1. Menjustifikasi bagaimana melibatkan para pelajar sekolah secara aktif dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran melalui motivasi, penyoalan dan pemilihan kaedah mengajar
Analisis cara mengajar 3
Penglibatan dan latihan
untuk pelajar
1. Motivasi
2. Penyoalan
3. Kaedah mengajar
4. Jenis latihan
-kesukaran
-kaedah mengajar
-pentaksiran
When student is unmotivated, wants to be
entertained rather than work:
Provide choice
Pursuit of special interest area
Personal goal setting
Develop leadership skills to promote self-
confidence
When the student does not feel
academically or intellectually
challenged:
Question activities
Activities at the higher level of Bloom’s
Enrichment activities that involve real life
problem solving
Tiered Lessons/units
Enkod
PENGIRIM
Dekod
Enkod
PENERIMA
Dekod
GANGGUAN
MESEJ
MAKLUMBALAS
Tujuan menyoal murid:
1. Menggalakkan murid terlibat secara aktif dalam pnp
2. Membangkitkan perhatian dan perhatian murid
3. Memfokuskan perhatian murid kepada idea atau konsep
4. Menggalakkan murid kemukan soalan
5. Memperkembangkan kemahiran berfikir
6. Minta penjelasan dan perincian idea2 murid-kenalpasti miskonsepsi murid
7. Taksir pengetahuan murid
Nyatakan soalan dengan tepat dan ringkas.
Elakkan guna soalan retorik
Kemukakan terhadap kesluruhan kelas
Kemukakan soalan kepada yang angkat tngn dan tidak angkt tngn
Guna pelbagai jenis soalan
Soalan sesuai dengan kebolehan murid
Situasi yang tidak mengancam
Gunakan masa tunggu yang sesuai
Beri masa utk murid berfikir-sebelum dan
selepas murid menjawab
Purata masa tunggu 3-5 saat
Lebih lama utk soalan aras tinggi
Masa tunggu mampu meningkatkan
kemahiran analisis dan penyelesaian
masalah murid
Pilih yang angkat tangan dan tidak
angkat tangan
Panggil nama salah seorang murid
walaupun satu kelas menjawab in unison
Rawakkan panggil agar kekalakan
penglibatan murid
Asertif terhadap peraturan-angkat
tangan sebelum menjawab
Pastikan semua murid beri perhatian terhadap jawapan
Respon tanpa judgement dgn memfrasa semula jawapan murid dengan mngunakan perkataan sendiri guru, jika guru ingin meneruskan perbincangan. Jika tidak, akur akan jawapan yang betul dengan pengukuhan positif, bagi jawapan yang salah dapat penjelasan dan dapatkan jawapan yang betul
Bagi murid yang tidak menjawab, beri kue, frasa semula atau meringkaskan
Cukil idea murid untuk mnggalakkan pmikiran aras tinggi
Alih-alih soalan sblm trima sesuatu jawapan Kaitkan jawapan-jawapan supaya boleh buat
keputusan
Is what you do at the outset o a lesson ie
what you do to get the students
undivided attention, teachers arouse
their interest and to establish a
conceptual framework for the
information that follows
Enable students to organize the new
meterial in relation to itself and to other
lessoins. Main pints and concept must be
puled together so that why will be
organized and integrated whithin the
students existing cognitive structure(bgn
konten tersusun dalam minda pelajar)
1. Set induksi
2. Soal jawab
3. Penutup
4. Taksiran formatif
Konvergen- hanya satu jawapan betul,
mungkin memerlukan para pelajar
mengingat kembali, mengintergasi dan
menganalisa maklumat untuk
memberikan satu jawapan betul
Divergen –soalan yang meminta
pandangan, hipotesis, penilaian dimana
ada lebih dari satu jawapan yang betul
Soalan konvergen
1. Siapakah perdana
menteri Malaysia
2. Apakah jumlah 2+4
3. Dimanakah
letaknya kg Pinang
Sebatang
4. Apakah yang
menyebabkan
darurat
Soalan Divergen
1. Kenapakah Amerika
melibatkan diri
dalam Pearang
dunia kedua
2. Siapakah
merupakan
negarawan ulung
Malaysia
3. Apakah tajuk yang
sesuai untuk cerita
ini
1.berdasarkan perbincangan kita apakah yang menyebabkan berlakunya migrasi
2.Berdasarkan definisi demokrasi, bolehkah anda namakan negara yang mengamalkan demokrasi
3. kenapakah penting kita terus meneroka sebab-sebab berlakunya banjir?
Bagaimanakah perkataan luluhawa dapat digunakan
1. _ Apakah yang anda boleh beritahu kelas berkenaan negeri
Kelantan
2. _ Tumbuhan manakah yang paling tinggi?
3. _ Definisi kata nama?
4. _Adakah kita mempunyai maklumat yang cukup untuk
menjawab soalan itu?
5. _Apakah yang boleh buat dengan tepung ini?
6. _ Apakah perayaan yang dirayakan di bulan Disember?
7. _ Apakah rasanya hidup di hutan hujan tropika?
8. _ Berdasarkan apa yang anda baca dalam buku teks itu,
apakah yang menyebabkan musim-musim yang berbeza?
9. _ Jika panjang segi empat ialah 10 sm dan lebarnya adalah
6 sm, berapakah luas kawasan segi empat itu?
1. D_ Apakah yang anda boleh beritahu kelas berkenaan negeri Kelantan
2. K_ Tumbuhan manakah yang paling tinggi? 3. K_ Definisi kata nama? 4. K_Adakah kita mempunyai maklumat yang cukup untuk
menjawab soalan itu? 5. D_Apakah yang boleh buat dengan tepung ini? 6. K_ Apakah perayaan yang dirayakan di bulan Disember? 7. D_ Apakah rasanya hidup di hutan hujan tropika? 8. K_ Berdasarkan apa yang anda baca dalam buku teks
itu, apakah yang menyebabkan musim-musim yang berbeza?
9. K _ Jika panjang segi empat ialah 10 sm dan lebarnya adalah 6 sm, berapakah luas kawasan segi empat itu?
Mental operation
questions
Taksonomi Bloom
Guilford structure of
Intellect
Fakta Pengetahuan &
kefahaman
Proses kognitif @
ingatan
Emprikal Aplikasi & Analisis Pemikiran Konvergen
Produktif Sintesis Pemikiran divergen
Penilaian
(evaluative)
Penilaian Pemikiran penilaian
Soalan fakta
Menguji daya ingatan pelajar
Pelajar hanya perlu ingat semula melalui mengenal atau hafaz atau pelajar terjemahkan maklumat
1.Siapakah yang mencipta kereta?
2. Apakah yang berlaku semasa hujan lebat?
Soalan emprikal
Pelajar integrasi/analisis maklumat yang dihafaznya atau diberikan guru dan jawapan yang di jangka
1.Apakah yang menyebabkan tertubuhnya PTM
2. Antara kedua-dua parti ini yang manakah lebih demokratik
Soalan produktif
Tidak mempunyai satu
jawapan yang betul
Soalan terbuka dan sukar
diramal jawapannya
Pelajar perlu maklumat
(sendiri// diberi guru) untuk
menjawab
1. Bagaimanakah kita boleh
meningkatkan..?
2. Apakah perubahan sikap
yang akan berlaku jika PM
adalah wanita?
3. Apakah penyelesaian
untuk…
Soalan penilaian
Soalan terbuka
Lebih sukar daripada
soalan produktif
Berlandaskan sesuatu
kriteria
1. Siapakah pelajar tersohor
dikalangan anda?
2. Adakah/ Perlukah PATI
diperlakukan dengan adil?
3. Adakah pemilihan guru
pakar/cemerlang dalam
Geografi tepat?
Kategori Jenis Pemikiran Contoh
1. Fakta Pelajar perlu ingat
kembali sahaja
Definisikan….?
Siapakah…?
2. Emprikal Pelajar integrasikan &
analisa yang diberi
maklumat yang diberi@
diingat semula
Bandingkan…?
Jelas….?
Kira…?
3. Produktif Pelajar berfikir secara
kreatif untuk hasilkan
sesuatu yang unik
Bagaimanakah kita
boleh
Apakah bentuk
kehidupan di…?
4. Penilaian Pelajar menilai/
memberi pandangan
Siapakah yang terbaik?
Kenapa lebih suka
1._ kira luas kawasan bulatan ini
2._ Apakah pandangan anda mengenai sistem kehakiman Malaysia?
3. _ Menurut teks, apakah yang menyebabkan kemelesetan ekonomi?
4. _ Apakah yang akan berlaku pada kenderaan ini dalam masa 20 tahun?
5. _ Bandingkan karya Zaaba dan karya Shahnon Ahmad?
6. _Bagaimanakah kita sebagai seorang guru 1 Malaysia boleh mengubah masyarakat?
7._ Kenapakah anda lebih cenderung memilih Parti A berbanding Parti B
8._ Apakah makna cerita Si-Tenggang pada anda?
9._ Apakah perbezaan antara mamalia dan ikan?
10. _ Siapakah perdana Malaysia selepas PRU13
1. E_ kira luas kawasan bulatan ini
2.Pe_ Apakah pandangan anda mengenai sistem kehakiman Malaysia?
3. F_ Menurut teks, apakah yang menyebabkan kemelesetan ekonomi?
4. Pr_ Apakah yang akan berlaku pada kenderaan ini dalam masa 20 tahun?
5.E _ Bandingkan karya Zaaba dan karya Shahnon Ahmad?
6.Pr _Bagaimanakah kita sebagai seorang guru 1 Malaysia boleh mengubah masyarakat?
7.E_ Kenapakah anda lebih cenderung memilih Parti A berbanding Parti B
8.Pr_ Apakah makna cerita Si-Tenggang pada anda?
9.E_ Apakah perbezaan antara mamalia dan ikan?
10.Pe _ Siapakah perdana Malaysia selepas PRU13
Bertanyakan soalan yang sesuai untuk
memenuhi hasil pembelajaran.
1. Soalan-soalan fokus (focussing
questions)
2. Soalan-soalan kue/ “prompting”
(prompting questions)
3. Soalan meneroka (probing questions)
Soalan yang mungkin fakta, emprikal, produktif
atau penilaian.
Digunakan untuk memfokuskan perhatian pelajar
untuk pembelajaran pada hari itu atau terhadap
bahan yang dibincangkan untuk
1. Menentukan sama ada murid dah belajar(soalan
fakta)
2. Memotivasikan murid di awal kelas( soalan
produktif/penilaian)
3. Semak pemahaman murid semasa atau selepas
guru mengajar.(Soalan fakta/emprikal)
1. Apakah segitiga?
2. Apakah yang akan terjadi jika saya
gabungkan segitiga dan empatsegi
3. Bagaimanakah menjadi seorang guru
yang berjaya?
4. Wajarkah AS menjalankan tugas
sebagai polis dunia?
1. Apakah segitiga? (soalan fakta)
2. Apakah yang akan terjadi jika saya
gabungkan segitiga dan empatsegi?
(Soalan emprikal)
3. Bagaimanakah menjadi seorang guru
yang berjaya? (Soalan produktif)
4. Wajarkah AS menjalankan tugas
sebagai polis dunia? (Soalan penilaian)
Digunakan bila murid gagal jawab soalan guru.(pindah ke
murid lain?)
Guna kue & panduan(hints & cue) untuk membantu murid
membetulkan respons pertama mereka
Soalan prompt biasanya adalah soalan yang asal yang
disusun semula struktur ayatnya dengan penambahan kue
Penggunaan soalan prompt memberi murid peluang untuk
menikmati kejayaan setelah berjaya menjawab soalan guru
dan mengukuhkan keyakinannya untuk terus melibatkan diri
G-Ok kelas, mari kita semak data yang telah kita kumpul
berkaitan penyerapan cahaya. Apakah perbezaan yang
anda lihat antara bekas yang bertutup dengan yang tidak
bertutup (3-5 saat tunggu) Zul?
Zul-air dalam bekas tertutup mempunyai suhu 96 darjah.
Gu- Bilakan bacaan suhu ini diambil
Zul- Bila bekas telah ditutup selama 10 minit
G- Apakah suhu air bila awak mulakan eksperimen( guru
menggunakan prompt dalam situasi yang tidak mengancam
murid(beserta mesej bukan lisan). Episod diteruskan sehingga
semua maklumat yang diperlukan diperolehi untuk penutup
G: Apakah maksud kata nama, Mimi?
Murid: (Diam) “Lari”
G: “Cuba semak semula jawapan anda. Apakah yang dimaksudkan dengan kata nama?”
Murid: (Diam lama) “seorang, satu tempat, satu benda”
G: Adakah lari itu seorang, satu tempat atau satu benda?”
Murid: [Diam] “Tidak”
G: “Bolehkan anda memberi satu contoh lain?”
Murid: “Port Dickson”
G: “Bagus”
G- dalam pelan rumah ini (rumah tepi pantai di Pantai Cherating), bilik di ruang tamunya mengadap timur. Adakah satu idea yang baik? (tunggu) Izan?
Izan- Saya rasa satu idea yang bagus. Boleh nampak matahari terbit.
G- Jawapan Izan itu adalah contoh yang baik berdasarkan keutamaan individu. Bagi sesetengah orang, melihat matahari terbit adalah suatu yang penting. Apakah bentuk cuaca yang dijangka di hujung tahun khasnya jika tangkapnya besar?
Soalan ditanya bila jawapan yang murid berikan adalah cetek/ kurang kedalaman
Soalan meneroka menggalakkan murid untuk berfikir dengan lebih mendalam berkaitan respon pertamanya.
Melalui soalan meneroka, murid diminta memberi maklumat tambahan untuk lebih jelas.
Khasnya untuk respon yang kurang sempurna atau yang tidak menampakkan murid berfikir dengan baik akan jawapan berkenaan.
1. Apakah asas fakta yang anda berkata demikian?
2. Kenapa anda kata begitu? 3. Apakah andaian anda?
4. Anda pasti tiada yang perlu ditambah? 5. Bolehkah anda kaitkan jawapan ini dengan ini
dengan …? 6. Cuba kita lihat semula jawapan ini berkaitan
dengan …? 7. Apakah implikasi jawapan anda ini?
8. Bolehkah anda kaitkan jawapan Abu tadi kepada isu ini …?
9. Aplikasi jawapan anda kepada ..?
Minggu ini, kita telah pun belajar mengenai poligon dan saya ingin ulangkaji apa yang kita telah pelajari setakat ini. Apakah poligon?
Namakan satu poligon yang yang kita gunakan seharian
Segiempat
Anda betul (tepat sekali), tapi ada banyak objek yang mempunyai empat sisi. Apakah nama objek 4 sisi ini?
[Hentian] paralellogram.
Alih arah (redirecting)- guru minta
setiap orang murid menjawab
soalan yang sama.
Masa tunggu- masa yang gur
berikan sebelum guru menyambung
semula setelah menyoal.
Guru kemukakan
soalan
Murid beri respon
Guru panggil nama
murid
Masa
tunggu
1
Masa
tunggu
2
Murid yang sama
tambah lagi
responnya
Murid lain tokok
tambah respon
Wait time
G M1
G M2
G M3
M1
G
M2
M3
M7
M4
G- saya akan tanya anda satu soalan, tunggu sebentar dan kemudian memanggil 3-4 orang untuk menjawab. Dengar betul2 kerana saya tidak akan ulang soalan itu. Dengar respon kawan anda bila mereka menjawab kerana saya juga tidak akan ulang respon mereka. Setakat itu, ada soalan? Ok kita mula. Di manakah Sultan Perak pertama mendarat jika baginda belayar dari Sumatera ke Semenanjung Tanah Melayu pada arah timur? (tunggu) Aman, Dina, Siti, Leman
Aman- Mungkin mendarat di Pulau Pangkor
G- (senyum dan tunjuk kepada Dina tanpa sebarang komen)
Dina- di Pulau Pinang kot?
Siti- Dua2 silap, Baginda akan tiba di Pulau Ketam
Leman- Itu pun tak akan berlaku. Sultan itu akan ditiup oleh monsun balik ke Sumatera.
G- Ok idea yang bagus. Kelas, buka muka surat 200, kita lihat peta berkaitan angin dan arus.
What am I?
How do I?
When do I?
Why do I?
Which am I?
Meningkatkan motivasi untuk belajar
Meningkat kefahaman isi pelajaran dan mengingat isi pelajaran lebih lama
Menggalakkan kreativiti
Mengajar cara berfikir dan belajar (mengemukakan soalan)
Menjadi asas kepada pbl, penyelesaian masalah dan membuat keputusan
UNTUK GURU
• Guru kurang bercakap
• Kurang mengulang soalan
• Kurang soalan setiap waktu
• Lebih soalan dengan pelbagai
respon
• Kurang soalan aras rendah
• Lebih banyak probing
• Lebih soalan aras aplikasi
UNTUK MURID
• Respon yang lebih panjang
• Lebih murid terlibat
• Kurang murid yang tidak respon
• Lebih banyak murid terlibat
• Soalan beraras tinggi
meningkatkan penaakulan
• Lebih banyak interaksi rakan
sebaya
• Lebih berkeyakinan
• Pencapaian lebih tinggi
Menyerupai masa tunggu
Bertujuan memberi masa untuk
berfikir khasnya bila guru
memberikan bahan/ arahan yang
kompleks
Semasa hentian, semak apa yang
mereka cuba komunikasikan
(faham- teruskan; jika murid
kelihatan keliru) – mungkin perlu
terangkan semula.
Silent time- masa selepas murid
tamat memberi respon dan
Oleh kerana para guru terlalu
ghairah untuk terus mengajar,
mereka lupa…
Lisan
Bukan lisan
Kemukakan soalan yang jelas/ tidak
kabur
Kemukakan soalan, baru panggil
responden
Tanya soalan selaras dengan HP
Agihkan soalan dengan adil
Tanya soalan yang sesuai untuk
pelbagai aras soalan
Mengemukakan soalan sekali sahaja
Good Great
What an outstanding idea Super Ditanya satu soalan, dan dijawab oleh beberapa orang murid. Kemudian mengukuh untuk sumbangan mereka. Kemudian, kembali semula kepada jawapan yang terbaik. Jangan terlalu awal guru respon “super”, murid lain risau sama ada jawapan mereka bagi 5 soalan terbaik
Masa yang dibenarkan guru
menantikan respon pelajar sebelum
guru sambung
Masa yang dibenarkan guru
1. Mengulangi soalan- berapa ramaikah penduduk Tg. Malim? Berapa populasi Tg. Malim? Berapa ramaikah orang yang tinggal di Tg. Malim?
2. Mengulangi respon murid- verbatim. Murid tunggu “Instant replay” guru- beza jika sesi orang sangat ramaidi dean besar atau murid yang suaranya perlahan
3. Guru kemukakan soalan, guru menjawab sendiri
4. Tidak beri peluang murid untuk menyudahkan jawapannya yang panjang
5. Tidak beri perhatian semasa murid memberi respon
6. Memilih murid yang sama untuk menjawab
1. Beri mereka kurang masa 2. Beri jawapan untuk mereka atau terus
memanggil murid lain tanpa guru membantu meningkatkan kualiti jawapan dengan penggunaan kue/ paraphrasa
3. Pengukuhan yang kurang wajar
4. Lebih mengkritik
5. Gagal beri maklumbalas
6. Kurang beri pujian
7. Kurang beri perhatian
8. Kurang memanggil mereka untuk respon
9. Kurang guna kontak mata dll
10. Bahasa bukan lisan
Remember wait time
Provide at least three seconds of thinking time after a question and after a response
Utilize “think-pair-share”
Allow individual thinking time, discussion with a partner, and then open up the class discussion
Ask “follow-ups” (Why? Do you agree? Can you elaborate?)
Tell me more. Can you give an example?
Withhold judgement
Respon to student answers in a nonevaluative fashion
Ask for summary (to promote active listening) “could you please summarize John’s point?”
Survey the class “How many people agree with the author’s point of view?” (“thumbs up, thumbs down”)
Allow for student calling “Richard, will you please call on someone else to respond?”
Play devil’s advocate
Require students to defend their reasoning against different points of view
Ask students to “unpack their thinking”
“Describe how you arrived at your answers.” (“think aloud”)
Call on students randomly. Not just those with raised hands
Student questioning. Let the students develop their own questions.
Cue students response. “there is not a single correct answer for this question. I want you to consider alternatives.
These purposes are generally pursued in
the context of classroom recitation,
defined as a series of teacher questions,
each eliciting a student response and
sometimes a teacher reaction to that
response. Within these recitations,
students follow a series of steps
(consciuosly or unconsciously) in order to
produce responses to the questions
posed. These steps include:
Attending to the question
Deciphering the meaning of the
question
Generating a covert response (i.e.
formulating a response in one’s mind)
Generating an overt response and often
Revising the response (based on teacher
probing or other feedback)
Instruction which includes posing questions during lessons is more effective in producing achievement gains than instruction carried out without questioning student.
Students perform better on test items previously asked as recitation questions than on items they have not been exposed to before.
Oral questions posed during classroom recitations are more effective in fostering learning than are written questions.
Questions which focus student attention on silent elements in the lesson result in better comprehension than questions which do not.
Asking question frequently during class discussions is positively related to learning facts.
Increasing the frequency of classroom question does not enhance the learning of more complex material. (some researches have found no relationship, others have found a negative relationship)
Posing questions before reading and studying material is effective for students who are older, high ability, and/ or known to be interested in the subject matter.
Very young children and poor readers tend to focus only on material that will help them answer questions if these are posed before the lesson is presented.
The majority of researches however have conducted more simple comparisons, they have looked at
The relative effects on student outcomes produced by what they call higher and lower cognitive questions.
Lower cognitive questions are those which ask the student merely to recall verbatim or in his/her
Own words material previously read or taught by the teacher. Lower cognitive question are also referred
To in the literature as fact, closed, direct, recall and knowledge questions.
Higher cognitive questions are defined as those which ask the student to mentally manipulate bits of information previously learned to create an answer or to support an answer with logically reasoned evidence. Higher cognitive questions are also called open-ended, interprative, evaluative, inquiry, inferential and synthesis questions.
On the average, during classroom recitations, approximately 60 percent of the questions asked are lower cognitive questions, 20 percent are are higher cognitive questions, and 20 percent are precedual.
Higher cognitive questions are not categorically better than lower cognitive questions in elicting higher level responses or in or in promoting learning gains.
lower cognitive questions are more effective than higher level questions with young (primary level) children, particularly the disadvantaged.
lower cognitive questions are more effective when the teacher’s purpose is
To impart factual knowledge and assist students in committing this knowledge to memory
In setting where a high incidence of lower level questions is appropriate, greater frequency of questions is positively related to student achievement.
When predominantly lower level questions are used , their level of difficulty should be such that most will elicit correct responses.
In most classes above the primary grades, a combination of higher and lower cognitive questions is superior to exclusive use of one or the other.
Students whom teachers perceive as slow or poor learners are asked fewer higher cognitive questions than students perceived as more capable learners.
Increasing the use of higher cognitive questions (to considerably above the 20 percent incidence noted in most classes) produces superior learning gains
For students above the primary grades and particularly for secondary students.
Simply asking higher cognitive questions does not necessarily lead students to produce higher cognitive responses.
Teaching students to draw inferences and giving them practice in doing so result in higher cognitive responses and greater learning gains.
Increases in the use of higher cognitive questions in recitations does not reduce student performance on lower cognitive questions on tests.
For other students, increases in the use of higher cognitive questions (to 50 percent or more) are positively related to increases in:
1. On-task behaviour
2. Length of student responses
3. The number of relevant contributions volunteered by students
4. The numbers of student-to-student interactions
5. Student use of complete sentences
6. Speculative thinking on the part of students
7. Relevant questions posed by students
For other students, increases in the use of
higher cognitive questions (to 50 percent
or more) are positively related to
increased teacher expectations about
children’s abilities-particularly the abilities
of those students whom teachers have
habitually regarded as slow or poor
learners.
Researches on questioning strategies speak of two kinds of wait-time: “wait-time 1” refers to the amount of time the teacher allows to elapse after he/she has posed a question and before a student begins to speak; and “wait-time 2” refers to the amount of time a teacher waits after a student has stopped speaking before saying anything. The research has focused more on wait-time 1 than wait-time 2, but the following findings apply to both.
Because research has established a positive relationship
between the amount of instructional content covered and student achievement, researches and other educators have recommended that teachers keep up brisk instructional pacing. In this way, the reasoning goes, classes will cover more material, student interest will be maintained, and achievement levels will be higher. As with the research on the cognitive level of teacher’s questions, this wisdom turns out to have limited application. Findings include.
The average wait-time teachers allow after posing a questions is one second or less.
Students whom teachers perceive as slow or poor learners are given less wait-time than those teachers view as more capable.
For lower cognitive questions, a wait-time of three seconds is most positively related to achievement, with less success resulting from shorter or longer wait-times.
These seems to be no wait-time threshold for higher cognitive questions; students seem to become more and more engaged and perform better and better the longer the teacher is willing to wait.
Increasing wait-time beyond three seconds is positively related to the following student outcomes:
1. Improvements in the student achievement
2. Improvement in student retention, as measured by delayed tests
3. Increases in the number of higher cognitive responses generated by students
4. Increases in the length of student responses
5. Increases in the number of unsolicited responses
6. Decreases in student’s failure to respond
(7) Increases in the amount and quality of evidence students offer to
support their inferences
(8) Increases in contributions by students who do not participate much
when wait-time is under three seconds
(9) Expansion of the variety of responses offered by students
(10) Decreases in student interruptions
(11) Increases in student-student interactions
(12) Increases in the number of questions posed by students
Redirection and probing (often researched together) are positively related to achievement when they are explicitly focused, e.g., on the clarity, accuracy, plausibility, etc. of student responses.
Redirection and probing are unrelated to achievement when they are vague or critical, e.g., “That’s not right; try again”; “Where did you get an idea like that? I’m sure Suzanne has through more carefully and can help us.”
Acknowledging correct responses as such is positively related to achievement.
Praise is positively related to achievement when it is used sparingly, is directly related to the student’s response, and is sincere and credible.
The cognitive level of questions posed is unrelated to students’ attitudes toward the subject matter.
*Those students who prefer lower cognitive questions perform better in recitations and on tests where lower cognitive questions are posed.
*Those students who prefer higher cognitive questions perform equally well with higher or lower cognitive questions in recitations and on tests.
What happens when teachers participate
In training designed to help them improve their questioning skills? Research indicates that :
* Training teachers in asking higher cognitive questions is positively related to the achievement of students above the primary grades.
* Training teachers in increased wait-time is positively related to student achievement.
* Training teacher to vary their questioning behaviors and to use approaches other than questioning during classroom discussions (e.g.,silence, making statements) are positively related to student achievement.
Incorporate questioning into classroom teaching/learning practices.
Ask questions which focus on the salient elements in the lesson; avoid questioning students about extraneous matters.
When teaching students factual material, keep up a brisk instructional pace, frequently posing lower cognitive questions.
With older ang higher ability students, ask questions before (as well as after) material is read and studied.
Question younger and lower ability students only after material has been read and studied.
Ask a majority of lower cognitive questions when instructing younger ang lower ability students. Structure these questions so that most of them will elicit corret responses.
Ask a majority of higher cognitive questions when instructing older and higher ability students.
In settings where higher cognitive questions are appropriate, teach students strategies for drawing inferences.
Keep wait-time to about three seconds when conducting recitations involving a majority of lower cognitive questions.
Increase wait-time beyond three seconds when asking higher cognitive questions.
Be particularly careful to allow generous amounts of wait-time to students perceived as lower ability.
Use redirections and probing as part of classroom questioning and keep these focused on salient elements of students’ responses.
Avoid vague or critical responses to student answers during recitations.
During recitations, use praise sparingly and make certain it is sincere, credible, and directly connected to students’ responses.
• Detailed instructions for teaching students to draw
inferences is outside the scope of this paper.
• However, the model offered by Pearson (1985) does
provide some basic steps which can help students
make connections between what they know and
what they are seeking to learn. Pearson suggests
that teachers complete all the steps in this process
by way of demonstration, then gradually shift
responsibility for all but the first step to the students.
1. Ask the inference question.
2. Answer it.
3. Find clues in the text to support the inference.
4. Tell how to get from the clues to the answer (i.e.,
give a line of reasoning).
Generating Good Discussions
Is discussion the right pedagogy?
What makes discussions effective?
Setting rules of engagement
How to grade discussions
Designing a discussion
Fits your learning outcomes
Goals of the pedagogy fit
Instructor owns a board range of skills
(“ people management” )
Instructor comfort with unpredictability
Physical space/online skills
Cognitive goals :
- Exploring and brainstorming
- Defending a position
- Considering multiple perspective
- Evaluating evidence
- Problem-solving
Social/ emotional goals :
- Democratic and collaboration skills
- Crossing cultural boundaries
Reaches all three levels of interaction- student-content, student-instructor, student-student
Higher level of reflective thinking and creative problem solving
Higher retention
Students often prefer active engagement with content
Addressing views diverdent from your own
Challenging factual errors
Drawing in students
Managing emotions
Dealing with disruptive, belliegerent, or domineering students
Question has only one correct answer and one right way to get there
Convey or clarify information
Insufficient time, space, technological skills
Path exists that you don’t want to take
Disruptive students are problem
No time to design
WHAT MAKES DISCUSSIONS
EFFECTIVE?
Students do not know enough about the subject
Students do not know the purpose of the discussion (e.g., learn from one another vs. demonstrate their knowledge)
Students do not know how they are expected to interact (e.g.,answer a question, ask questions, build on others’ comments, challenge other, etc)
Inequitable participation (student who talks too much, or not at all; only 4 out of 50 students talk)
Students are inhibited; e.g. fear of being evaluated, fear of looking foolish, not able to keep up with the discussion, fear of conflict, uneasy talking about topic with strangers, etc.
Set ground rules to govern interactions
Clarify your expectations
Establish the purpose
Prepare the groundwork
Group students to fit goals
Ask discussable questions
Give student time to think
Involve students equitably
Part of the grondwork
Identify the necessary skills
- Reading in a discipline
- Evaluation
- Collaboration
Consider using a student self-evaluation
(see handout)
SETTING DISCUSSION
GROUND RULES
Your actions seem less arbitrary
Can deal with disruptive students
Helps class stay on task
Teach students democratic and collaboration skills (self-policing, consensus-
building, civility)
Safety (not the same as comfort)
GRADING DISCUSSIONS
Not an attendance grade
Do you need to grade everything?
Be clear about what you are grading
- What constitutes “class participation”?
- Why are you grading on “class participation”?
Individual or whole-group, or both?
- Tie this decision to your goals
- Include a divorce clause for long-term groups
Consider grading product, not discussion
DESINGING A DISCUSSION
Identify the learning outcomes
Identify your pedagogical goals
What set students up to discuss?
-Out of class
-In class
Draft your questions :
Analyze a specific problem
Start with controversy
Show video clip, slide, current event, etc.for focus
Assign sides/role-play
Collectively create a chart or resource
Compare and contrast
Give new ideas and examples
Explain opinions backed by research
Share research findings and reactions
Give questions ahead of time
Break a large issue into smaller parts
“Guess what I’m thinking” (you have a spesific answer in mind; results in guessing)
Yes/No and Leading questions (one response, at best)
Info retrieval (look up the answer; one response at best)
Rhetorical (own your beliefs; if you believe based on evidence, back your argument)
Beyond factual recall
Open-ended
Use question prompts
Types of questions –Factual, Convergent,
Divergent, Evaluative, and Combination
Learn student names
10-second rule (“wait time”)
Seat students facing one another
Avoid jargon
Be able to say “ I don’t know”
Promote students helping students
Deal with “over-talkers”
Summarize, summarize, summarize