THE EMERGENCE OF SPACE POWER:

ITS POTENTIAL FOR FUTURE WARFARE

Mej Wan Azwan Azwari bin Wan Ali TUDM (Royal Malaysian Air Force)

Space may hold the key to our future on earth. No one can predict with certainty what

the ultimate meaning will be of the mastery of space.

President J.F. Kennedy

INTRODUCTION

1. Space race significantly escalated during the Cold War between US and Soviet.

Since then, space race between these two super powers were very extensive. The initial

usage of space was for launching of Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) and spy

satellite, of which very much involved with the global security.

2. After the Cold War, space exploration was more towards the commercial and

scientific purposes. Presently, there were many new nations emerged as a major space

power such as China, India, Japan and Israel. These trends will place the relevancy of

the space treaties in questionable doubt since major space power such as US, China and

Russia had performed the Anti-Satellites (ASAT) and Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) test.

3. This paper is not meant to produce another or new space power theory but rather

to expose the revolution, highlight new development and its consequences in space

power to Malaysian reader especially in Malaysian Armed Forces.

SPACE POWER: THE CONCEPTUAL

DEFINITION OF SPACE

4. There is no defining characteristic between where the atmosphere ends and where

the space begins. Earth atmospheric and surrounding can be divided into several layers,

namely; Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Exosphere.

Troposphere covers up to maximum of approximately 20 kilometres from the surface of

the earth and Stratosphere extends up to 50 kilometres.1

5. Mesosphere further extended up to 85 to 90 kilometres. Astronaut wing is

authorized by US beyond this layer.2 Imaginary line accepted by Fédération

Aéronautique Internationale (FIA) called Karman Line, lies at 100 kilometres altitude

which is very close to the boundary where the Thermosphere begins. The Karman Line

scientifically separate between the inner space of atmosphere and the outer space based

on aerodynamic property and orbital velocity of the spacecraft.3 However in

International Air Law, there is no definite clause mentioning where the air space ends.

This issue is very important in arguing the national sovereignty over the outer space.

1 Royal Air Force, AP 3456 Vol 1 – Principles of Flight (Royal Air force Publications).

2 John M. Collins, Military Space Forces: The Next 50 Years (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey‟s

International Defence Publisher, Inc.,1989), p.9. 3 Dr. S. Sanz Fernández de Córdoba, “100 km Altitude Boundary for Astronautics”, Fédération

Aéronautique Internationale - Astronautic Record Commission, http://www.fai.org/astronautics/

100km.asp.

Fig. 1 – The Atmosphere 4

REGIONS OF THE SPACE

6. In the Earth-Moon system, the space is divided into four regions; namely Region

1 includes the Earth, Troposphere, Stratosphere and Mesosphere. The region from

Thermosphere up to approximately 90,000 kilometres is called Region 2 or also known

as Circumterrestrial Space. Region 3 is the Moon and environs; and Region 4 is the

Outer Envelope. These boundaries are blurred and some attributes are overlap, but each

nevertheless is individualistic.5

7. Elements of space power are located in these regions. Region 1 is where the

installations on Earth, or terrestrial and airborne nodes of which presently provide

requisite support for military space operations in other regions. Region 2 is where most

of the orbiting space objects or space nodes are situated, mainly known as satellites. Low

Earth Orbits (LEO) range from 108 kilometres up to 540 kilometres altitude, and

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) is up to 40,140 kilometres. At this altitude, Geosynchronous

Earth Orbit (GEO) is located. High Earth Orbit (HEO) lies beyond this altitude up to

practical distance of 90,000 kilometres.6

4 Royal Air Force, AP 3456 Vol 1 – Principles of Flight (Royal Air force Publications).

5 John M. Collins, Military Space Forces: The Next 50 Years (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey‟s

International Defence Publisher, Inc.,1989), p.6. 6 John M. Collins, Military Space Forces: The Next 50 Years (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey‟s

International Defence Publisher, Inc.,1989), p.16.

Fig.2 – Regions of the Space

7

ELEMENTS OF THE SPACE SYSTEM

8. Space system is referred as the equipments required for space operations, and

these systems are comprised of nodes and links. The nodes are further characterized into

three types: space, airborne, and terrestrial.8

9. Space Nodes. Space nodes include satellites, space stations, or reusable space

transportation systems like the space shuttle. The satellites located at LEO completed an

earth orbit within ninety minutes to two hours, and normally used for reconnaissance and

weather imagery.

10. Semi-sun synchronous twelve-hour orbits in MEO are ideal for the deployment of

satellite constellations for navigation such as Global Positioning System (GPS).9 The

NAVSTAR10

GPS, operated by the USAF, and GLONASS11

GPS network owned by

Russia. Communications and early warning of missiles firings satellites are perfectly

placed in GEO, which has limited number of orbital slots.

11. Airborne Nodes and Terrestrial Nodes. Airborne nodes are primarily aircraft

weapon systems that leverage space capabilities. Anti-Satellite (ASAT) weapon and

Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) also could be deployed from the aircraft. Terrestrial nodes,

7 John M.Collins, Military Space Force: The Next 50 years (New York: Pergamon-Brasey‟s, 1989), p.7.

8 US Air Force, Space Operation (USAF Doctrine Document 2-2, 2006), p.5.

9 Collin S. Gray, Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare (London: Phoenix, 2006), p.302.

10 NAVSTAR is the abbreviation for Navigation Signal Timing and Ranging.

11 GLONASS is the abbreviation for Global'naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema (Global

Navigation Satellite System).

together with airborne nodes in Region 1, include any land or sea equipment that

receives, transmit, processes, or uses data derived from or to control the space nodes.

12. The Links. The link element is the communication used to convey data and

information between the space nodes, terrestrial nodes and the airborne nodes together.

All three nodes and links can be key factors in military operations.12

These links are very

much related to the Network Centric Warfare (NCW) and Cyber Warfare.

SPACE POWER THEORY

13. Lt Col David Lupton USAF defined space power as the ability of a nation to

exploit the space environment in pursuit of national goals and purposes and includes the

entire astronautical capabilities of the nation. Lupton also defined space power as the

nation which posses such capabilities.13

14. US Air Force Doctrine defined space power as the total strength of a nation‟s

capabilities to conduct and influence activities to, in, through, and from space to achieve

its objectives.14

It means that any nation acquired the capability to use the space as its

medium is called the space power; including the military, commercial or scientific

purposes.

15. Military Space Roles and Operations.15

Military space operations can be

characterized into four main roles: Space Force Enhancement, Space Support, Space

Control, and Space Force Application. Space Force Enhancement roles increase

effectiveness by increasing the combat potential of that force, enhancing operational

awareness, and providing needs for joint force support. Its functions are often provided

by interagency organizations, commercial organizations, and consortiums. These

integrations are better known as space militarization.

16. Space Support role includes the spacelift operations (launching and deploying

satellites), satellite operations (maintaining, sustaining, and rendezvous and proximity

operations), and reconstitution of space forces (replenishing lost or diminished satellites).

17. Space Control refers to having freedom of movement and freedom to the use of

space, and the ability to limit the freedom of movement and the use of space by the

enemy. Achieving space control is a fundamental condition for achieving ground, air,

sea and electromagnetic control.16

SPACE WARFARE

18. Space warfare can be defined as military confrontations mainly conducted in

outer space between two rival parties. It includes offensive and defensive operations

12

US Air Force, Space Operation (USAF Doctrine Document 4, 10 July 1996). 13

Judson J. Jussell, Major USAF, “Space Power Theory: A Rising Star” (Air Command and Staff College,

Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1998). http://www.fas.org/spp/eprint/98-144.pdf . 14

US Air Force, Space Operation (USAF Doctrine Document 2-2, 2006), p.1. 15

US Joint Chiefs of Staff, Space Operations (US Joint Publication 3-14, 2009). 16

Kevin Pollpeter, “The Chinese Vision of Space Military Operations”.

http://www.defensegroupinc.com/cira/pdf/doctrinebook_ch9.pdf.

between the two parties in outer space as well as offensive and defensive operations

between the two parties from outer space to air space or to the ground and vice versa.17

19. However in present scenario space warfare is more likely to be characterized by

electronic assault upon the signal flows between orbit and ground. If all satellites

information must be distributed from only those several ground control stations, they

must be the targets of choice to the enemy.18

SPACE WEAPONIZATION AND SPACE MILITARIZATION

20. Space weaponization simply means placing any kind of object that can be deemed

as weapons in space. The current state of affairs reflects that space is currently

militarized – but not weaponized, as yet.19

At this juncture, no weapon has been placed

in space mainly due to treaty.

21. Now, the exploration of space has led man to the space militarization. Satellites

are increasingly being built to meet the military specifications to resist electronic attack,

direct energy weapons, electromagnetic pulse, or physical interception. However,

military space power is heavily dependent upon the commercial space industry.20

SPACE WEAPON CONCEPT21

22. Wulf von Kries, a member of the German Space Agency suggested that “the

discussion on space weapons should not be limited to deployment in space but include

those weapons on Earth that can be directed into space”. A broader definition of a space

weapon is;

a. A ground-based or space-based weapon that can attack and negate the

capability of space systems on orbit, or

b. A weapon based in space that can attack targets on the earth.

OUTER SPACE RESOLUTIONS AND TREATIES

RESOLUTIONS

23. Among the earliest resolution concerning the usage of the space was adopted in

UN General Assembly on 3 November 1947 was Resolution 110 which condemned

propaganda designed or likely to provoke or encourage any threat to the peace breach or

act of aggression to outer space.

24. On 19 September 1963, Soviet told the General Assembly that they wish to

conclude an agreement banning the orbiting of objects carrying nuclear weapons. This

17

Kevin Pollpeter, “The Chinese Vision of Space Military Operations”.

http://www.defensegroupinc.com/cira/pdf/doctrinebook_ch9.pdf. 18

Collin S. Gray, Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare (London: Phoenix, 2006), p.303. 19

Bruce M. DeBlois, “Militarization, Weaponization and Space Sanctuary: Past Dialogues, Current

Discourse, Importan Distinction” (paper presented at the international conference on Outer Space and

Global Security, Geneva, Switzerland, November 26–27, 2002). 20

Collin S. Gray, Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare (London: Phoenix, 2006), p.294. 21

Nordin Yusuf, Space Warfare (Johor: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,1999), p.695.

resolution was agreed by the Soviet after the signing of the Limited Test Ban Treaty.22

The subsequent resolution was Resolution 1884 on 17 October 1963 meant to refrain any

states from placing any object carrying nuclear weapons, weapons of mass destruction or

installing such weapon on celestial bodies in orbit. Shortly after, Resolution 1962

entitled Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the

Exploration and Use of Outer Space was adopted by UN General Assembly on 13

December 1963.23

OUTER SPACE TREATY, 1967

25. Resolution in 1963 led to the treaty in January 1967 on Principles Governing the

Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space Including the Moon and

the Celestial Body. This treaty was better known as Outer Space Treaty (OST), has been

ratified by 98 countries and signed by 24 countries presently.24

26. Among the agreements were that;25

a. Space exploration shall be carried out for the benefit and interest of all

countries irrespective of their economic or scientific development, free for

exploration and use by all states without discrimination.

b. Space shall be province of all mankind and for peaceful purposes.

c. All the state parties are not to place any object carrying any kind of

weapon of mass destruction in the orbit. Establishment of military bases,

installation and fortification, testing of any weapons and conduct of military

manoeuvres in space were also forbidden.

d. Astronauts as envoys of mankind in outer space and shall be given to

them all possible assistance in the event of accident, distress, or emergency

landing on other states or seas.

e States are to bear the responsibility for national activities in outer space.

OTHER OUTER SPACE RELATED TREATIES26

27. The Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and

the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1968. This treaty obligates

nations to cooperate in the rescue and return of distressed personnel of a spacecraft and,

upon request of the launching authority, to take those measures it deems practicable to

return space objects of other nations that come to Earth within its territory.

22

The treaty banning nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water; prohibiting

all test detonations of nuclear weapons except underground. It was developed to slow the nuclear arms

race, and to stop the excessive release of nuclear fallout into the atmosphere. 23

John M. Collins, Military Space Forces: The Next 50 Years (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey‟s

International Defence Publisher, Inc.,1989), pp.173-174. 24

United Nation Office for Outer Space Affairs, “United Nations Treaties and Principles on Space Law”,

http://www.oosa.unvienna.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/treaties.html. 25

John M. Collins, Military Space Forces: The Next 50 Years (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey‟s

International Defence Publisher, Inc.,1989), p.174. 26

US Joint Chiefs of Staff, Space Operations (US Joint Publication 3-14, 2009), p.V9.

28. The Convention on the International Liability for Damage Caused by Space

Objects, 1972. This convention provides a system for assessing liability for damage

caused by space objects. A nation is responsible for direct damage caused by a space

object to objects on the ground or to aircraft in flight.

29. The Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space,

1974. Simply known as the Registration Convention, it requires nations to notify the

UN „as soon as practicable‟ after an object has been launched into outer space, providing

certain descriptive information, to include orbital parameters and a general statement of

the purpose of the space object.

ARMS CONTROL TREATIES RELATED TO OUTER SPACE

30. Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.27

Subsequent treaty was signed in

May 1972 between US and Soviet on Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) system.

The idea of this treaty was to limit anti-ballistic missile systems, which subsequently lead

to a decrease in the risk of outbreak of war involving nuclear weapons.

31. However in 2002, US withdrew unilaterally from the treaty. After the collapse of

Soviet in 1991, the status of the treaty became unclear, in addition to September 11

events which supports the withdrawal.

32. Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START). START I and II were

established in 1991 and 1993 respectively between US and Soviet. This treaty prohibits

each party from producing, testing, or deploying system, including missiles, for placing

nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction into earth orbit or

fraction of an earth orbit. This treaty has many new implications for military space

operation as well as several restrictions on the use of ICBM and SLBM as space launch

boosters.28

33. The New START Treaty was signed on 8 April 2010. It is a follow-up to the

1991 START I treaty, which expired in December 2009, and to START II and the 2002

Treaty of Moscow (Strategic Offensive Reduction Treaty – SORT) which was due to

expire in December 2012. The New START limit on deployed strategic warheads is 30

percent lower than the warhead ceiling of 2,200 set by the SORT 2002.29

THE REVOLUTION OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY

AND EMERGENCE OF SPACE POWER

ORIGIN OF THE SPACE RACE

34. German Wernher von Braun and Russian Fredrikh Tsander become synonymous

with the beginning of the space age. In Germany; von Braun managed to get funding

from German Army to support the experiment. Nevertheless, von Braun interested in

27

John M. Collins, Military Space Forces: The Next 50 Years (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey‟s

International Defence Publisher, Inc.,1989), p.181. 28

Peter L. Hays, “Current and Military Use of Space” (paper presented at the international conference on

Outer Space and Global Security, Geneva, Switzerland, November 26–27, 2002). 29

Arms Control Association website. “New START: Good News for US Security”.

http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2010_05/Pifer.

using rockets for space flight but the German Army wanted a long-range ballistic missile.

The experiment took place at Peenemunde, near Baltic Sea close to Poland border.

35. On 8 Sep 1944, two V-2 rockets were successfully launched onto London. This

event proved the fact that the initial purpose of the rocket invention was for space

exploration; however the world then saw the birth of the first ballistic missile.

Fig. 1 - V-2 rocket at Peenemunde

36. At the end of World War Two, Soviet managed to confiscate the V-2 rockets as

German was retreating. On the other hand, the US managed to get the V-2 blueprints as

von Braun and his engineers decided to surrender to US intelligence. Since then, the

rivalry in the space race between the US and Soviet became very intensive.30

37. The Space Age truly began when Soviet launched „Sputnik‟ satellite into orbit on

4 October 1957, using the modified R-7 ICBM based rocket. This marked the first

victory of the space race which shocked the US. It had profound military implication of

which the Soviet had rockets powerful enough to function as ICBMs that could reach US.

Fig. 2 - R-7 rocket Fig. 3 - The Sputnik 1

SPACE FARING NATIONS

38. Since the space exploration or space age commence in 1950s, the military

exploitation of space has been dominate by the US and the Soviet. These two space

super-power nations now have been challenged by France, Britain, Japan, India, Israel

and significantly China.31

39. The order of space-faring nations in the world has evolved into a three-tiered

structure depending upon the country‟s technical prowess, financial power and security

30

David Whitehouse, One Small Step: The Inside Story of space Exploration (London: Quercus Publishing,

2009), 1-25; and BBC DVD, Space Race: Superpowers, Secrets and Soaring Ambition. (BBC Worldwide

Limited, 2005). 31

Nordin Yusuf, Space Warfare (Johor: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 1999), p.591.

interests.32

The US and the former Soviet occupied the first tier; the second tier by

France, Britain, China, Japan, India and Israel.

40. The third tier includes the developing countries which they have to import the

technologies, and they are in the early stage to be strong in space militarization. For the

third tier country such as Malaysia, it is impossible to join the first tier. But, it is better

for that particular country to start from now rather than nothing for their own reason why

they are involved.

41. Currently only eight states, namely; Russia, the US, China, France (Europe),

India, Japan, Israel and Iran have indigenous launch capability. Out of these eight states

with launch capability, only six of them have launched satellites of other countries.33

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SPACE WARFARE

42. The world has seen the transformation of the technologies advancement in the

space warfare. The technological stages can be summarized as follows:34

Stage Period Technology

First Stage Early period of the Cold War

from 1950s until early 1960.

Single Warhead ICBM with ground-based interception.

Second

Stage

Height of Cold War from mid-

1960s until 1970s.

Advent of MIRV and MARV with ground-based

interception.

Third

Stage

Decline of Cold War until early

1990s.

SDI space-based interception through multi-layered

defence concept.

Fourth

Stage

End of Cold War 1991. Interception by ground-based TMH/THAAD Stealth

aircraft JSTAR Stealth Warship Stealth Submarine

Table 2 - Technological Development of Space Warfare

43. It is suggested that there has been another stage emerged when US withdrew from

ABM Treaty in 2003 to pursue the space weapon programmes.

44. In general context, technological superiority and space technology can be

equated to space warfare. So, with those capabilities, no doubt that satellite is a must for

great power in future. Based on economic, commercial and scientific reasons; many

developing countries such Malaysia were pursuing its space venture especially owning its

own satellites.

45. Today, almost all satellites have dual function modes, able to operate in times of

peace or war. During the Operation IRAQI FREEDOM Commercial satellites provided

over 80% of all satellite communications used by the US military. This success was an

obvious example of the space militarization.35

46. For space vehicle provision, research is actively under way on the development of

hybrid aircraft-rockets which can use conventional aircraft techniques to reach the upper

atmosphere, whereby they can launch into Low Earth Orbit.36

The most recent

32

Nordin Yusuf, Space Warfare (Johor: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 1999), p.593. 33

Ben Baseley-Walker, “Responsible launching: space security, technology, and emerging space state”

dated 29 March 2010. The Space Review website. http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1596/1. 34

Nordin Yusuf, Space Warfare (Johor: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 1999), p.227. 35

Collin S. Gray, Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare (London: Phoenix, 2006), p.307. 36

Ibid, p.71.

development was the Virgin Galactic, a spacecraft for space tourism developed by Burt

Rutan and a British billionaire Sir Richard Branson. Even though it was a public funded

program, its technological development will sooner or later affect the Revolutionary of

Military Affairs in space and national interest, as space power has been defined earlier.

For the same reason, Malaysia now is pursing the development of spacecraft for the

space tourism industry through initiation by Space Tourism Society – Malaysian Chapter

(STS-MC).37

MILITARY SPACE POWER

47. The primary role of the strategic bomber for nuclear deterrence was lost in 1960s

as the ballistic missile became a much more certain way of delivering nuclear weapons to

strategic targets.38

The strategic reconnaissance can also be obtained from satellite based

systems. The use of satellites has assumed increasing importance for reconnaissance,

communication and navigation.

48. Space capabilities could be prime targets for hostile exploitation. Adversaries,

likewise, are using space to their advantage. Space capabilities, at one time limited to a

few space-faring nations, are now commercially available to any states or non-states

actors.

DEVELOPMENT OF SPACE WEAPONS

49. The new capabilities of satellites system makes military increasingly dependent

on them, hence the satellites became vulnerable. Such offensive system may be ground-

based, air-launched, or space-based.39

50. Missile launched by a high-flying aircraft has been developed by US when F-15

launched ASM-135A ASAT missile destroys a target satellite in 1985; while Soviet had

developed manoeuvrable exploding satellites in 1980s.40

The test by China in 2007; a

Chinese weather satellite was destroyed by an anti-satellite system launched from

Xichang Space Centre.41

Recent developments suggest that this norm against the

weaponization in space is now threatened.

51. The development of space technology will inevitably lead to the militarization of

space, and space militarization will lead to confrontation in space. Therefore, space

warfare is a certainty in future because the use of space in war has become vital. Since

1983 when President Reagan launched Strategic Defence initiative (SDI), a system which

can destroy nuclear ballistic missile in flight, has kept war in space a topical issue.42

37

STS-MC is a non-state actor (NGO) actively promoting space tourism development in Malaysia. 38

Timothy Garden, The Technological Trap: Science and the Military (London: Brassey‟s Defence

Publisher, 1989), p.39. 39

Timothy Garden, The Technological Trap: Science and the Military (London: Brassey‟s Defence

Publisher, 1989), p.73. 40

Collin S. Gray, Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare (London: Phoenix, 2006), p.308. 41

BBC News, “Concern over China's missile test”. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/

6276543.stm 42

Timothy Garden, The Technological Trap: Science and the Military. (London: Brassey‟s Defence

Publisher, 1989), p.74.

52. The one loop hole in Outer Space Treaty 1967 is that it doesn't say anything about

the area just above the atmosphere. However, the treaty does prohibit placing nuclear

weapons or other WMD into Earth's orbit. But the question is, are lasers and particle

beams weapons of mass destruction? In 1999, 138 United Nations members voted to

reaffirm the Outer Space Treaty. Only the US and Israel abstained from the vote.

53. The most important component of space warfare is C4ISR which has been proven

in the last Gulf War. With the latest technology, the C4ISR has been upgraded by US in

order to wage a successful war, creating another new dimension of warfare known as

Cyber warfare and Network Centric Warfare (NCW).

CONTEMPORARY SPACE RIVALRY

54. The United States of America. Space assets are now vital to US in wedging

war by providing rapid global power projection and greater precision of war fighting.

Therefore, US military is now more concern in protecting its own space assets and about

the ability to keep opponents from using space assets in future warfare. Based on

technological advancement and economic capability, the US is the country most capable

to undertake a serious space weapons programme.

55. There was evidence suggesting that the former Bush administration‟s move

toward space weaponization was gaining momentum.43

Recent development was the

launch of ASAT Standard Missile-3 from the USS Lake Erie at a non-functioning US

reconnaissance satellite over the Pacific Ocean on 20 February 2008. Some scholars

opined that the US space weaponization plans would have potentially disastrous effects

on international security and the peaceful use of outer space.44

56. Latest development in Obama‟s administration concerning the space

weaponization is quite liberal, yet it is still unclear. Experts generally agreed that

Obama's statement signals a new direction in space diplomacy, but some said it does not

carry much meaning especially in the absence of key details of space weaponization.45

57. Russia. At present, Russia is still an important actor in any development related

to the militarization or weaponization of space due to the scale of the space program, the

existing industrial infrastructure, and the expertise retained by Russian companies.

However, the exact role that Russia would play in this rivalry is still uncertain.

58. The Russian leaders have shown their interest in the space programme which

seems to indicate that Russia has a potential to re-develop and support the military space

systems. There is a possibility that Russia will develop new missile defence and anti-

satellites programmes by taking account the experience and expertise that they have in

the past.

43

Theresa Hitchens, “Developments in Military Space: Movement toward space weapons.”

Research paper, Center for Defense Information, October 2003. 44

Pavel Podvig and Hui Zhang, Russian and Chinese Response to US Military Plans in Space.

(Cambridge: American Academy of Arts and Science, 2008). 45

Space.com website, “Obama's Proposed Space Weapon Ban Draws Mixed Response”.

http://www.space.com/news/090204-obama-space-weapons-response.html

59. Although it is highly unlikely that the relationship between Russia and the US

would reach the point of a competition or even an arms race in space, this possibility has

been widely used to justify space weaponization programs. It is therefore important to

consider whether the current state of the Russian space program supports the idea of

Russia as a competitor to the US in space.46

60. China. In a 1956 agreement, the Soviet had to transfer the rocket and nuclear

technology to China. By 1970, China has launched its first satellite, thus became the

fifth space faring country in the world. In April 1998 China began export of its satellite

technology to Iran, the Republic of Korea, Mongolia, Pakistan and Thailand.

61. In 2000, China has set a few plans in its space programme. Among them; to build

up an integrated Chinese military and civilian earth observation system; to establish an

independent Chinese satellite navigation and positioning system; to upgrade China's

launch vehicles; and to achieve the first Chinese manned spaceflight.

62. China just became the third nation to put a man in orbit in 2003, after Russia and

the US.47

Until today, China has launched more than 78 satellites into orbits. In 2000,

two satellites have been launched as an experimental positioning system, known as the

Beidou satellite navigation system.48

63. As implementation of the new plan began, the situation between the US and

China resembled that the second version of Cold War in space race has begun.49

The

similarity of the Chinese and US visions of the military use of space suggests that at the

same time the US Department of Defence makes very public statements about threats to

the US space infrastructure, the need to control space, and the inevitability of space

weaponization. These statements are then used by the Chinese to justify the

militarization and weaponization of their own space program.

64. To respond to the move by the US to deploy space weapons, the first and best

option for China is to pursue an arms control agreement to prevent space

weaponization.50

Some scholar suggested that China was trying to slow down the US

advancement in the space weapons technology so that China could catch up.

CONCLUSION

65. In conclusion, it can be predicted that the future war might be fought in space; for

simple reason is that most of the world's communications systems rely heavily on the

presence of satellites in orbit around Earth. Protecting these assets might seriously

motivate nations which dependence upon them to consider deploying space weaponry,

especially in conflicts involving space super power. These battle enhancements through

46

Pavel Podvig and Hui Zhang, Russian and Chinese Response to US Military Plans in Space.

(Cambridge: American Academy of Arts and Science, 2008). 47

Astronautix website, “China”. http://www.astronautix.com/articles/china.htm. 48

GPS Daily website, “China Launches Fourth Satellites”.

http://www.gpsdaily.com/reports/China_Launches_Fourth_Nav_Satellite_999.html. 49

Astronautix website, “China”. http://www.astronautix.com/articles/china.htm. 50

Pavel Podvig and Hui Zhang, Russian and Chinese Response to US Military Plans in Space.

(Cambridge: American Academy of Arts and Science, 2008).

space assets could be by the applications of new dimension of warfare such as C4ISR,

Network Centric Warfare, Cyber Warfare, or Information Warfare.

66. The space weapon which is being developed by space super power will pose a

devastating impact to the world population. Despite of that, in reaction to US

advancement, China is developing her space program which wary the world as well. The

US does consider attacks against its space assets as an act of war, but this has not deter

them from developing military space power. Consequently, China‟s increasing interest

in the military use of space poses serious challenges to the US military

67. In the liberal point of view, outer space is the common property of mankind. The

international community should take action now to prevent a space arms race and to

ensure the continued peaceful use of outer space. The effort by United Nations through

its the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) and United Nations

Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA); and other NGOs are highly praiseworthy so

that „we have peace on earth by preserving peace in space’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Collins, John M. Military Space Force: The Next 50 years. New York: Pergamon-

Brasey‟s, 1989.

Garden, Timothy. The Technological Trap: Science and the Military. London: Brassey‟s

Defence Publisher, 1989.

Gray, Collin S. Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare. London: Phoenix, 2006.

Mehuron, Tamar A. 2009 Space Almanac: The US Space Military in facts and Figures.

USAF Magazine, August 2009.

Nordin Yusuf. Space Warfare. Johor: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,1999.

Podvig, Pavel, and Hui Zhang, Russian and Chinese Response to US Military Plans in

Space. Cambridge: American Academy of Arts and Science, 2008.

Royal Air Force, AP 3456 Vol 1 – Principles of Flight. Royal Air force Publications.

US Air Force. Space Operation. USAF Doctrine Document 4, 1996.

US Air Force. Space Operation. USAF Doctrine Document 2-2, 2006.

US Air Force. Counter Space Operation. USAF Doctrine Document 2-2.1, 2004.

US Joint Chiefs of Staff. Space Operations. US Joint Publication 3-14, 2009.

United Nations Institute of Disarmament and Research (UNIDIR), Common Security in

Outer Space and International Law. Geneva: United Nations Publication, 2006.

United Nations Institute of Disarmament and Research (UNIDIR), Outer Space and

Global Security. Geneva: United Nations Publication, 2003.

United Nations Institute of Disarmament and Research (UNIDIR), Safeguarding Space

security: Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space. Geneva: United Nations

Publication, 2006.

Whitehouse, David. One Small Step: The Inside Story of space Exploration. London:

Quercus Publishing, 2009.

JOURNALS AND E-JOURNALS

Hitchens, Theresa. “Developments in Military Space: Movement toward space

weapons.” Research paper, Center for Defense Information, October 2003.

Krepon, Michael, “Weapons In the Heavens: A radical and Reckless Option”, Arms

Control Association.

http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2004_11/Krepon (assessed on 23 April 2010).

Krepon, Michael. “China's Military Space Strategy: An Exchange”, Survival, 50:1(2008),

157-198.

Pollpeter, Kevin. “The Chinese Vision of Space Military Operations”.

http://www.defensegroupinc.com/cira/pdf/doctrinebook_ch9.pdf (assessed on 1 April

2010).

Rajan, D.S. “China - A „double-faced‟ Space Power”, South Asian Analysis, 2440 (02

November 2007).

http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cpapers25%5Cpaper2440.html (assessed on 17

February 2010).

Smith, Marcia S. “China‟s Space Program: An Overview”, CRS Report for Congress,

Order Code RS21641(Updated 18 October 2005)

THESIS AND DISSERTATIONS

Jussell, Judson J., Major USAF. “Space Power Theory: A Rising Star”. Air Command

and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 1998.

http://www.fas.org/spp/eprint/98-144.pdf (assessed on 1 April 2010).

CONFERENCE PAPERS

DeBlois, Bruce M. “Militarization, Weaponization and Space Sanctuary: Past Dialogues,

Current Discourse, Importan Distinction”. Paper presented at the international conference

on Outer Space and Global Security, Geneva, Switzerland, November 26–27, 2002.

Hays, Peter L. “Current and Military Use of Space”. Paper presented at the international

conference on Outer Space and Global Security, Geneva, Switzerland, November 26–27,

2002.

WEBSITES

About.com: US Government Info website. “US Withdraws from ABM Treaty”.

http://usgovinfo.about.com/library/weekly/aa061702a.htm (assessed on 25 May 2010).

Arms Control Association website. “New START: Good News for US Security”.

http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2010_05/Pifer (assessed on 25 May 2010).

Astronautix website, “China”.

http://www.astronautix.com/articles/china.htm (assessed on 20 May 2010).

Atomic Archive website, “Outer Space Treaty 1967”.

http://www.atomicarchive.com/Treaties/Treaty4.shtml (assessed on 10 May 2010).

BBC News, “Concern over China's missile test”.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6276543.stm (accessed April 2, 2010).

Ben Baseley-Walker. “Responsible launching: space security, technology, and emerging

space state” dated 29 March 2010. The Space Review website.

http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1596/1 (assessed on 14 May 2010).

Córdoba, Dr. S. Sanz Fernández de. “100 km Altitude Boundary for Astronautics”.

Fédération Aéronautique Internationale - Astronautic Record Commission.

http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp (accessed on 1 April 2010).

GPS Daily website, “China Launches Fourth Satellites”.

http://www.gpsdaily.com/reports/China_Launches_Fourth_Nav_Satellite_999.html

(assessed on 4 June 2010).

United Nation Office for Outer Space Affairs. “United Nations Treaties and Principles on

Space Law”. United Nations.

http://www.oosa.unvienna.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/treaties.html (accessed on 1 April

2010).

Space and Technology website.

http://www.spaceandtech.com (assessed on 15 May 2010).

Space.com website, “Obama's Proposed Space Weapon Ban Draws Mixed Response”.

http://www.space.com/news/090204-obama-space-weapons-response.html

DVD

BBC DVD, Space Race: Superpowers, Secrets and Soaring Ambition. (BBC Worldwide

Limited, 2005).

Mej Wan Azwan Azwari bin Wan Ali TUDM graduated from

RMAF Officer Cadet School in 1992. Served in mission to

Bosnia in 1997, currently a Category „A‟ Qualified Flying

Instructor and holds a Post Graduate Diploma In Defence and

Strategic Studies from University Malaya in 2010.