Serkan SAYINER, DVM PhD, Assist. Prof.Near East University
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Department of Biochemistry
Bioelements
Most of the minerals available in the organism structure
are found in nature.
In particular, the closeness between the sea water and
the cytoplasm in terms of mineral composition is
considered as proof of the life beginning in the sea.
In living organisms, C, H, O, N participates the organic
structure together with Ca, P, Mg, K, Na, Cl, S, Fe, Cu,
Co, Zn, Mn, Cr, Mo, F, Sn, I, B, As, Br, Si, Ni and Al.
Bioelements
Ca, P, Mg, K, Na, Cl and S are found in larger amounts in the organism than other elements and their blood levels are expressed in % mg or mg/dl. These elements are called macro elements (major elements or major minerals).
Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, Mn, Cr, Mo, F, Se and I are present in smaller quantities (% μg or µg/dl). These elements are called Trace Elements (Micro/Catalytic/Trace elements or minerals).◦ Trace elements function with enzymes, hormones and vitamins.
Bioelements
Disorders caused by the inadequacy or toxicity of
minerals -especially trace elements- in the animals, have
gained great importance; Especially in the livestock
economy in recent years.
It is absolutely necessary to take them together with
foodstuff or feeds.
Bioelements
The forms of minerals in diet/ration should not damage
the digestive system, be in a form suitable for
absorption, and be available for metabolism.
Mineral requirements should be carefully defined while
preparing diet and ration.
Mineral substances are involved in the structure of many
tissues in organisms.
Bioelements
In particular, the functions of trace elements in cell
metabolism vary widely. Some are;◦ Acid-base balance,
◦ Osmotic pressure and membrane permeability of body fluids and
tissues,
◦ Formation of tissue sensitivity,
◦ Nerve impulse transmission,
◦ Essential for some hormone and enzyme functions,
◦ It is very important in terms of growth and livestock production-
efficiency and fulfillment of life functions of living thing.
Bioelements
The requirement of the organism for mineral substances and trace elements depends on the influence of various factors. Energy and mineral balance is a very important concept especially in animals with high performance.
Some factors determine the daily requirements of animals, such as trace element content of soil, water and feedstuffs, absorption patterns in the digestive tract, interaction between trace elements during absorption, storage conditions in the body and the animal’s characteristics.
Bioelements
Mineral deficiencies or
excesses in some regions
of the world are seen and
it is directly related to
soil structure.
Bioelements
Source: Judson and Reuter, 1999.
Source: Wiki
Macroelements Trace Elements Ultra Trace Elements
Calcium (Ca) Iron (Fe) Chromium (Cr)
Phosphorus (P) Zinc (Zn) Fluorine (F)
Magnesium (Mg) Cupper (Cu) Molybdenum (Mo)
Sodium (Na) Manganese (Mn) Nickel (Ni)
Chlorine (Cl) Selenium (Se) Boron (B)
Potassium (K) Iodine (I) Arsenic (As)
Sulfur (S) Cobalt (Co) Vanadium (V)
Bromine (Br)
Silicon (si)
Lead (Pb)
Lithium (Li)
Tin (Sn)
Aluminum (Al)
Common elements found in the body
Colorimetric-Photometric
Ion-selective electrode-ISE
Flame photometry
Fluorometry
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS)
Emission Spectroscopy(ES)
Inductively Coupled Plasma-Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-ES)
Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)
Ion Chromatography (IC)
Analysis Techniques
Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, Cl, S
MACRO ELEMENTS
It is present in the nature together with carbonate (CO3) and phosphate (PO4) anions within the soilcontent.
Calcium (Ca)
◦ It easily dissolves in water with CO2 effect and passes through plants.
◦ So, the living beings fed with grass take the adequate amounts.
◦ Drinking water is also a good source of calcium for humans and animals if not too soft.
1,4 - 2,6% of the animal body consists of calcium.
99% of this calcium is in the form of hydroxyapatite in
the skeletal system.
Developing animals, pregnant animals, laying hens and
lactating animals have to take Ca in abundance.
Calcium (Ca)
For a balanced diet, Ca and P must be taken in
appropriate proportions in foods. This ratio (Ca:P)
varies between animals.
The ratio is usually 2:1, while in chickens it is 5:1 or 7:1. ◦ The stated ratios are for the content of the ration.
Ca ingested with food are dissolved from other molecules
in the stomach by the reaction of gastric HCl.
Calcium (Ca)
Ca++ ions passes from the stomach into the intestine and
there combined with the free fatty acids. As a result, the
calcium soaps formed and are absorbed from the small
intestine by forming emulsions of bile acids into small
pieces of emulsions.
The effect of low pH, citrate presence and vitamin D
increases Ca absorption . Vitamin D provides absorption
of calcium from the intestines by increasing calcium-
binding protein (CaBP) synthesis.
Calcium (Ca)
Ca requirement causes parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion. PTH activates the enzyme 1-hydroxylase. This enzyme enables the 1,25 dihydroxy cholecalciferol (1,25-(OH)2D3) synthesized in the kidney to become active.
1,25-dihydroxy D3 stimulates the absorption of calcium from the intestines and at the same time the Ca mobilization from the bones to blood.
Ca is found mostly in teeth and bones in organism.◦ The bones are a very good Ca deposit. Even if the Ca is not taken for
a while, the body needs can be provided from the bones.
Calcium (Ca)
Source: Youtube
In blood serum, Ca exists in three forms.
1. Ionize Calcium (Free calcium, iCa++) (% 45-60)
2. A diffusible form attached to citric, carbonic and phosphoric
acids (%5)
3. Calcium proteinate, non-diffusible form bound to plasma
proteins (% 35-50)
Calcium (Ca)
Ionized calcium is physiologically active form.
The multiplication of %mg amounts of calcium and
inorganic phosphorus present in serum in domestic
animals and humans is 36 under normal conditions.
If the rate drops below 30; rickets in young people and
osteomalacia in older people can be seen.
Calcium (Ca)
Functions of calcium;
◦ Joins the structure of bones and teeth.
◦ Reduces the permeability of blood vessel walls and cell
membranes
◦ It is necessary for muscle contractions and the stimulation of
nerves.
◦ It plays critical role in the coagulation of the blood and milk.
◦ It acts in the activation of some enzymes (lipase, ATPase,
succinic dehydrogenase).
Calcium (Ca)
Molecules responsible for the regulation of
blood calcium concentration;
1. Parathyroid hormone/Parathormone (PTH)
2. Calcitonin (CT)
3. Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol)
Calcium (Ca)
Parathyroid hormone (PTH): The main hormone involved
in the regulation of blood calcium level. It,◦ Directly affects the target cells on the bone and kidney,
indirectly on the intestine.
◦ Increases the blood Ca concentration.
◦ Decreases the blood P level.
◦ Improves tubular reabsorption of calcium and increases urinary
excretion of phosphate .
◦ Increases osteolysis and the number of osteoclasts at the bone
surface.
Calcium (Ca)
◦ Increases urinary excretion of type-1 collagen metabolites such
as hydroxyproline and collagen telopeptides.
◦ Activates adenylate cyclase or stimulates increased intracellular
calcium concentration in target cells.
◦ Accelerates the formation of active vitamin D metabolites and
the most important task is to mobilize calcium from bone to
extracellular fluid.
Calcium (Ca)
Calcitonin (CT): It is released from thyroid-C cells in
response to hypercalcemia. ◦ This results in the development of hypocalcemia or
hypophosphatemia at various degrees.
◦ Especially by affecting the target cells found in bone and kidney
its biological function reveals.
◦ PTH and CT are antagonist hormones on bone resorption.
However, in renal tubules, they have synergistic effects; reduce
phosphorus reabsorption.
◦ CT reduces calcium's mobilization from bone to plasma. Its
activity is not dependent on vitamin D.
Calcium (Ca)
Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol): It is also considered as a
hormone.◦ The active form is 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3.
◦ Increases the Ca and P absorption from the intestine, allowing
the proper mineralization of bone matrix and ensures a certain
balance in extracellular fluid.
◦ In small quantities vitamin D3 is necessary for PTH to exert its
effect on bone.
◦ The target cells of active vitamin D3 are the intestinal mucosa
cells. Increase active transcellular calcium transport .
Calcium (Ca)
Serum concentration can be measured by techniques such as colorimetric, AAS, ICP-MS. ◦ Arsenazo III, glyoxal-bis
◦ It is expressed in mg/dL in plasma.
Hypocalcemia: It is low calcium levels in the blood serum.
Calcium (Ca)Serum Calcium concentration
SpeciesNormal values
(mg/dL)
Human 8,00 – 12,00
Cattle 9,70 – 12,40
Dog 9,00 – 11,30
Cat 6,20 – 10,20
Horse 12,40 ± 0,58
◦ Reasons; PTH insufficiency, chronic renal failure,
hypoproteinemia, rickets, osteomalacia, milk fever in cows,
ketosis, acute pancreatitis, Vitamin D deficiency.
Hypercalcemia : Increase in blood
calcium concentration.
◦ Reasons: Mostly neoplastic conditions.
Parathyroid adenoma, multiple
myeloma, excessive Ca absorption
(Hipervitaminosis D), Addison's
disease.
Calcium (Ca)Serum Calcium concentration
SpeciesNormal values
(mg/dL)
Human 8,00 – 12,00
Cattle 9,70 – 12,40
Dog 9,00 – 11,30
Cat 6,20 – 10,20
Horse 12,40 ± 0,58
Calcium(Ca)
Milk FeverOsteomalacia
Dog rickets
Source: Youtube
The formation of eggshell in chickens is also related to
Ca metabolism. ◦ Carbon dioxide, which is formed as a result of calcium-induced
metabolism events (especially carbohydrate metabolism), reacts
with water and bicarbonate anions revealing the calcium
carbonate structured eggshell.
◦ If the chickens do not take as much Ca as they do, they
continue to build egg shells by supplementing from bones for a
while.
Calcium (Ca)
◦ Even if the eggshell is thin or laying once a week, they will
definitely continue to laying with an eggshell.
◦ However, after a while they become unstable due to Ca
emptying.
◦ Decrease in egg production at very high temperatures; this is
because of the increased number of respiration in animals, so
they exert more CO2 and are not able to produce CaCO3.
Calcium (Ca)
Phosphates, pyrophosphates and triphosphates from these are of greatest interest to the organism.
It is also found in milk and dairy products in significant quantities.◦ In addition, phosphoric acid is formed by the combination of
alkaline and earth alkaline, esters formed with inorganic salts, alcohols, phosphates mixed with some amino acids, mixed with various kinds of nutrients are good sources.
Phosphorus (P)
It exists as phosphorus compounds commonly
found in the soil.
0,75-1,10% of animal body consists of inorganic
phosphorus.
More than 80% of this phosphorus in the body is found in
hydroxyapatite form in the skeletal system.
The remainder is intracellular in soft tissues.◦ Phosphate has intracellular main anion and has organic
(phospholipids, nucleic acids, ATP, phosphoproteins) and
inorganic forms.
◦ It has important roles in many metabolic processes (for
example: energy metabolism, delivery of oxygen to tissues,
muscle contraction, and skeletal integrity).
Phosphorus (P)
Phosphorus requirement causes parathormone
(PTH) secretion.
PTH activates the enzyme 24-hydroxylase by
inhibiting the enzyme 1-hydroxylase, which helps
calcium to be absorbed from the gut. This activates
the absorption of phosphorus from the intestines.
Phosphorus (P)
The ester phosphates that pass into the bloodstream pass
into the skeletal system and are stored.
In the bone cells, circulating ester phosphates are
degraded by the phosphatase enzyme and converted into
inorganic phosphate ions.
Inorganic phosphates combine with the calcium ion and
become insoluble tertiary calcium phosphate.◦ Minor magnesium phosphate can also be present. Bones are
considered to be a very good phosphate deposit. Ionize in case
of need and give phosphate to blood.
Phosphorus (P)
A large proportion (90%) of the phosphate in the body is found in bones as tertiary calcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite {3Ca3(PO4) 2Ca(OH) 2}
Inorganic phosphorus is present in the form of phosphate in serum. There is no inorganic phosphorus in the blood cells.
If inorganic phosphorus is not detected in the serum in a short time and if it is delayed, the organically bound phosphorus in the serum becomes enzymatically converted to free inorganic phosphorus over time and the serum inorganic phosphorus values are determined to be higher than normal.
Phosphorus (P)
Functions;◦ Join the structure of bones and teeth.
◦ It is responsible for keeping the pH value of blood at a
certain level.
◦ Provides the maintenance of normal blood Ca
concentration.
◦ Important in accumulating and transferring energy in
the required areas and also in carbohydrate
metabolism.
Phosphorus (P)
The inorganic phosphate excreted from the body into the
urine and with trace amounts in the stool.
As a result of urinary sedimentation while excretation,
phosphate sand and stones can be formed.
Serum levels are measured using colorimetric-
photometric methods.◦ The main principle of these methods is the formation of the
phosphate complex with molybdate.
◦ It is expressed in mg/dL, blood.
Phosphorus (P)
Hypophosphatemia◦ In the case of phosphorus
insufficiency, the amount of inorganic phosphorus in the blood falls, lack of appetite arises and milk yielddecreases in cows.
◦ In advanced cases, chewing bone andeating carcasses are seen.
◦ In chronic cases, rickets in young people and osteomalacia like bone formation disorders in adults are encountered.
◦ Bones break up in long-running events.
Phosphorus (P)Serum Phosphorus concentration
SpeciesNormal values
(mg/dL)
Human 2,00 – 8,00
Cattle 5.60 – 6,50
Dog 9,00 – 11,30
Cat 4,50 – 8,10
Horse 2.10 – 4.20
Hyperphosphatemia◦ Increase in serum phosphorus concentration occurs especially in
acute and chronic renal failure and in catabolic stress
conditions.
◦ Reasons;◦ GFR drop,
◦ Phosphorus deficient diets,
◦ D-hypervitaminosis,
◦ Osteolytic bone disease,
◦ Intensive cell destruction (chemotherapy),
◦ Hypoparathyroidism with normal glomerular filtration,
◦ Drug therapy (anabolic steroids, furosemide),
◦ Ethylene glycol poisoning, Hypersomatotropism
Phosphorus (P)
It is found plentiful in nature; seeds and green
plants. There is also a considerable amount of
magnesium in meat, milk and seafood.◦ Organism is found mostly in the bones (~70%) then
in the muscles and nerves. The concentration in the
tissues is higher than in the liquids.
Magnesium (Mg)
◦ In general, 70% of the body's magnesium is in the bone, while
the remaining 30% is in the soft tissues and fluid.◦ Ex. While blood plasma is 2-4% mg, this amount is 6% mg in erythrocytes.
The bone is present as 1.5% magnesium phosphate {Mg3(PO4)2}. Soft
tissues contain 3-5 times magnesium by weight of calcium.
On average 30-50% of Mg is absorbed from small intestine. It
can be absorbed in large quantities in ruminant rumen. ◦ Excessive amounts of Ca, P, oxalic acid, phytate and long chain
saturated fatty acids adversely affect Mg absorption. Absorption is
increased by protein, lactose, vitamin D, growth hormone and
antibiotics. With age, absorption is reduced. Can be reabsorbed from
the kidneys.
Absorption happens with 3 mechanisms; 1. Paracellular diffusion,
2. The paracellular solvent withdrawal,
3. Transcellular active transport.
Magnesium (Mg)
Excreted from the body in three ways.◦ Gastrointestinal tract: Most of the discarded Mg is found in
feces. Malabsorption syndrome, enteropathies and cholestatic
liver diseases increase intestinal loss of Mg.
◦ Breast gland throughout lactation: The mammary gland
actively secretes Mg into milk. The average ratio of milk Mg and
serum Mg is 5:1. The output of Mg within milk is 3-6 mg/kg/day,
and in lactating animals the need is 20-50 mg/kg/day.
Magnesium (Mg)
◦ Kidney: The kidney plays a major role in regulation of
Mg balance and its serum concentration. It does this
by reabsorbing it on the part of Ascending limb of loop
of Henle. The rate of this reabsorption is regulated by
the suitability of dietary Mg, some hormones, serum Ca
and Mg concentrations and excretion of urine Ca.
Its concentration in blood is expressed in mg/dL.◦ Measured colorimetrically using the Xylidyl blue Method.
Magnesium (Mg)
Functions;◦ It plays a role in the formation of the bone together with
calcium and phosphorus.
◦ It is required for many enzyme systems (e.g. ATPase decarboxylase, acyl transferase, kinase, arginase). ◦ Inhibits myosinin ATPase activity in muscle contraction. In contrast,
actomyosin stimulates adenosine triphosphate activity. As a result, Mg acts as an enzyme activator, i.e. as a cofactor (ATP, ADP) in carbohydratemetabolism and protein digestion (peptidases).
◦ It plays a vital role in the normal functioning of the muscular and nervous system.
◦ Extracellularly involved in the construction and degradation of acetylcholine.
Magnesium (Mg)
Blood magnesium values are easily
maintained at a constant level
under normal conditions. Because
the Mg requirements are relatively
low.
Hypomagnesemia: It is a decrease
in blood Mg concentration. ◦ Clinical disorders related to Mg failure
are common in cattle and sheep.
Magnesium (Mg)Serum Mg concentration
SpeciesNormal values
(mg/dL)
Human 2,00 – 4,00
Cattle 4,60 – 7,30
Dog 1,80 – 2,40
Cat 1,90 – 2,70
Horse 2.10 – 4.20
Causes of Hypomagnesemia;◦ Gastro-intestinal diseases with impaired absorption
◦ Excessive Mg excretion in the urine due to continuous use of
diuretic drugs in undernutrition of protein
◦ Various ration errors related to nitrogen levels in ruminants
◦ Kidney diseases
◦ Liver cirrhosis
◦ Some osteomalacia, arthrosis and inflammatory rheumatism
◦ Endocrine disorders (hyperparathyroidism, lack of intestinal
absorption, hypothyroid, parenteral thyroxine injection, etc.)
Magnesium (Mg)
Hypomagnesemia;◦ At an advanced Mg insufficiency or a
low Mg/Ca ratio, excess
acetylcholine is released and the
tetanic indication appears related to
Mg deficiency. This event is known as
«Grass Tetany or Grass staggers».
◦ The coexistence of moderate
hypocalcemia causes grass tetany to
be similar to the milk fever. High
protein detection in bovine tetany is
an important criterion in diagnosis.
Magnesium (Mg)
Source: Irish Farmer Journals
Source: Youtube
Hypermagnesemia: is an increase in blood Mg
concentration. ◦ Over levels can be dangerous consequences.
◦ Hypermagnesemia together with uremia is associated with
kidney diseases.
◦ In hypothyroidism, mixed edema and addison disease;
hypermagnesemia are happened.
◦ Elevation of the blood Mg level causes a depressive effect on
the central nervous system (CNS), leading to heart disorders and
hypotension.
Magnesium (Mg)
Na is found most in the sea water. People do not go to
the lack of this element because of their salt intake.
It is found in plants such as carrots, cauliflowers, celery,
spinach, as well as in animal-derived foods such as eggs,
milk and dairy products.◦ Because it is easily soluble in water, it is transported from the
earth to the sea by rain. For this reason, the plants growing on
the ground are poor sources.
It is mostly found in cartilage, skin and lungs. Na is an
extracellular element.
Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)
K is found abundantly in soil and in plants. Abundant in
apricot, peach, banana, orange, potato, cabbage and in
animal origin foods such as veal, poultry and liver.
It is found in muscle, liver, brain and erythrocytes in
living beings.
K is an intracellular element.
Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)
Cl is found especially in the water, but in plants less. It is in
the form of sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride
(KCl).
The organism is mainly absorbed in the form of NaCl.
In organism, chlorine is found in tissues less than in liquids.
Absorb chlorine from the intestine is delivered extracellular
fluids and tissues which contain excess fluid, less protein.
Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)
All three elements are absorbed from the small intestine.
Deficiencies can be seen especially in herbivores.
During the feeding of cattle, the licking stones (licking
salt block) that contain salt are put in front of them. This
ensures that the sodium, potassium balance in the food is
provided.
Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)
Functions; 1. There are effects on normal osmotic pressure and on the
maintenance of acid base balance and the transport of blood gases.
2. They are effective on the ability of plasma proteins to bind water and also allow the precipitation of globulins in blood plasma.
3. Na and Cl ions are important in maintaining muscle and nerve stimulation at normal levels. They serve as antagonists of Ca and Mg ions in this direction.
4. Digestive secretions such as pancreatic secretion and bile, the adjacent Na and K compounds play an important role, and the free HCl secretion in the stomach is produced from NaCl.
5. In addition, K ions are required in certain metabolic reactions. For example; Transphosphorylation.
Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)
Their blood values are expressed in
mmol/L or mEq/L.
Hyponatremia: Decreased blood Na
levels.◦ Reasons: Water intoxication, chronic
kidney failure, burns, diarrhea,
vomiting, severe sweating
Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)
Serum Na concentration
SpeciesNormal values
(mmol/L)
Cattle 138,00 – 147,00
Dog 139,00 – 150,00
Cat 147,00 – 162,00
Horse 136,00 – 145,00
Hypernatremia: Increased blood Na levels.◦ Reasons: Dehydration, excessive work of the adrenal gland
Hypokalemia: Decreased blood K
levels.◦ Reasons: Chronic kidney failure, vverload
of the adrenal gland, use of diuretic
drugs, paralysis in skeletal muscles,
structural defects in heart.
◦ Hypokalemia syndrome in cattle
Hyperkalemia: Increased blood K
levels.◦ Reasons: Common tissue destruction,
adrenal insufficiency, tetany
Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)Serum K concentration
SpeciesNormal values
(mmol/L)
Cattle 3,80 – 5,20
Dog 3,40 – 4,90
Cat 2,90 – 4,20
Horse 2,60 – 4,50
Severe hypokalemia, muscle weakness and lateral lying
(Peek ve ark., 2000)
Hyperchloremia: Increased blood Cl levels.◦ Reasons: Excessive isotonic serum application, diarrhea,
kidney disorders, overwork of the parathyroid gland, some
medications (diuretics).
Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorine (Cl)Serum Cl concentration
SpeciesNormal
values(mmol/L)
Cattle 92,00 – 102,00
Dog 105,00 – 116,00
Cat 113,00 – 123,00
Horse 96,00 – 105,00
Hypochloremia: Decreased blood Cl
levels. It is seen rarely with other
element deficiencies. ◦ Reasons: Respiratory acidosis, metabolic
alkalosis, vomiting, cystic fibrosis.
In Nature; Sulfhydryl, disulfide, methylthio forms are
joined to the amino acids and thus it is used by humans
and animals.
In organism; All proteins include S; such as hair, feathers,
horns and nails, tendon, mucin, bile, saliva secrets,
hormones such as insulin, vitamins such as thiamin and
biotin, coenzyme A and enzymes such as triose phosphate
dehydrogenase and succinic dehydrogenase.
Sulfur (S)
Sulfur enters the digestive tract in two ways.1. Inorganic form (Na, K, Mg sulfate form): This sulfur is directly
absorbed from the intestine.
2. In the organic form (sulfur in the form of sulfur linked to some
amino acids in proteins, for example methionine, cystine,
cysteine): This sulfur is also absorbed in sulfuric amino acids
after the proteins are hydrolyzed in the intestine and
hydrolyzed to amino acids.
Excretion; Mainly leaving the body with hair loss, urine,
nails, digestive secretions and saliva .
Sulfur (S)
Functions;◦ Most organic sulphate is oxidized by inorganic sulphate and
passes into the blood circulation.
◦ It is used by liver to synthesize a variety of sulfur containing
organic substances, for example, amino acids, heparin.
◦ Some of the inorganic sulphates are used in the detoxification of
toxic molecules (cresol, diphenol, indoxyl, etc.) of the spoilage
products from the intestines.
◦ Steroid hormones, such as androgens and estrogens, are also
conjugated to sulphate during metabolism.
Sulfur (S)
Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, Mn, Mo, F, Cr, Se, I
TRACE ELEMENTS
It is found abundantly in dark colored soil.
Herbivorous animals can provide as much of
their needs from plants.
It is always found in the water. There is
almost no iron in the milk.
The best sources are; liver, kidney, heart, egg
yolks, fish, beans, spinach, wheat-oat flour,
dates, walnuts and molasses .
Iron (Fe)
Iron (Fe)
Heme-A
The iron is an essential element in
the structure of porphyrin
complex, Heme, (the
hemoproteins= Hb and Mb) and
iron-storing proteins (ferritin and
hemosiderin).
All living cells need iron.
Iron (Fe)
In many biological processes, it has important roles. ◦ For example, it is found in the structure of enzymes
(cytochromes, peroxidases).
◦ Free iron is toxic to the body.
◦ Free iron catalyzes the synthesis of free radicals from molecular
oxygen and hydrogen ions. This leads to poor results.
◦ Therefore, in order to prevent the toxicity of free iron, it must
bind to various proteins.
Because of it can not be removed, the organism does not
benefit from the complex organic iron (in the form of
enzymes) present in large quantities in the meat and
plants and found in the porphine complex.
However, vegetable and internal organs (liver, spleen,
kidney) with inorganic iron, is converted to iron chloride
by the action of gastric acid (HCl) in the stomach and
absorbed from the small intestine.
Iron (Fe)
All of the iron in the organism is about 4-5 grams and 75%
of Fe is porphyrin-bound.
55% of the Porphyrin-bound iron present in the
hemoglobin, and also, ◦ 16% ,n enzymes (especially respiration)
◦ 7% in myoglobin,
◦ 20% in ferritin which is the stored state (easily ionizable
inorganic form) and,
◦ 3% in transferrin in the plasma (which is transport state).
Iron (Fe)
Formation in the body;1. Hemoglobin: Most iron is present as hemoglobin in
erythrocytes. It forms 2/3 of the total amount in the body.
2. Iron in storage: It is stored in two forms. The first is diffuse,
soluble ferritin. Insoluble in the other, whole stored
hemosiderin. The organs that store the most iron are the liver
and the spleen. These are followed by kidney, heart, skeletal
muscles and brain, respectively.
3. Myoglobin: It resembles a subunit of hemoglobin and is found
in the muscles. Each molecule contains one atom of iron.
Iron (Fe)
4. Tissue iron compound : Although the amount of iron in this
section is very low, it is very important. Most of the enzymes
that work in the TCA cycle contain iron or require iron as a
cofactor. Hem-containing compounds: Hemoglobin and myoglobin have similar
structures. Catalases, peroxidases and cytochromes are found in this
group. Cytochromes a, b and c are found in mitochondria and are very
important in oxidative phosphorylation.
Not Hem-iron containing enzymes: Xanthine oxidase, cytochrome c
reductase, succinate dehydrogenase, NAD dehydrogenase.
Enzymes that require ıron or heme as cofactors: Aconitase and
tryptophan pyrolaz.
Enzymes containing iron in an unknown form: Ribonucleotide
reductase and α-glycerophosphate.
Iron (Fe)
5. Circulating iron: Iron is transported through the plasma
transferrin between the various compartments in the body.
Transferrin is a glycoprotein. Each molecule can connect two
iron atoms.
The iron scraped with the foods is solved with HCl effect.
Under the influence of various reducing agents, it is
reduced to Fe++ (ferrous) salts and absorbed. Fe+++ (ferric)
salts are difficult to absorb.
Iron (Fe)
Fe absorption substantially controlled by intestinal
mucosa and absorption is only performed if Fe is
required.
The Fe found in hemoglobin structure is separated from
by the reticuloendothelial system cells, which are
released by the breakdown of erythrocytes. One part is
stored in the liver and spleen. Remain is transported to
the bone narrow to be used in the re-construction of the
remaining hemoglobin.
Iron (Fe)
Functions;◦ Fe in the hemoglobin structure allows the atmospheric oxygen
to loosely connect to the depths of the tissues.
◦ Fe in myoglobin of muscles stores oxygen that comes with
hemoglobin.
◦ It acts as an Fe redox (oxidoreduction) mediator in the
structure of various coenzymes.
Colorimetric techniques commonly used in the analysis
and blood value is expressed in µg/dL or µmol/L.
Iron (Fe)
Inadequacy: The overall cause is lack
of nutrition. In addition, impaired
absorption or excessive loss(stomach-
intestine bleeds) may cause.
Individuals with iron deficiency : ◦ Plasma ferritin falls.
◦ Plasma transferrin and TIBC (total iron
binding capacity) increase.
◦ Plasma iron drops.
◦ Anemia develops.
Iron (Fe)Serum Fe Concentration
SpeciesNormal values
(µmol/L)
Cattle 14,90 - 36,70
Dog 5,37 – 32,20
Cat 12,20 – 38,50
Horse 13,40 – 36,90
A microcytic, hypochromic
anemia is characteristic.
The iron deposits in the
bone marrow aspirate is
not available.
In general, the
measurement of plasma
ferritin is a good diagnostic
test for iron deficiency.
Iron (Fe)
Source: Hematoloji atlası
Microcytic hypochromic anemia
Excess: This condition is less
common than iron deficiency.
Reasons;◦ High intake and absorption.
◦ It concerns the toxic effects of free iron.
◦ Iron parenteral administration, repeated
blood transfusions.
◦ Idiopathic (genetic) hemochromatosis.
Iron (Fe)Serum Fe Concentration
SpeciesNormal values
(µmol/L)
Cattle 14,90 - 36,70
Dog 5,37 – 32,20
Cat 12,20 – 38,50
Horse 13,40 – 36,90
It is found abundantly in the land, especially in
nutritional plants. ◦ Dried chickpeas, pods, walnuts, hazelnuts and leafy
vegetables contain adequate amounts. Other than
that, the liver and the milk are rich in Cu.
Copper (Cu)
Cu taken with food is absorbed from the intestine. Cuabsorbtion are hindered by Mo and inorganic sulphates.
The most important part of plasma Cu is a protein calledceruloplasmin (an enzyme).
One of the most important functions of copper in mammals is the role of erythropoiesis.
It is required for hemoglobin synthesis.
It is the co-factor of some enzymes. For example: cytochrome a, catalase, SOD (superoxide dismutase), ceruloplasmin
A substance called hemocyanin, which replaces hemoglobin in cephalopods and serpents, is involved in the transport of oxygen in these animals.
Copper (Cu)
Insufficiency: It causes various disorders in various
species.◦ Ossification disorders like rickets in chickens and dogs,
◦ Continuous diarrhea and sudden death in cattle depends on
myocardial infarction,
◦ Enzootic ataxia (swayback) is seen in lambs as well as loss of
color and characteristic curves of the leaf in sheep. ◦ Swayback is a progressive neuropathy is seen in young animals.
◦ This disease is common in our country and causes significant
economic loss.
Copper (Cu)
Source: Youtube
Excess: Various infections, glomerulonephritis,
myocardial infarction, administration of estrogen.◦ Wilson’s Disease
◦ It is characterized by hepatolenticular degeneration. It is an autosomal
recessive genetic disease that causes copper accumulation in tissues.
◦ This disease manifests itself in psychiatric and neurological
manifestations and liver disease.
◦ Deposition of ceruloplasmin in the brain and liver, decreased blood
levels, urinary excretion of dicarboxylic peptides and free amino acids
are characterized.
Copper (Cu)
Cobalt (Co)
In nature, found in some soils even though the
amount is enough, some of the less.
Anemia is seen in animals that grow with grass
that grows in little cobalt soils.
For this reason, it is not possible to produce
cyanocobalamin, which is Vitamin B12.
Cobalt is present in the organism only in the most amount
stored in the liver.
In other tissues, it is found in trace amounts.
Cobalt taken with feed is used especially in the synthesis
of vitamin B12 (cobalamin) in ruminant rumen. ◦ This vitamin contains 4.5% cobalt.
Cobalt (Co)
It is required for erythropoiesis.
Symptoms such as anorexia, large-
cell anemia (macrocytic anemia),
fatty liver, hemosiderosis in spleen,
or pathological conditions are
observed in ruminants in cobalt
deficiency.
Cobalt (Co)
Source: UWaterloo
Normal erythrocytes Macrocytic erythrocytes
Cobalt insufficiency is only seen in ruminants. Because
only ruminants synthesize vitamin B12 in their microflora.
Zinc is very common in nature, both in plant and
animal-derived foods.
Showing the growth and reproduction of all
biological material present in sufficient quantity.
Wheatgrass, brewer's yeast, lettuce and salad,
liver, mussels and other seafood are especially
rich in Zn. It is approximately found 2-3 mg in
milk.
Zinc (Zn)
It is found in organs such as prostate, hair, bone, liver,
kidney, muscles, pancreas, spleen.
It is build block of some enzymes such as alcohol
dehydrogenase, glutamic dehydrogenase, uricase, kidney
phosphatase, carboxypeptidase, erythrocytic carbonic
anhydrase, SOD (superoxic dismutase).
Zinc is also part of the insulin molecule, an important
hormone in carbohydrate metabolism.
Zinc(Zn)
It is found at low levels in all tissues. It is stored in the liver
and kidneys.
It is the activator of some enzymes: Arginase,
phosphoglucomutase, hexokinase, isocitric dehydrogenase,
pyrophosphatase and various decarboxylases.
It is concentrated in the mitochondria of the cell.
Lack of manganese; Perosis in chickens and sterility in
cattle.
Manganese (Mn)
In nature, it is found in various plants. In organism, it is
found mostly in bones, less in liver and kidney.
It also takes part in the structure of xanthine oxidase,
which catalyzes the conversion of xanthine to uric acid
(oxidation).
Taking too little Mo with food increases Cu absorption and
causes copper poisoning.
Molybdenum (Mo)
In nature, it is found in the earth.
In organism, it is most in the teeth.◦ In the days when teeth are formed, Drinking of waters
containing 0.9-1.5 mg/L (0.9-1.5 ppm) fluorine keep tooth decay
rate at the lowest level.
◦ In the same age, drinking water containing more than 1.5 mg/L
of fluorine causes the formation of faulty teeth.
The excess of F is called Fluorosis.
Fluorine (F)
Normal FluorosisSource: Fidancı
It takes part in glucose and lipid metabolism.
Trivalent form (Cr3+) is the activator of insulin hormone. ◦ Strengthens the effect, enhances the use of glucose from the cell. It
is involved in the structure of the glucose-tolerance factor (GTF).
GTF enhances insulin action by increasing binding or affinity of insulin-specific receptors.
It is thought that insulin resistance may develop depending on the deficiency. ◦ Insulin can not regulate glucose without chromium.
Chromium (Cr)
Selenium (Se)
The basic biochemical function of selenium is
that it is an essential part of the glutathione
peroxidase (GSH-Px/GPx) which is responsible
for the reduction of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
GSH-Px, which catalyses the abundance of
organic peroxide (ROOH) reduction, has an
important function in metabolism.
Selenium, a compulsory trace element for animals and
humans, is obtained through plant materials.
Some Important Selenoproteins are;◦ Glutation peroxidases (GPx)
◦ Thioreductin reductase (TR)
◦ Iodothyronine deiodinase (ID)
◦ Selenoprotein P (SePP)
◦ Selenoprotein W (Se-W)
Selenium (Se)
Selenium is the essential component of the antioxidant
defense system and its deficiency causes cardiovascular
and immune system disorders; especially cardiomyopathy.
There are also a number of publications that show a
significant association with cancer development.
Selenium (Se)
Selenium deficiency causes;◦ White muscle disease in young ruminants,
◦ Reproductive disorders,
◦ Increase in Retention sekundinarum cases in dairy cows,
◦ Exudative diathesis in poultry and,
◦ Liver and pancreas necrosis.
"Alkaline disease" is observed in selenium excess.
Selenium (Se)
Source Fidancı Source Infobarrel
White Muscle Disease
It is found in nature, in sea water, on coastal land.
It is localized in the thyroid gland.
Its level decreases in case of Hypothyroidism.
Its level increases in case of Hyperthyroidism, increased
milk yield, increased egg yield.
Iodine (I)
The substances that prevent the iodine from entering the
thyroid gland are called goitrogenic substances.
In our country, especially in the Black Sea region
consumed in excess amount of thiocyanates are found in
abundance in these substances.
In these regions, goitre, which is a thyroid gland disease,
is very common.
Iodine (I)
Ası T (1999). Tablolarla Biyokimya I, Nobel Tıp Kitapları Dağıtım, Ankara. Engelking LR (2014). Textbook of Veterinary Physiological Chemistry. 3rd Edition. Academic
Press. Fidancı UR. Biyoelementler Ders Notlar. İnternet Erişim:
http://80.251.40.59/veterinary.ankara.edu.tr/fidanci/Ders_Notlari/Ders_Notlari/Biyoelementler.pdf Erişim Tarihi: 09.10.2016
Judson GJ, Reuter DJ (1999). Selenium. In: Soil Analysis: An Interpretation Manual. pp 325–329. Melbourne: Australia: CSIRO Publishing.
Kalaycıoğlu L, Serpek B, Nizamlıoğlu M,Başpınar N,Tiftik A. (2000). Biyokimya, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara.
Milne DB. Laboratory assessment of trace element and mineral status, p69-90. In.: Bogen JD, Klevay LM (2000). Clinical Nutrition of the Essential Trace Elements and Minerals: The Guide for Health Professionals. 1st ed. Humana Press.
Peek SF, Divers TJ, Guard C, Rath A, Rebhun WC (2000) Hypokalemia, muscle weakness, and recumbency in dairy cattle. Vet Ther., 1(4): 235-244.
Schwarzenbach RP, Egli T, Hofstetter TB, von Gunten U, Wehrli B (2010). Global waterpollution and human health. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 35: 109–136
Sözbilir Bayşu N, Bayşu N (2008). Biyokimya, Güneş Kitabevi.
References
Which of the following is trace element?
a. Ca
b. P
c. Mg
d. Na
e. Se
Question 1
Answers: e
Which of the following hormones is involved in the
regulation of Ca metabolism?
a. PTH
b. Insulin
c. ACTH
d. T4
e. MSH
Questions
Answers: a
Which disease occurs in the lamb due to selenium
deficiency?
a. Hypothyroidism
b. White muscle disease
c. Exudative Diatez
d. Retention sekundinarium
e. Hypocalcemia
Questions
Answers: b
Your
questions?