religion. They believed and stood for the
enforcement of the Jewish written law, Torah. They rejected every other additional
ordinances, practices and oral tradition.
The Pharisees, literally called the separatists by the Sadducees so, because
they separated themselves from the Sadducees. They always insisted on ritual
purity and cleanliness. They were a continuation of the devotees of the Maccabean
23
Antiquities, Op. Cit., IV, p. 10. 24
Will Durant, Op. Cit., p. 536.
50
period, who had insisted on the25 strict practice of the law. The Pharisees were a
group of Jews who professed to be more religious than the rest, and explained the
laws more precisely. Along with the written Jewish law they also added oral
traditions and interpretations so that there would be more clarity in the laws of
Moses26.
The Essenes followed a policy of extreme piety, simplicity led almost a
monastic way of life. They were a small community of 4,000 in Palestine during the
period of Christ. They organised themselves into a distinct religious congregation.
They strictly observed both written law and oral traditions. They lived together like
celebates in a monastic life style. They cultivated the land collectively. They ate
their food together, elected their leaders by vote. They also had a common fund for
community welfare. The Essenes normally wore white linen and took 27 bath several
times ritualistically. A few of them got married and lived in the towns. For them se x
was abhorent. They considered cohabitation as only a biological necessity for
procreating chi ldren.
They avoided all kinds of pleasures28 of the world and spent their days for
work, meditation and prayers. The Essenes looked for the coming of a Messiah who
would establish an egalitarian kingdom of heaven on earth (Malchuth Shamayim).
Every one could not enter that kingdom, but only those who could lead a spotless life
on this earth29.
25
Zeitlin S. The Jews, Philadelphia, 1936, p. 43. 26
Zeitlin, S.The Pharisees and the Gospels, New York, 1938, p. 237. 27
Josephus, Antiquities, XVIII, 1. 28
Ibid. 29
Klausner, From Jesus to Paul, New York, 1943, p. 231.
51
They believed in absolute non-violence. They refused to make any
implements of war. Even when they were beaten or tortured by the invading armies,
they did not shed any tears but suffered silently with a smiling face. They loved their
enemies and prayed for them even in the days before the coming of Christ.
The scribes were not a sect like the Pharisees. Theirs was a profession. The
scribes were called the learned or the Hakamin, who specialised on Jewish law.
Scribes often gave lectures in the Jewish Synagogues and taught in the Jewish
schools. Some of them were priests, Sadducees. But most of the scribes were
Pharisees themselves who interpreted the law and created an oral tradition30.
One of the well-known teachers of Jewish who emerged before the birth of
Christ was Hille, a Babylonean who was born around 75 B.C. He came to
Jerusalem as a grown up man and supported his family by doing manual labour.
half of his wage was used for learning the Jewish law and its commentaries. Hillel
had laid down three principles for the guidance of life 31.
Love of man, love of peace and the love and knowledge of law. What is
hateful to theyself do not do it another. The Pharisees loved him and he remained
the head of the Jewish council until A.D. 10. it was Herod who appointed him as the
President of the Sanhedrin (Council) i n 30 B.C.
The Idea of a Messiah
During those decades before the birth of Christ, the Jewish literature became
increasing religious in nature. For a conservative Jew, it was sinful to indulge in
30
Moore G.F. Judaism in the First Centuries of Christian Era, Vol. I, Cambridge,
1932, p. 313. 31
Philo, in Eusebins, Preparatio Evangellca VIII, p. 7.
52
profane activities in literature, philosophy or art. Every profane activity should
ultimately aim at glorifying God or the Jewish law. Hence there was neither secular
literature or art, despite Herod’s indulgence with the Hellenic culture. However, the
idea of a Messiah was becoming stronger during these decades32;
A group of Jews from Alexandria who were influenced by the Greek language
and culture, wrote a book, The Book of the Wisdom of Solomon, which tried to
harmonize Judaism with the ideas of Plato. Another work, the Psalams of Solomon
(50 B.C) is33 rich in anticipation of a redeemer or a saviour for Israel.
The Jews were under the control of Rome during these decades. The
yearning for the liberation of Israel was a political necessity. The story of a divine
redeemer for liberation rings through the Jewish literature during these years. Many
works took the form of revelations. The Book of Daniel (150 B.C)34 gave the idea of
fighting against Antiochus Epiphanes. They did not want to remain for a longer
period under the Pagan domination.
Jewish Communities of the Pre-Christian Era
Several centuries before the rise of Christianity and Islam, there were Jewish
settlements in Asia and North Africa. According to inscriptional sources, there were
Jews in South and North Arabia. In fact, in the South Arabian Peninsula, there was
very strong presence of the Jews. By the 4th and 5th centuries, we have greater
details of these settlements. South Arabian inscriptions mentioning the names of
32
Foakes-Jackson F and Lake K. Beginnings of Christianity, London, 1920, 5V,
p. 134. 33
Ibid. 34
Ibid.
53
King of Himyar, the inscriptions of Beyt Shearim near Haifa, the stories of the
Christian ecclesiastical writers of the early centuries and the information from the
north Arabian literature put together provide us with clear idea as to how the Jewish
community lived in these lands. In fact during the early centuries of the Christian
era, the Jewish leaders in South Arabia tried to prevent the spread of Christianity.
Some of the early inscriptions of South Arabia35 talk about monotheistic ideas, which
according to many scholars, might have come from the Jews. There were also
some converts to Judaism from the south Arabian tribes.
Immediately after his accession in 518, the Emperor Justin delegated his
powers to his nephew. Justinian, who succeeded to the throne after the death of
Justin. Justinian at once started his campaigns against Parsia. The Abyssinian
(Ethiopia) ruler came to the side of Justinian. Justinian wanted the Abyssinian ruler
to succeed in his campaigns in South Arabia and thereby he anted to ensure the
balance of power in the Asia minor maintained, so that he could withstand against
the Persians36. A local Jewish king of Tubba by name Dhu Nuwas, who was a
brilliant general and statesman, realised the danger of Byzantine and Abyssinian
expansion and therefore he organised men and material against the Byzantine-
Abyssinian expansion.
The war between the Jewish King Dhu Nuwas and the Abyssinian King
Negus has been described in several contemporary writings. These records also
talk about the relationship between the Jewish Rabbis and the Jewish king 37. The
35
G. Ryckmans, “Inscriptions Sud-Arabes” in Le Museon, LXVI, 1953, pp. 284-303. 36
Ibid. 37
Ibid.
54
Abyssinians were expelled from the South Arabian territory and thereby the chances
of Christian expansion also came to a close. The inhabitants of Najran, who were
predominantly Christians began to face grave atrocities after the war. Yusuf was the
last Jewish king of Himyar. However, the Jewish communities continued to exist
even during the Islamic expansion and persecutions. During these persecutions,
particularly at Najran, several thousands of Christians lost their lives. Those who
survived either embraced Islam38 or emigrated to other countries, including the
Malabar coast of India.
Arab historians State that several Jews including the converts from Bedouin
tribes embraced Islam. It is also the view of some historians that it was through
them that the Jewish beliefs and the biblical legends entered Islam. Those who did
not convert, continued to pursue Jewish faith and performed their trading 39 activities
on Indian and Chinese products like spices, pepper, frankincense, perfumes and
silk.
The Introduction of the Poll-Tax
After the arrival of Muhammad in Yathrib, the good relationship between the
Arabs and the Jews ceased to exist. Muhammad was not able to establish good
relations with the “Jewish tribal chiefs and the Rabbies. Hostilities opened with the
change against the Jews of falsifying the Torah (Quran ii 83) and making additions
to it. Muhammad degraded the Jews by obligation of poverty (ii, 58, iii 108). Soon
the Jews began to be persecuted by various means, massacres followed. Two
38
Hirschberg, Israel in Arabia, Tel. Aviv, 1946, pp. 76-111 39
Ibid. See also, E.I.J. Rosenthal, Judaism and Islam, London, 1961, pp. 1ff.
55
tribes40 – first the Banu Qaynuqa tribe and then the Banu’l – Nadir a priestly tribe
were expelled. Another tribe, Banu Qurayza was completely exterminated.
Banu’l Nadir who lived for centuries in Arabia was liked by their Arab
neighbours. Some Arab poets even wrote poems, Lamenting their departune. But
there were others who stated that the Jews deserved the fate, because they were
enemies of Islam and the Prophet.
However, at the end of the war against the Jewish neighbours in Medina, he
started another practice. This was a surrender agreement by which the Jews were
asked to pay Jizya (Poll-tax) payable by the non-Muslims. it was imposed by the
Quran itself. The protection of dhimmi, the Jizya paying subject was incumbent on
the authorities.
The position of the Jews in Palestine (Judea) Syria, Jordon, Egypt and the
surrounding areas had declined after the rise of Christianity in these areas. The
Roman emperors began to issue decrees prohibiting Jews from holding public
offices, as this would give them authority over the Christians. They even prohibited
the erecting new synagogues. Emperor Justinia prohibited the usage of the oral law
(Novella 146). Further a kind of poll-tax41 called Fiscus Judaicus was reintroduced.
This position in Iran was42 also far from satisfactory. During the period of the
Sassanid dynasty, particularly during its last 150 years, the Jewish community of
Babylone suffered heavily.
40
ELJ Rosenthal, Judaism and Islam, London, 596, pp. 1 ff. 41
Ibid. 42
Ibid.
56
After Muhammads appearance in Mecca, the Persians launched a powerful
offensive against the Byzantine authorities in Asia. The Persians began their
offensive against the Byzantine powers, during the early decades of Islam and the
Jews in Persia stood against the Byzantine powers. The Jews of Antioch revolted
against the Byzantines killed the Patriarch and thereby indirectly facilitated the
country’s capture by the Persians. Upon the Persian invasion of Palestine and
occupation of Jerusalem, the Jews were permitted to return to that city from which
they were banished during the period of Hadrian43. But the hopes of rebuilding the
Temple at Jerusalem got vanished. The Persian army, whose victorious advances
suddenly turned into a retreat. They left Palestine all of a sudden. As a result of it,
the Christian clergy took revenge upon the Jews, despite the fact that Emperor
Heraclius promised them pardon44.
The Arab historian al-Baladhuri mentions about the assistance provided by
the Jews during the Arab conquest. However, according to a Syrian Chronicle in
634 A.D poor Jewish vi llagers fought on the side of the Byzantines in a battle with
the Arabs twelve miles east of Gaza. The story of Kabina, the woman who, as the
teacher of the Judaised Berbers, fought the Arab of conquerors in Africa was also a
legendary character.
However, apart from these45 isolated stories, the general tendency of the
Jews was to stand by the invading armies and get the benefits under the surrender
clauses. It is stated that even certain Christian sects in Syria and Egypt, who did not
43
H.Z. Hirschberg, “The Oriental Jewish Communities” in Religion in the Middle East edited
by A.J. Arberry, Cambridge, 1969, pp. 126-127. 44
Ibid. 45
Ibid.
57
belong to the ruling Christian sects considered the Arabs no deliverers from the
severe Christian masters of Syria and Egypt.
Deterioration of the Relations
For a long period, the Arabs adhered46 to the undertaking given to the
surrendered population. But, by the end of the Umayyad period, the relations
between the Arabs and the ‘protected’ population deteriorated. The protected
population or the dhimmis began to face difficulties due to various reasons.
Caliph Umar II (717-20) was a Muslim with strong Islamic religious
foundation. Yet he was fair and just towards the Christians and the Jews. This
religious tolerance of the early Umayyads was not followed by Caliph Umar II in his
later years.
Another reason was that the cultural and technical standards of the Arabs
improved. They felt that they would be able to manage themselves without any
Christian officials. At the same time, the dhimmis became increasingly assimilated
to the Arabs by adopting their language, dress and customs. But those who resisted
this assimilation had to face the wrath.
Umar II therefore ordered provincial47 governors to remove the dhimmis from
government posts and warned them not to become friendly with the unbelievers.
Umar II did not impose restrictions on economic activities, but ordered that the Jews
and the Christians should not hold any administrative positions. Umar II wanted
them not to be mistaken as Muslims. Hence, special dress code was insisted.
Christians had to wear special girdles and trim their heir at the forehead; Jews were
46
Ibid 47
See, A.S. Triton, The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects London, 1930.
58
subjected to other restrictions in their attire48. Later, turbans of special colour were
prescribed for each community – blue for Christians, Yellow for Jews, red for
Samaritans – as well as special shoes saddles etc. They were asked not to
construct buildings taller than that of their Muslim neighbours.
According to some scholars49, most of the special laws concerning Christians
and Jews were not seriously enforced in the beginning. Certain Caliphs themselves,
violated the prohibition of admitting “unbelievers” to high offices. Only when cultural
standards declined and fanaticism among the masses and ignorance among the
rulers increased, things began to take a backward march.
By the 16th century, the Qadis and the Muftis became increasingly fanatic and
it was reflected in the treatment of the non-Muslims. A large population mercenaries
began to arrive from central Asia along with liberated slaves who had embraced
Islam. This new class began to exploit the already existing population. The Jews
and Christians became increasingly targets of attack. The re-conquest of Spanish
territories by Christian rulers and the expulsion of Moors from there, had its
repercussions on the native Christians and Jews in the Middle East. During the
Mamluk period “Muslim mobs” used to attack Christian quarters.
The right to residence of the Jews and Christians was based on the Quran.
Therefore, in order to justify the expulsion of the Jews and Christians from Hijaz, the
exponents of the hadith quoted Muhammad’s command that there shall not be two
religions in Hijaz.
48
See, L.A. Mayer, Status of the Jews Under the Mamluks in Magnes Anniversary Volume, Jerusalem, 1938, pp. 167-8. 49
H.Z. Hirschberg, Op. Cit., p. 128.
59
In fact the Jews and the Christians of these West Asian countries never felt
that they50 were strangers to these lands, because their ancestors had lived in these
countries for hundreds of years, much before the Arabs came there.
In large towns, the Jews lived together in separate quarters. This is apparent
from a letter about the disaster of the Qayarawan community which states that the
Jewish quarters and its magnificent synagogue were laid waste. In fact, the Jewish
tribes in Pre-Islamic Yathrib each inhabited a region of their own. When the Arab
conquerors came to areas under Persian rule they found there several Jewish
quarters. In fact these settlements were not like complete centres of segregation. In
fact there were non-Jews within a Jewish quarters. Similarly51, sometimes Muslims
lived side by side with the Jews.
The Muslim rulers introduced humiliating restrictions and disabilities for the
unbelievers and practiced blackmail on behalf of the treasury in various ways. But
religious law set52 a limit to greed. During Mamluk period it was assigned to the
treasury. Also, the law came in the way of succession of a convert, indiscriminately
– even if he had become a Muslim.
In 1231 Yahya, Muhammad al-Nasir’s son, descended from the mountains,
captured Marrakesh, destroyed the Christian Church killed a number of Jews and
Banu Farkhan, looted their property and entered the Qasba, or Citadel. Once, the
Jews were again permitted to practice their religion in public, most of these
50
Hiraschbverg, A History of the Jews in North Africa (Hebrew), 2 Vol.s Jerusalam, Op. Cit. 51
J. Manu, Texts and Studies in Jewish History and Literature , Vol. I, Cincinnati 1931,
p. 246. 52
J. Manu, Texts and Studies in Jewish History and Literature , Vol. I, Cincinnati,
1931, p. 246.
60
measures lapsed automatically. However, the clothing regulations continued in full
force, even though details of cut and colour were changed53. However in Tunnisia
by 1199, the discriminatory signs again reappeared. On the initiative of Maghribi
fanatics they were reintroduced in Egypt. An author of African origin who lived in
Spain in the late middle-ages describes the duties of the officials to enforce
discriminatory provisions in the markets and public places54 against the Jews and
Christians. The degrading conditions under which the Jews in North Africa and
Yemen lived for centuries undoubtedly had a very adverse effect on their
development.
Socio-Religious Life
The Jewish community was not homogeneous during the period of Christ and
the position continued to be so during the beginning of Islam. Jewish influence was
considerable in many countries situated on the periphery of the new regional states
which were then taking place. As a result of that large sections of the non-Jewish
population were attracted towards Judaism, to the point of adopting various Jewish
customs or even converting straightaway. The Jews did not have any serious
political and economic power. The Jews essentially55 did not want to spread their
religion beyond the tribes. And hence there was no missionary organization or
institutions to proselytize others. The comparative cultural and economic superiority
of the Jews had some influence on their neighbourhood and others were attracted
towads the Jewish customs and traditions.
53
Ibid. 54
Ibid. 55
Hirschberg, History, Vol. I, pp. 145-51.
61
Certain persons of royal lineage in South Arabia, converted to Judaism and
this prompted some of the tribal groups to convert themselves into Judaism.
The hope of redemption was widely cherished in the Judaic world. The
messianic movement and millenarian ideas were becoming stronger in some
sections of Jewish community. This along with magical work had some impact on
the other communities.
Al-Qirqisani mentions in his book Kitab al-Anwar wa’L-maraquib that there56
were several sects of Jews who had broken away from the parent body after Abu
Isa. In the beginning Abu Isa had a small sect of supporters who lived in Damascus.
While these sects were short lived, an important part was played by the Karaite
movement, which opposed the ruling Rabbanites – who were adherents of the oral
law. The Karaites wanted to base Judaism exclusively on the basis of the written
law. Its founder Aranb. David of the family of the Exilarchs (second half of the 8 th
century) was to have succeeded to the exi larchate after death of his uncle, but the
scholars of the Babylonian Talmudical academics took exception to his view and
elected his younger brother.
Anan took advantage of the anti-oral law trends that still existed several
centuries after the disappearance of the Sadducces and brought about a split in
Judaism. Most of his views found favour in places remote from the Babylonian
yeshivot, which was a new sect. Benjamin al-Nihawandi and Danielal-Qumisi, the
heads of the new sect, which57 called itself Karaites (sons of Scriptures).
56
W. Baron, Social and Religious History of the Jews , Philadelphia 1957, Vol. V, pp. 182-97. 57
Ibid.
62
Al-Quirqisani stresses the difference between ‘Anan’s teachings and those of
later Karaite leaders, in particular, the wide divergence in religious practices as a
result of the liberty granted to every person to interpret the law according to his
own58 lights. Possibly because of that liberty, Karaism spread among the Jews
throughout the Mediterranean area, including North Africa.
In Palestine proper, the emphasis was mainly on the emotional, irrational
aspects of the religion. Pilgrims visited the country in fulfillment of the sacred duty of
“going up to Jerusalem. On Hosana Rabbh, the pilgrims would assemble on the
Mount of Olivr to pray and earn blessings through the prayers of the Palestinian
grou, to hear his proclamations on the matters of halakhah and the dates of the next
years festivals, and the curses59 uttered against the Karaites. When the pilgrims
returned to their lands, they would bring with them something of the sanctity, poetry
and craving for the redemption of the Holyland60.
According to several Jewish sources, the Caliphs Umar and Ali were
sympathetic towards the representatives of the supreme institutions of the
Babylonian Jewish community, the Exilarch and the head of the Yeshiva of
Firuzshapur. The position of the Jews had weakened as a result of the socio-
political upheavals in the Persian empire. The position of the Jews had then been
weakened in every respect.
58
Ibid. 59
According to Abraham b. David, the Spanish Jewish historian (12th century) the Karaites
were a small insignificant community in his ‘Book of Traditions’, Vol. Oxford 1887, pp. 78-79. 60
Ibid.
63
However, following the stabilization of the Arab rule, in the initial years there
was some kind of recovery as far as their internal religious administration was
concerned. For sometime, there was a kind of peaceful co-existence developed
between the Muslim authorities and the autonomous institutions of the non-Muslims
so that the Jews were able to reconstitute a system of self-government61. The
Exilarch was of Davidic stock and his office was hereditary. After a period of
instability, Bustanai was recognized as Exi larch and transmitted the office to his
sons by his Jewish wife and by a Persian Princess. The hereditary and elected
representatives of Iraqi Jewry were charged with the administration of all taxes to be
levied from the Jews. They represented the Jews in front of the Muslim rulers. They
had autonomous judicial functions. They enacted regulations for the community62.
Benjavin of Tudela who visited Baghdad in 1168 provides an eye witness
account of the honour and splendour surrounding the office of Exilarch occupied by
Daniel b. Hasdai (1150.74) at the Caliphs’ court. He was received by Caliph every
Thursday in official audience when other Muslims and Jews had to stand before him.
He sat beside the Caliph while all the Muslim dignitaries remained on the feet.
Another Jewish traveler, Petahy of Regensburg reports that the heads of the Jewish
community63 in Mosul punished offenders even if the other party to the case was a
Muslim. There was also a Jewish prison in the city.
For many years, the Jews did not pay the taxes directly to the Caliph, but paid
one gold dinar per annum to the Exilarch. When the Mongol Khan, Hulegu
61
Nathan b. Isaac, in Nenbaner (ed.), Medieval Jewish Chronicles, Vol. II, pp. 83-86.
Also Tykocinski, ‘Bustanai the Exilarch’, Debir, Vol. (1923), pp. 145-79. 62
Nathan b. Isaac, Op. Cit. 63
Ibid.
64
conquered Bagdad (1258) he did not harm the Jewish community nor the Exilarch,
Samuel b. David, Jewish leaders of the House of David continued to reside in
Baghdad until the days of Tamerlane by 140164.
During the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate when control was passing over to
Seljuks, quasi governments sprang up in Mosul, Damascus and Alleppo. Scions of
the families of the Babylonian Exilarch settled in those cities and obtained important
positions which were confirmed by the governments. So dear was the memory of
the Davidic kingdom to the people that the descendants 65 of David were received
everywhere with great honours. They were given the title masi. Because they
claimed the dynasty of David they were placed automatically at the head of the
community.
This in fact, resulted in the splitting up of the Exilarchate in to different
territorial units began in the 11th century. The representatives collected tithes, poll-
tax and other taxes. They appointed officials and judges for the community who66
sat in judgement for the community.
In Egypt and North Africa the Jewish community organizations were different.
For certain political reasons, the Fatimite Caliphs of Egypt did not want the Jewish
communities in their domains, which extended as far as present day Morocco to be
subjects to Jewish authorities located outside their realm. Like the Umayyad rulers
of Spain and part of Morocco, they therefore encouraged the separation of local
Jewish authority from the Babylonian centre. We have certain records regarding the
64
M.N. Adler (ed.). The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, London, 1907, pp. 39-40. 65
Ibid. 66
J. Maun, “The Office of the Exhilarch in Babylonia” in Livred’hommage a La memoire
dar Samuel Poznanski, p. 24.
65
functions of the Jewish organization of Negadim in Egypt, which had similar
functions like that of the Babyloni Exilarch. The Nagid represented all the Jews and
was their religious guide and judge. He drafted the deeds of marriage and divorce
and saw to it that prayers were chanted while facing Jerusalem, in contrast to
Samaritan custom. He was also responsible for the implementation of the special
measures applying to the dhimmis.
Palestinian and Syrian Jewish67 communities were headed by a local nagid,
subordinate to the nagid of Cairo. Without the permission of the authority at Cairo,
the local nagid could not be appointed. Apart from the Nagid, two other
functionaries represented the community, the minister (hazzan) and the prayer
leader (Sheliab sibbur). The office of the Nagid existed in Egypt until the Turkish
conquest in 1517 and it was abolished later.
Economic Changes
One of the consequences of the Arab conquest was the breaking down of the
economic barriers which separated Byzantium, Persia and Spain dominated by the
Visigoths. Thus, the subjects of the Caliph could undertake economic activities
anywhere within the empire.
Urbanization and the development of administrative centres began to take
place. For example, cities like Ahwaz, Tustar, Kufa, Baghdad, Ramla, Fustat, Cairo,
Mahdiyya, Qayrawan, Ashir, Tahart and Tlemcen. By and by these places became
also centres of commerce and seats of scholarship and religious instruction. The
67
M.N. Adler, The Itinerary of Benjamin Tudela, London, 1907, p. 39.
66
phenomena of rival twin cities, known from antiquity Jerusalem – Caesaria repeated
itself. Near cities developed at the expense of old ones.
The new cities attracted many of the inhabitants of the older ones, became
depopulated and sank to the level of provincial towns or suburbs. The ninth century
saw a change in the functions of the ports of the Muslim part of the Mediterranean,
especially in the western sector.
Over the years, the Arab navy grew strongly and enabled the Arab armies to
attack Byzantine positions in Cyprus, Crete Sicily and Southern Italy. This
development was advantageous to North Africa. The Mediterranean became an
Arab sea and the Byzantine fleet ceased to play an effective role in the trade of the
area. The importance of North Africa as a link in maritime trade communications
between east and west, south and north increased. Muslim traders began to sail
from68 western Tripolitania, from Mahdiyya and later from Bijaya, Sabta and Sala.
These traders went in three directions: east to Egypt and Syria, north to Sicily and
southern Italy and west to Spain to import and export. The southern route via Red
sea towards the Indian ocean was not yet open to water born traffic.
These changes in the distribution and economic structure 69 of the population
had far reaching effects on the Jewish society. In the early days of the Arab rule
there were probably still some number of Jewish villages of Palestine and Babylonia.
In many of the Islamic countries, Muslims were practically forbidden to work in
gold and silver. Islamic law regarded the wage received for work in precious metals
as usurious profit and lays down that no more than the gold and silver metallic price
68
Hirschberg, The Oriental Jewish Communities , Op. Cit., p. 40. 69
Ibid.
67
should charged. In other words, metal work should be done without any
remuneration, wages or compensation. Therefore, Muslims generally kept
themselves away from the work related to gold, silver, brass etc. These works also
included the testing of the precious metals, money changing, money lending etc.
The collector of taxes and customs also supposed to have knowledge of precious
metals and coins in different parts of the world.
In the early years, these occupations were clearly related and identical. For
example, the Persian word jahbadh stood for a person who could be a money70
changer, coin-testor, tax-collector, banker etc. Therefore the Mints in the Muslim
countries were operated by Christians and later by the Jews also.
For example, mints in the territory of Aghlabi dynasty were operated by
Christians. Later, the mint in Egypt was run by Jews, and Jews also minted the
coins in Yemen and North Africa. The Jews were money changers, tanners, shoe-
makers, dyers, weavers, and masons. But they also engaged themselves in linen,
silk, perfumes, pearls and corals, that is as highly esteemed businessmen engaged
in luxury trades. Arab sources contain short notes on Jewish wholesale merchants
toll farmers and bankers at the court of the Caliphs in Baghdad. A Baghdad
merchant had attained the position of a vizier in the Fatimid administration in Egypt.
Yaqub b. Killis a native of Bagdad at first a merchant’s warden in Ramila. He was
the official representative and trustee of the Jewish merchants at Baghdad. He
enjoyed the confidence of the Kafur, the Ikhshidi ruler of Egypt. He assumed the
position of the director of the revenue of the Diwan of Egypt and Syria. However it
70
W.J. Fischel, Jews in the economic and Political Life of Medieval Islam, London, 1937,
pp. 2-8.
68
aroused the envy of the Muslim vizier and hence after Kafur’s death, he was forced
to flee from Egypt. However, later with the help of the Jews at the Fatimid Caliph al-
Muizz entered the service of that ruler who was then about to march on Egypt71.
According to Arab senses, Yaqub effective assisted al-Muizzi army commander
during that campaign. He rose very high at the Fatimid court, was appointed Vizier,
and laid the foundations for a public tax collection system in that country. However,
in the end, he embraced Islam, but continued to be friendly with the Jewish
community. He utilized his influence to get some of the72 leading Jews appointed to
important posts. Some of them were deputed to Syria and Egypt in the tax collection
service and intelligence. One of them Manasse al Qazzaz, i.e, the silk -merchant
was the Fatimid commissioner in Syria and continued in this task until Isa b.
Nestorius, a Coptic Christian was appointed Vizier73.
The sons of merchant Sahl al-Tustari, who were originally from Persia were
very prominent in the Fatimid administration. Tustar was an important commercial
centre in the tenth century and its Jews had a large share in its prosperity.
Copiusdata on the firm of the sons of Sahl have been preserved. According to these
sources, their trade was in precious stones which helped them to become the court
purveyors of other goods as well. It is interesting to note that their74 economic
position helped them to have political clout. The Persian traveller Nasir-I Khusraw
and the Egyptian writer al-Maqrizl admiringly describe the wealth of the sons of Sahl.
71
Fishel, Op. Cit., pp. 45-68. 72
Hirschberg, History, Vol. I, pp. 74-153. 73
Manu, The Jews in Egypt and Palestine (Oxord, 1920), Vol. I, pp. 19-22. 74
Fischel, Op. Cit., pp. 68-89.
69
Fustat was the natural meeting place of the Jewish traders from the Maghrib,
Sicily and the Far East as far as India and China. At Fustat, we find Babylonians,
Palestinians75 and Syrians, a great number of emigrants from the Maghrib who had
either settled or were staying there for long periods.
By the first half of the twelfth century there was great increase in the Jewish
trade between Egypt and India. These traders took both land and sea routes. The
sea-route was via Saudi Arabia.
But other development began to take place such as the crusades, the
Almohad conquests and the attendant tribulation, the rise of the Italian sea ports
like76 Venice, Pisa Geneva and Marseilles and the Mongol incursions led to the
weakening of the Arab trade. These changes also affected the position of the Jews
also substantially. Even in Egypt, the Jews began to feel impoverishment. Peddlers
and craftsmen formed the significant majority among the Jews. They could hardly
make both ends meet. The system of state monopolies in various branches of
commerce reduced the share of the Jews in these. Trade with India began to
decline due to European competitions. But in certain professions like medicine, the
Jewish physicians were still dominant.
Thus, by the close of the middle ages along with the Arab decline the position
of the Jews also began to decline.
75
Ibid. 76
S.D. Goietein, “The Main Industries of the Mediterranean Area”, Journal of Economic
and Social History of the Orient, Vol. IV, Part II, 1961, pp. 168-97.
70
Jewish Emigrations
The population of the Jews began to decline in most of the countries like
Palestine, Egypt and North Africa owing to emigration and forced conversions. In
the middle of the 12th century, a numerically small return movement to the eastern
countries began. Individuals and group from the Magrib area settled in Egypt and
Palestine as a result of the policy of the Almohads. A large group of rubbis from
France immigrated to Palestine in the 13th century.
From 14th century onwards immigration from the Christian dominated
countries spread over the whole Muslim East. In the beginning, it was only
symbolic. But by late 15th and early 16th century, the emigration became significant.
Most of the immigrants were the descendants of those who had emigrated several
centuries back from the holy lands due to persecutions. For example in
Hungary,Ukranine and Spain the Jews were persecuted77.
Most of those expelled from Spain and Balearic islands in 1391 settled in the
Algerian sea ports such as Hunayn, Oran, Mustaghanim, Tanas, Brishty, Algiers,
Bijaya also in Tunnis and other cities nearer the cities, Tlemcen, Milyana Medea and
Constantine. Those expelled from spain in 1492 settled in Fez, Mrakesh and
Shafshawan, Asila, Al-aaish, Azamur Tit, Mazaghan, Safi and Agadir, Badis and
(Valez) Sabta.
A third wave of emigrants reached North Africa from the late 16th century
onwards. They were the Gornim (the people from Livorno, who were earlier
77
Hirschberg, History, Vl. II, pp. 48-49.
71
expelled from Spain. There were also some Italian and North African Jews. They
were first found in Tunnis and Tripoli and later in Algiers78.
By the second half the 14th century, the expansion of the Ottoman Turkey
reached its peak under Suleyman the law giver and Salim II. These conquests
made many Muslim communities under Turkish sway, both in hitherto Christian ruled
areas and in Muslim countries threatened by79 Spanish invasion. Towards the end
of the reign of Mohammad the conquerors reign (1451-81), a German Jew resident
in Adrianople earnestly appealed to his brethren in Germany and Italy to settle in
Turkey.
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the Ashkenazi and Italian communities
in several cities of the empire such as Constantinople Adrianople, Salonica, Sofia
Pleven, Vidin, Trikkala and Arta. The Azhkenazim came from Germany, France and
Hungary, the Italians from Sicily, Apulia, Otranto and Calabria. However, those
expelled from Spain and Portugal in the year 1492-97 played a crucial role in
shaping the character of the80 Jewish communities in the Ottoman empire. Although
they do not seemed to have numbered more than 7 to 8,000, they were a
domineering sect over other migrants from other parts of Europe and Asia. Both
the81 Romaniots (from Byzantine areas) and the Azhkenazi (from Germany)
immigrants led the new settlers.
The conditions of the existing Jews on North Africa was appalling. R. Isaac
Sheshet perfect, one of the Jewish scholars from Spain stated thus:
78
Ibid. 79
R. Salomon b. Simon Duran, Responsa, 1742, p. 413. 80
Ibid. 81
Ibid.
72
“The inhabitants of this country can hardly afford a modicum of bread and
water82. They sleep on the ground or on carpets of animal skin and cover
themselves at night with their day time clothes. Their garments are all in patches
and most of them go barefoot”83.
On religious and spiritual conditions they were still worse. They lacked
Jewish texts or Scrolls at Synagogues. The persecutions during the Almohud era
and the Cissadon of relations with communities in other countries arrested their
development. R. Obadish of Bertinoro, who migrated to Palestine in 1488 and
settled in Jerusalem talks about the wretched condition of the inhabitants of that city.
R. Obadiah preached in the Synagigue twice a month in Hebrew. He had two
Spanish disciples who had studied under him. However, with the instructions, the
immigrants did not maintain satisfactory moral and spiritual standards84.
Legal, Social Status
As far as the social and legal status of the non-Muslims were concerned there
was no change till the middle of the 19th century. The Jews still had to pay special
taxes for erecting Synagogues newly or for making special designs or projections for
the Synagogues. The Muslim authorities strictly enforced the Ghiyar, the distinctive
dress and footwear and the segregation in special quarters.
Although the Jewish immigrants from the European countries were welcome,
they did not, exempt them from the application of ‘Umar’s regulations, nor gave them
a status similar to that of the Muslims.
82
Ibid. 83
B. Lewis, Notes and Documents from Turkish Archives , Jerusalem, 1952, p. 5. 84
R. Salomon Simon Duran, Responsa, Vol. III, p. 49.
73
The situation of the Jews and the legal status of the Jewish religion in the
Ottoman empire were generally not different from those of Christianity and
Christians. The poll-tax, the Jiziyh also ccalled Kharaj or Jawali was regularly
collected85 from the small income earners, the middle group and the well to alike at
the ratio of 1:2:4 in the local currency.
However, by ordinances of the years 1855-1856 the poll-tax was replaced in
Turkey by a military service exemption tax for non-Muslims. This was abolished only
in the young Turkish Revolution, when the non-Muslims were also made86 liable to
military service by a law of 1909.
The Tunnisian constitution of 1857 contained a reference to the Jiziya.
Exemptions from personal taxes is mentioned in certain treaty agreements signed
with the European powers and Morocco.
______
85
See, B. Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, London, 1961, pp. 114-331. 86
F.H. Skrine and E.d. Ross, The Heart of Asia, p. 388.