CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1INTRODUCTION
This chapter reviews relevant literatures and theories on career, career aspirations, career choices
and career success. Furthermore, the influence of career choices and how career success is
measured will be elucidated from literature. The chapter continues with the review of literature
on the glass ceiling phenomenon and stereotyping in order gain an understanding of what the
terms refers to, their prevalence and influence on individuals, organizations. Finally, a
conclusion of the chapter is drawn.
2.2CAREER
‘A career can be described as the evolving sequence of a person’s life and work experiences over time.’ (Hughes 2004, p.86)
The definition of career is understood differently. The traditional definitions tend to restrict
career to a professional work life which included progression. The notion and nature of careers
was traditionally based on highly structured, hierarchical and rigid structure; and several
researchers sought to broaden this conceptual definition and meaning of the term career. For
example, Schein (1978) relates to career as “anchors” a motivational and or inspirational inner
feeling for an individual. He mentioned that the career life cycles are made up of stages- fantasy,
growth and exploration. Another view of career by Super (1980) defined career as “the
combination and sequence of roles played by a person during the course of a lifetime” (p 282).
Here the author discussed a group of nine roles that were non-formal or non-professional (i.e.,
parent, worker, spouse, child, student, citizen, pensioner and “leisurite”). Thus career is not
limited to professionals but can also be referred to anyone who works outside of organizations
(e.g., Richardson, 1993; Arthur, Hall, & Lawrence, 1989). Arnold (2001) gave a similar
broadened conceptual definition of career as “the sequence of employment-related positions,
roles, activities and experiences encountered by a person” (p. 116).
Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom (2005); Hall (2004) in their studies, refereed to career as the
unfolding sequence of an individual’s work experience over time. This definition emphasizes on
the centrality of the themes work and time. The definition doesn’t adopt any static view of work
arrangements but rather focuses on the relevance of time instead. It is one of the widely accepted
definitions of career (Baruch, 2004). The definition does not constraint the assumptions on where
people work or what should determine career success. It accommodates a view of career success
based on a person’s upward mobility within an organization, but just as a special case of
extensive possibilities. These can include the horizontal and upward mobility within recognized
organizational or national contexts (Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005).
2.2.1 Career Perspectives
Careers is known to have two dimensions namely external (objective) and internal (subjective).
The objective career (external) has to do with the sequence of an individual’s work-related
positions or offices within the respective organization (Groeneveld, 2009), while the subjective
career (internal) reflects a person’s own sense (values, interests and motives) of his or her career
and valuing the sequence of positions (Groeneveld, 2009). It is the individual’s interpretation of
his/her own career or work situation at any point in time (Khapova, Arthur and Wilderom, 2007).
A significant aspect of the subjective or internal careers is career aspirations which refers to
peoples’ self concept, belief and values about themselves in the work environment with respect
to their capability, worthy and significance in their occupations (Rosenberg, 1979).These notions
have led to most of the corresponding concepts of career aspirations that have been researched in
most career development studies. Examples are the internal career (Bigliardi, Petroni and
Dormio, 2005; Ituma, 2006), career orientations (Igbaria, Kassicieh and Silver, 1996; Erdogmus,
2004; Kim, 2004; Buchanan, Kim and Basham (2007) and career anchors (Schein, 1978;
Marshall and Bonner, 2003).
Most research and theory about careers have evolved around the above mentioned dimensions.
However, the internal (subjective) career seem to be more significant and being more
increasingly recognized as it is expected for individuals to take greater responsibility for
directing and interpreting their unfolding careers (Hall, 2002). A foundational and
comprehensive model of career for understanding internal careers is Schein’s career anchor
theory. Schein (1987, p.158) defines a career anchor as “that one element in our self-concept that
we will not give up, even when forced to make a difficult decision”.
Schein’s career anchor theory assumes that individual’s can only have one career anchor and
when developed the anchor is unlikely to change. This leads to the suggestion that individuals
will seek career or job opportunities that strengthens this anchor (Ituma and Simpson, 2006).
This theory has received empirical support (e.g., Igbaria et al., 1991; Petroni, 2000) as well as
several critiques (e.g. Feldman and Bolino, 1996). Feldman and Bolino (1996), were of the
opinion that there is likely possibility of individuals possessing multiple relevant career anchors
rather than the the notion of Schein that individuals can only have one stable career anchor, as
individuals can have different career and life goals.
Igbaria et al. (1991) noted that Schein’s career anchor is a starting point from which to explore
and develop understanding of individual’s internal careers (career aspirations; career choices and
career success) and the reaction of employees to various career development opportunities. Thus,
the theory has been applied to different occupational groups (IT, accountant, academia) to
understand the needs individuals aspire to fulfil (Ituma and Simpson, 2006; Cullen and
Christopher, 2012; Agarwala, 2008). Although, it can be argued that Schein’s anchor theory
which is US-based and a reflection of its unique structures and institutions will be unlikely to
fully capture career orientations of and career experiences individuals in different national
context or a non-western context like developing countries e.g. Nigeria as a result of the likely
impact of national culture and societal instituitions (Ituma and Simpson, 2006).
2.3CAREER ASPIRATIONS
Career aspirations are defined as “a construct embodying individuals’ occupational identity and
desired career goals” (Danziger and Eden, 2006). Several authors have different description and
perception of career aspiration. Career aspirations are highlighted as an important individual
factor as they shape the individual’s career journey (Schein, 1996). Accordingly, Schein (1978)
suggested that the self perception of an individual with regards to his/her abilities, attitudes,
talents, values and needs determines the kind of career that matches their personality and what
they intend or aspire to achieve from their chosen or respective career.
Career aspirations are referred to as the individual’s desires or expectations pertaining to career
(Rasdi, Ismail and Garavan, 2011). Aspiration is defined as “the strength of an individual’s
motivation to achieve progressively higher or conversely lower goals based on the experiences
of success and failure, his own and of others who constitute his reference models” (Vig and
Singh, 2000, p. 4), in view of this definition, the expected level of achievement could be referred
to as aspiration.
Danziger and Eden, (2006, p.115) argued that career aspirations are “linked to individuals’
expectations of occupations and jobs” and the perceptions of the individuals are “ideas and
judgments, which are a product of a mental process of organizing, integrating, and recognizing
phenomena”. This definition recognizes the idealistic career goals which are the desired career
aspirations and the mental process of developing the career aspirations over years. Dazinger and
Eden (2006) refer to the difference between the idealistic or desired career aspirations and the
development of career aspiration as the “expectation gap”. Litzky and Greenhaus (2007)
highlighted in their studies that the career aspirations of individual’s acts as a motivational force
that triggers effort and determination towards achieving set goals or targets. Further, Khallad
(2000) and Watson et al. (2002) mentioned that factors such as gender, occupation,
socioeconomic status and educational level have a significant influence on individual career
aspirations.
2.4CAREER SUCCESS
Career success can be defined as the positive outcome or perceived achievement of an
individual’s career experiences: accomplishing perceived or desired work-related outcomes
(Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005). The achievement of specific desired work-related
results and aspirations in an individual’s career and work experiences over time implies a
successful career (Okurame and Balogun, 2005; Dolan, Bejarano and Tzafrir, 2011).
Baruch (2004) described individual career success as a set of desired outcomes, which vary
between individuals. He further explained that individuals are motivated by the prospect of these
different outcomes in their careers.
Igbaria, Kassicieh, and Silver (1999) noted that an individual’s elucidation and interpretation of
career success depends on the particular career orientation of the person. They were of the view
that career aspirations, perceptions, values and effective reactions to work-related experiences
form aspects of the internal (subjective) career that have heavily influences job commitment,
satisfaction and retention within an organization. This study supports Schein’s (1978) concept of
career anchors that an individual’s career decisions and choices are determined by the internal
career, which will then lead to the individual’s objective and subjective career success.
Career success as a career outcome is described as having both objective and subjective
dimensions (Gattiker & Larwood, 1988; Judge et al., 1995; Nabi, 1999; 2003; Baruch, 2004;
Breland et al., 2007). It is measured along these two dimensions: external, ‘objective’ visible
indicators and subjective ‘internal’ individual perception (Groeneveld, 2002; Hall and Chandler
2005; Heslin 2005; Ng, et al., 2005; Baruch and Quick 2007; Abele and Spurk 2009).
2.4.1 Objective Career Success
The objective career success refers to the external categories in a profession that is publicly
accessible (Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005), and typically illustrates the steps or
movements toward success. These movements can either be horizontal (increased job security)
or hierarchical (promotions and different job title). Objective career success is mostly concerned
with individual’s observable, directly measurable and verifiable (Abele and Spurk, 2009)
achievements in terms of income, position, promotion or hierarchical status, upward functional
mobility or progression, occupational status and performance (Hall 2002; Groeneveld, 2002;
Dette, et al., 2004; Heslin 2005; Ng, et al., 2005; Dries, Pepermans and Carlier 2008).
Compared to subjective career success (which is perceptual and evaluative criteria), the objective
career success is neutral and not biased in empirical assessment as its most widely used
indicators such as salary, status and promotions can be both externally assessed by means like
work records and confirmation from employees (Dette, Abele and Renner, 2004). These
indicators reflect societal norms and understandings’ regarding how successful a career is, and
are objective in the sense of being socially shared (Abele, Spurk and Volmer, 2010) instead of an
individual evaluation that is central to a subjective description of career success (Arthur,
Khapova and Wilderom, 2005). Objective achievements like income or hierarchical status are
proxies for performance. Many studies tend to use only income as the measure for objective
success. However, it is argued that objective criteria for success such as income and status can be
a less valid indicator for career success as they can be affected by factors that can be deficient
and beyond an individual’s control. For example, as a result of substantial differences in
countries such as the power structures, economic and social stratification, taxation systems and
markers of status, the objective success experienced in some occupations are more strongly
affected (Hollenbeck and McCall’s (2003). Furthermore, individuals in occupations like teachers
and academic mentors base their objective success not in either income or status but rather other
attainments like hard data on the learning and in terms of achievement of their pupils (Parsons,
2002; McGrath, 2003). These potential deficiencies in objective success measurement are
commonly dealt with by measuring the subjective career success of individual’s in conjunction
with their objective attainments (Heslin, 2005).
2.4.1 Subjective Career Success
The subjective or internal is generally referred to as the personal satisfaction one achieves in
his/her career or one’s job related accomplishments (Orser and Leck, 2010). It is defined as an
individual’s feelings (actual and anticipated) of career-related attainment across a broader time
frame that exceeds one’s immediate job satisfaction as well as a wider range of outcomes (not
objective), such as recognition or sense of identity (Greenhaus, Callanan, & Godshalk, 2000;
Law, Meijers, & Wijers, 2002). The subjective career success is concerned with self-career
related evaluation and internal apprehensions, across any dimensions that are relevant to a person
(Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005). Subjective career success is typically measured using
self-perception of career accomplishments and expected career prospects (Dries et al. 2008).
Individuals evaluate their career success with regard to personal criteria such as their career
aspirations and ambitions. Interpretations of career success vary amongst individuals as well as
their views on career concepts – in terms of direction and frequency of movement within an
organization or any workplace. Examples of other criteria’s for subjective career success are job
satisfaction or career satisfaction (Arnold & Cohen, 2008).
Some studies have confirmed that both objective career success and subjective career success are
interrelated (Judge, Kammeyer-Mueller and Bretz 2004; Ng et al. 2005; Tu et al. 2006). Previous
studies like Gattiker and Larwood (1988), Peluchette (1993), Nabi (2003), Maimunah and
Roziah (2006) and Hennequin (2007) stressed the relevance of examining the subjective career
success together with objective career success as a result of their implications to the quality of
working life and psychological wellbeing of employees. Similarly this study will examine both
subjective and objective measures of career success by measuring the subjective career success
of individual’s in conjunction with their objective attainments as suggested by Heslin (2005).
2.5CAREER CHOICES
For a “career choice” to take place, there are two conditions that needs to be available: firstly, the
availability of an alternative career option and secondly, is the individual preference between the
career options (Agwarla, 2008; Ozbilgin, Kusku and Erdogmus, 2005).
Most researchers are of the opinion that personality traits and demographic variables form the
basis for which individual career choice behaviors are predicted (Ozbilgin, Kusku and
Erdogmus, 2005). Consequently, in an attempt to ascertain career choice influencing factors,
studies have focused largely on the aptitudes, interest, opportunities etc of individuals. Few
research reports that career choices of individuals are often constrained by socio-cultural,
economic and political changes (.Swanson and Gore, 2000; Brown and Associates, 2002;
Sullivan & Baruch, 2009; Wong and Liu, 2010). Hence, career choice is not unbridled
(Agarwala, 2008).
There are numbers of career options available for individuals at any given point in time and they
are likely to be influenced by several factors including external factors (economic status, labor
market etc), individual factors (family background, attitude and cultural values, education etc.),
(Agarwala, 2008; Ozbilgin et al., 2005; Ozkale et al., 2004; Kyriacou et al., 2002). By making
the most of one’s abilities, interests, passions, thoughts and skills, an individual would be
capable of reaching a realistic career choice (Agarwala, 2008). This aligns with the suggestion of
Schein (1978) that the self perception of an individual about his/her needs, values, abilities,
talents, skills and attitude reveals the career that is best fit and matches up with their personality
and the expected outcomes (aspirations) from their career.
Findings from the research conducted by Ng, Burke, and Fiksenbaum, L. (2008) carried out
among MBA students in the US indicated that the national cultures and values were significant
influences the career choice and career prospects of the students. A survey conducted by Monica
and Kate (2005) among information technology students showed that parental education and
choices of career and education played the most significant role in influencing the children's
career choices in information technology field. Likewise, Agarwala (2008) who surveyed among
a population of management students in India concluded that fathers played the most significant
role in influencing the career choice of their child.
Carpenter and Foster (1977) and Beyon et al. (1998) proposed a three dimensional model of
career choices which is one of the most widely used classification in career choices studies. They
divided career choices into; “intrinsic” (e.g. interest in the job, personally satisfying work);
“extrinsic” (e.g. availability of jobs, prestigious or high earning occupations), “interpersonal”
(e.g. parental influence and significant others). A study by Gokuladas (2009) which focused on
the Southern geographic zone of India was conducted among undergraduate engineering student
to determine the factors their first-career choice, indicated that intrinsic reasons was the main
driver for male students career choices while extrinsic reasons had the most influence on female
students. This highlights gender differences in individual career choices. Also, the studies found
that students from urban areas were more likely to be influenced by intrinsic factors whereas
those from the rural/semi urban areas were more likely to be influenced either by extrinsic or
interpersonal reasons
Again, Agarwala (2008) explored the factors influencing management students in India, where
she found out that intrinsic reason such as skills and competencies were the most influencing
factors affecting the first-career choice of students rather than extrinsic or interpersonal reasons.
Another longitudinal study of engineering students by Edvardsson Stiwne (2005) explained that
students are influenced by extrinsic factors e.g. job market conditions
Recent empirical study by Choo, Norsiah and Tan (2012), conducted in a Malaysian
manufacturing plant to determine the factors influencing the career choices among R&D
engineers, found that perceptions of person-job fit and financial rewards were the main factors
that were most influential in their career choice.
2.6 GLASS CEILING
Glass ceiling is a phenomenon mainly used in signifying and explaining an invisible
impenetrable barriers preventing the upward or vertical movement of individuals in the society
or organisation. The ceiling is a metaphorical term that refers to the ceiling preventing
individuals in the minority group (e.g. women) from entering into the labor market and from
gaining access to the top management and senior positions (Tlaiss and Kauser, 2010). The “glass
ceiling” helps to explaining the reasons for the lack of or poor representation in leadership, top
management and decision-making staus (Abidin et.al, 2008). It is mainly used to describe the
difficulties women experience in both reaching executive position in any organization or
climbing to higher societal positions.
An explanation for the glass ceiling concept is considered to be organisational culture and
leadership positions being heavily occupied by men (Cullen and Christopher, 2012). Individuals
especially those in the minority group that are able to get through the front door of managerial
hierarchies still perceive they have to exhibit specific characters(e.g. leadership styles) and take
actions in line with masculine stereotype associated with the qualities of being a good manager
(Powell and Butterfield 2002). Individuals who are aspire to attain senior positions in
corporations (private or public), education and nonprofit organizations are in some cases faced
with impeding factors preventing them achieving their aspirations and succeeding in their
different careers as a result of the glass concept (Lockwood, 2004). Oakely (2000) was of the
opinion that two vital rationalizations were significant for the continuation of glass ceiling in
organizations’ they include: societal cultural and behavioral issues and those related to existing
barriers in organizations.
Another foremost sign of the effects of glass ceiling is gender-biased compensation. Further to
this, a study by the Global Gender Report (2009) on the gender gap between women and men on
economic participation confirmed an existing wide gap, with only 59 per cent of the gap been
closed. Furthermore, a more recent study cited by Okafor, Fagbemi and Hassan (2011) found
that; women failed to progress to senior managerial positions in ratio to their number in the
workplace; negative perception of female superiors from their subordinates; prevalence
unfavorable attitudes of male superiors toward having female in managerial position and a high
probability rate of a female employee not promoted to top executive slot irrespective of her
proven abilities exceeding that of her male counterparts. Characteristics of organizations with
glass ceiling as identified by Fagenson-eland and Parker (1998) as follows: non-supportive
working for female employees, draw attention to gender differences, low female participation in
group or team activities as a result of gender differences, little or no career advancement support
for female employee to prepare them for decision making positions or management positions.
Suggested ways by which glass ceiling can be prevented could be; for organizations to identify
and eradicate the cultural practices that are gender-biased as well as any type of gender prejudice
(seems to be in favor of group of individuals (e.g. men) in the echelons of the organisational
power. Mainiero and Sullivan (2005) in their studies highlighted the need for organizations to
examine the level of balance and security made available to their both male and female employee
so as to ensure professional women get as much experience as their male counterparts. Thus
reducing gender differences and enhancing motivation for female career advancement.
2.7CULTURE
The cultural background of individuals often determines their experiences at early socialisation
and later influences their attitudes and behaviors, which is also reflected in their occupational
roles (Fagenson, 1986; Harragan, 1977; Horner, 1972; Riger and Galligan, 1980; Schein, 1973,
1975). Through this process of socialization, male and female gender acquire their prescribed
role-relate skills and engage in activities that are likely to be required of them so as to be
afforded opportunities and to achieve positive outcomes as deemed necessary (Eagly, Wood and
Diekman, 2000b; Ismail and Ibrahim, 2007).
Omadjohwoefe (2011) in his study of the Nigerian archetype, argued that despite the fact that
gender difference been a human invention, it forms the basis of gender role differentiation which
highlights the female gender as playing an inferior role to the male gender. He further opined
that female employees in highly skilled jobs are highly regarded, but nonetheless, they faced
difficulties in moving upwards the ladder or to certain high ranking position in Nigeria; which is
mainly attributed to the sharp believes and traditional practices inherent in the existing largely
stereotypic value system .
Agbalajobi (2010) pointed out that notwithstanding the vital roles played by women in Nigeria
(mother, time manager, social and political activists) and their population in the country, they are
not given the desired recognition in addition to the fact that they are in most cases discriminated
against. This is also attributed to the cultural stereotypes, sharp believes, traditional practices as
already identified by Omadjohwoefe (2011). Consequently, the patriarchal societal structure
existent in the country tends to place women at a disadvantage. With limited success achieved
thus far in eradicating these negative stereotypical believes and practices, the career
advancement opportunities for female employees in Nigeria is adversely affected
(Omadjohwoefe, 2011).
2.7.1 GENDER STEREOTYPE
Stereotypes are cognitive schema and clusters of perceived personality traits applied to social
groupings (DeLamater and Myers, 2007). Stereotypes is the notion that certain members of a
group will possess the traits and behavioral characteristics that are attributes and expected of
individual members of that group(Cleveland et al.,2000; Bono and Duehr 2006). Gender is
strongly linked to the concern of stereotyping and refers to the socially constituted inter-
relationships between both sexes. Gender stereotypes reflect shared social beliefs, values and
norms that dictate the characteristics and behaviors (roles) which are ascribed to individuals
(men and women) based on their gender or sex (Eagly and Carli, 2003). Danziger and Eden
(2007) argued that the gender differences between male and females does have a significant
influential impact on the eventual career accomplishment, despite both sexes possessing the
same academic and education level.
Research in social psychology (Desert & Leyens, 2006; Smith & Bond, 1999; Williams & Best,
1986) has shown that stereotypical beliefs are widely shared and present in all cultures that have
been studied. For example, a study conducted by North-Samardzic and Taksa (2011) to examine
the impact of gender culture on women’s career trajectories in the Australian finance sector
argues that there is a significant influence of gender culture in some organizations that imposes
pressure on women to comply with masculine behavioral norms.
While interviewing women in Australia, Anne Ross-Smith (2009) found evidence that women
were reticent and ambivalent to promotions in their career and this was having a negative impact
on their career advancement. The evidence was also in line with previous studies conducted by
Powell and Butterfield (2003) which found that the career aspirations to top management of male
university students in the US was significantly higher compared to female students in the same
study. Wellington, Kropf and Gerkovich (2003) highlighted the findings of a research conducted
in the US by Catalyst, an orgainsation focused on improving opportunities for women in
business, which found evidence that women had a low desire to advance to senior level positions
which also acted as a barrier to their career progression into decision making or more senior roles
in their respective careers.
A research in Scotland conducted by Gammie et al. (2008) in Six big accounting orgainsations
showed that women had a different attitude may have a negative impact on their career
progression, they further proposed that such attitudes may be as a result of inherent factors in the
female gender. Further, evidence indicated that the women in the orgainsations appear to lack the
drive and ambition compared to their male peers. The women described the men as confident,
career-oriented and ambitious, whereas describing themselves as hardworking, loyal and
dedicated. Furthermore, the study also found that the accounting firms maintained a macho
culture in respect to long working hours which tend to a problematic issue for female employees
with family who are trying to balance their work and private life.
The lack of drive and ambition attitude of the female employees indicated above in the
accounting profession appeared to be a reaffirmation of previous research findings carried out by
Gammie et al. (1997) where the study found that women in comparison to men had a lower
expectation or prospects of being promoted to partner within an interval of five yrs. When asked
of their promotion prospects, 93% of men had expected to be promoted while 73% of women
expected to be promoted. Thus, indicating lower career progression expectations of women.
In line with the attitude of women found in the research above, a recent study by Dolan,
Bejarano and Tzafric, (2011), conducted to explore the effect of gender in the relationship
between individuals’ aspirations and career success among male and female engineers in Peru
indicated a positive relationship between the individual career aspirations and career success for
the male, but not necessarily for females. Female participants were more interested with secure
career orientations with a preference for a balance between work and family than the men, thus
reflecting and confirming the significant difference gender does make.
2.7.2 OCCUPATIONAL GENDER STEREOTYPE
Occupations are been perceived as being performed principally by male and females and thus
requiring feminine or masculine attributes in order for an individual to be effective in fulfilling
that role (Gurgao, ca2006). Further studies confirms that certain class of jobs/occupations are
been created which are subject to societal stereotypes as a result of sex segregation (Gutek 1988
in Miller, Neather, Pollard and Hill 2004a cited Gurgao ca2006).
Schein’s (1975) early work highlights that the characteristics and skills required for the
managerial position in orgainsations was ascribed closely to the male sex without a recognition
of the need to judge on the basis of individual merits, thereby sex-typing the role as a male
occupation (Schein, 1973, 1975, 2001, 2006; Schein et al., 1989). Studies by Lyness and
Heilman (2006), Wood (2008) and Schein (1975) demonstrates that there is a perceived
incongruity between the attributes stereotypically considered to be necessary to fulfill the roles
that are sex-typed as male, and the attributes that are ascribed to men and women. Attributes
such as strength in decision making, desiring responsibility, forcefulness, ambition and
objectivity are often assumed to reside in men, and these qualities are commonly considered to
be necessary fulfill roles sex-typed as male; examples of such roles are management and
leadership positions. However, qualities such as supportive, affiliation, nurturing and relationship
oriented are ascribed to females, and these attributes are historically perceived as not suited and
associated with the decision-making role of management and leadership. Previous studies
spanning three decades have shown that management role is strongly associated with a male
gender type, hence giving more confidence to male managers and management student alike of
achieving managerial success (Schein, 2001). Research studies have confirmed the prevalence of
such gender stereotypical views and gender prejudice which are in favor of the male gender are
in the higher echelons of organisational power and are capable of exerting significant influence
on the career progression of females in the work place. For example, wood (2008), in her study
of gender stereotypical attitudes on women career advancement in Australia, found that
management roles were gender stereotyped, which thereby influencing attitudes toward the
appropriateness of females in management and leadership roles. This study further confirms that
of Schein (1973, 1975), which reported that management roles are seen as more appropriate for a
male, and such gender stereotypical attitudes were instrumental in impeding the career
prospects of females gaining entry into management role.
2.8CONCLUSION
Careers unfold over time and career success is measured using either subjective (intrinsic) or
objective (extrinsic) career components. Although, each of the components are interdependent,
previous research studies confirms that the duality of both career success measures (subjective
and objective) make each relevant to the other and influence each other over time. Thus, most
career researchers have argued the importance of considering and assessing both perspectives of
career as the depth of the career success construct can be better seen from looking through both
lenses at the same time.
The criteria mainly used by research studies for objective career success includes salary or
income, promotions and hierarchical or occupational status. While the most common criteria of
subjective success is one’s interpretation or assessment of career achievement and experience,
for instance, career or job satisfaction and comparative judgments (Arnold & Cohen, 2008). As
suggested by career researchers (e.g., Arthur,Khapova, & Wilderom, 2005; Heslin, 2005) this
research would assess both the subjective and objective career success using criteria from each of
both career aspects.
It was also found that individuals had different perception of the conception of career and career
success. Further finding also supported the idea of gendered careers. Female employees were
more motivated by subjective (intrinsic) aspects of the job while their male counterparts were
motive by the extrinsic (objective) aspects of the job (Groeneveld, 2009). This highlights the
relevance of comparing the subjective and objective career perceptions of both male and female
in the case study of this research to confirm the idea of gendered careers and further assess if this
would have a possible influence on the career progression of female employees.
The literature review further revealed that individual career aspirations are truly intrinsic and is a
significant influence on the direction of one’s career. Research confirmed that successful
managers from different organizations attributed their success to strong desire and motivation to
succeed. The research further indicated that they possessed strong beliefs, values and interest that
were in conformance to their career aspirations (Rasdi et al 2009). Thus, confirming that
individual career aspirations are significant to career behavior of an individual which at the long
run determines one’s career success. This would aid the objective of this study in finding out if
female employees possess a strong or low desire to succeed and aspire to progress in their career;
and to find evidence if a low desire or lack of aspiration may act as a barrier to their career
progression.