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MH-8:Making War More Lethal
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New Technologies, Institutions, & IdeasStrategic Overview
• Late 19th Century – New Imperialism in West grows:– Scramble for Empire – Africa, Asia, LATAM:
– Competition & conflict emerges as a result;
– West controls 85% all Lands by 1914;
• Industrialization accelerates & expands:– Impact: advanced technology in West;
• Weapons technology increases West’s killing power;
• War now more dangerous & lethal;
• Central government’s power grew dramatically:– Control over $$$ resources & population;
– Able to direct state’s resources to military & war
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Impact of Late 19th Century Advances• Effect of advances & changes influenced & shaped:
– West’s military tactics, techniques, concepts, & methods– Organization & equipment for control & support– Weapons advances: rifles, machine guns, artillery:
• Greater increase range, accuracy, rate of fire• For artillery: accurate plunging fire (back side of hills)• Weapons now wore lethal, efficient, & effective in war
• For Navy: Dreadnought superseded older Battleships:– Impact: Shaped western International Affairs & National
Security Strategy– Western nations’ FP became more aggressive
• (Asia, Africa, & Caribbean for US)
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New Military & Naval Concepts & Ideas
• Major impact on models & systems for waging war– Adopt successful military models of recent history
• Prussian General Staff – successes studied– Austria-Prussian-1866 & Franco-Prussian Wars- 1871
– Planning, Command & Control copied & adapted
• A.T. Mahan’s theory & impact on Naval Strategy:– West embraces Sea Power & Control of the Seas
– Blue Water Navy sought by budding Imperialists
– Build Battleships & bases to protect $$$ markets
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Three Regional Conflicts • Three Regional Conflicts of the period:
– Refuted or verified these changes in methods of war
• Spanish-American War• Boer War• Russo-Japanese War
• Above offered a varied mix of lessons learned – Too often with the wrong lesson drawn- Boer War
• Weapons technology advances had a significant impact on tactics – Whether or not commanders were
alert to them & able to adapt
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New Weapons Technology
• Impact of Industrial Revolution:– Steam & steel:– More powerful explosives;– Population increases;– Greater destruction & killing power;
• Impact of various weapons technology advances:– Smokeless powder (visibility & concealment);– Artillery (potential for rapid indirect fire support):
• High round trajectory• Recoil mechanism• Breech loading
– Tactical impact was mixed
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New Weapons Technology- 2• Machine Guns:
– Replaced direct fire artillery support (up front)
– Artillery (plunging fire) placed to rear of infantry
• Rifles: increased range, accuracy, & rate of fire:– Smokeless powder;
– Magazine loaders;
– Metallic cartridges;
• Relevant innovations:– Telegraph & field telephone (HQ to front lines)
– Command, Control, Communication (C3)
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New Weapons Technology- Details
• Machine Guns:– Before 1884: required external power source
• Example=> Gatling gun
– Maxim invented a self-powered gun in 1884• Capable of firing 600 rounds per minute
– Russians first to employ machine guns during the Russo-Japan War
– British Vickers Maxim- more portable at 38 lbs & used WWI & II
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Advances in Rifles
• Sequence of advances in Rifles:– 1871: Mauser invents first
metallic cartridge, bolt action
– 1885: von Mannlicher invents clip loading magazine
– 1886: French Lebel rifle invented
– 1893: U.S. Army adopts .30 caliber, 5 shot Krag -Jorgenson rifle
• Employed during Spanish-American War
– 1903: U.S. bolt-action Springfield rifle invented & adopted
• Primary infantry weapon of WWI
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Advances in Artillery• Technical & Tactical changes in Artillery (arty):
– Firing trajectory became more rounded
– Able to fire behind enemy infantry
• (with tactical implications)
– Recoil system develop using hydrostatic buffer & recuperator system => tactical impact?
– More accurate sustained fire possible
• Key examples used in WWI:– Germany’s heavy guns (Fort busters) & on ships
– French 75 mm field gun- 1893- light, mobile, rapid fire
– Austria-Hungary’s Howitzers
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New Weapons Technology- Details-2
• Smokeless Powder:– Invented by Paul Vioillee (1884)
– Advantages: more powerful & stable
• Eliminated telltale smoke (position), cleaner & faster, more even burn
• Longer range projection of round
• Related Developments & Advances:– TNT- increased stability & yield of high explosives
– Improved Steel- improved design strength for lighter weapons
– Telegraph & telephone improved command, control, & communication (C3)
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Prussian General Staff System
• Impact Prussian victories in 1866 & 71:– Studied extensively throughout Europe & Japan:
• Prussian model & composition:– Elite general staff (direct peacetime access to Kaiser)– Highly educated & trained professionals (63 to 600+)
• Prussian model adapted in various ways & degrees:– Great Britain – ambivalent & stuck in British tradition– France- impressed but conflicted in attitude– United States:
• Traditional American attitudes (No standing pro Army)• Congress: concerns toward professional officers
– Japan- impressed & adopted Prussian model
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Navies & Naval Theorists
• Growing global (West & Japan) interest in Navies: – Competition for Empire & Social Darwinism
• As expressed by Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden”– Improved capability in range, speed, & fuel efficiency– British Dreadnought replaced old BBs- now obsolete– Mahan’s theory of Sea Power had major impact
• Naval Theorists & three contrasting views:– Admiral Aube & Jenue’Ecole – commerce raiding:
• Guerre de course and the small nation & Fleet (France) – Julian Corbett & Maritime Strategy:
• The real role of Navies: support the land force & a Nation’s overall grand strategy (Army’s view)
– Alfred Thayer Mahan & The Influence of Sea Power:*
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Alfred Thayer Mahan
• Major impact on Western Europe, Japan, & United States– Analysis of history of sea power throughout ages– Island Nation characteristics & maritime orientation
• Key purpose of Navy: Command of the Sea:– Ensure friendly commerce & trade of merchant fleet– Deny same benefits to Nation’s enemies
• Key Tactical Objective of Fleet:– Destroy enemy’s Fleet at sea in battle (Battleships)– Mahan: “Never divide the Fleet.”
• Professional Navy officer corps attitude on Mahan– More BBs means bigger Navy budget & promotions
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Small Regional Wars – overview
• Contributing Social Factors – late 19th century:– Social Darwinism applied Darwin’s theory of
“Survival of the fittest” to society & Nations=>– New Imperialism (prestige & image of power)– Christian missionaries (convert native peoples)– Economic incentives (trade, markets, raw materials)
• Contributing Western Technical refinements:– Screw propeller on ships (more efficient & protected)– More efficient steam engines:
• Less fuel consumption• Greater ranges• Greater cargo loads
– All above allowed West to dominate the “Third World”
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Escalating Competition
• Result: Competition among Western Powers grows• Industrial West easily overcame native resistance
through the use of:– Gunboat Diplomacy
– Threats & shows of force
– Bombardments of port cities
– Power projection, intervention, & invasion
• Main problem main with small wars: – According to Major Caldwell:
– Indigenous peoples follow their own rules & not West’s
• (Guerilla warfare & indigenous insurgencies)
– His unheeded advice demonstrated in 3 small wars
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Spanish American War- Prelude • America’s control of Western Hemisphere:
– Started with the Monroe Doctrine of 1823– Growing US – Spanish tensions in Caribbean – Cuban Revolution in 1895 & negative Spanish PR
• Two key events influencing American attitudes:– Spanish insult to President McKinley– Remember the Maine!
• US preparations for war:– Navy mostly ready with 4 new 1st class Battleships– Army totally unprepared:
• Lack of troops, training, logistics &competent HQ staff• Small unit operations experience only• No Strategic, Operational, or Tactical Plans
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Spanish American War- Strategy & Tactics
• Lack of strategic plan & tactical objectives:– Evolving strategic objectives: take Cuba, Philippines, & PR
– Ambiguous tactical objectives – plan as you go– Santiago, Cuba evolves as target for the Army
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Spanish American War- Strategic Deployment
• Navy divides the Fleet– Navy deploys to Cuba &
gains “control of the sea”
– Traps Spanish Fleet within Santiago
• General Shafter deploys with Navy to Caribbean – Conducts amphib landing
• Admiral Dewey deploys to the Philippines– Boldly sails into Manila Bay at night
– Destroys Spanish Fleet next morning
– Captures Manila & becomes hero
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Naval Strategic & Operational Execution
• Admirals Sampson & Schley deploy as ordered off Cuba– Schley blocked Adm Cervera’s
Fleet within Santiago harbor
– But Spanish guns blocked any further advance into the harbor
• What must happen first before the Navy can proceed to finish its mission? ?______________________*
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Army Operational & Tactical Execution• US Army was tasked to take out guns blocking harbor
• General Shafter landed at Daiquiri (later at Siboney)
• Tactical objectives:
– El Caney on RF (Fortified=> US severely repulsed & stalled)
– Kettle Hill & San Juan Hill (Concentrated Arty finally succeeds)
– But Shafter’s troops had stalled & want to await reinforcement
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Naval Tactical Execution• Fortunately for USN, Spain orders Cervera’s Fleet to break out
– He complies with what is essentially a suicide mission
• Como Schley attacks as Spanish attempt to flee; sink several ships
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Spanish American War- Results• Costly tactical “victory”
– Especially for the Army
– Future President becomes a hero
– With a little help from the Buffalo soldiers
• Operational & strategic victory:– Cuba & Puerto Rico put under US control
– Spain ejected from Western Hemisphere for good
– Downside: Philippines evolved into long term occupation and bloody insurgency
• American motives questioned as a result
• Lessons Learned:– Numerous US tactical planning & logistics shortfalls identified (also
generalship)
– Good defense appeared to trump offense
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The Second Boer War (1899-1902)• Overview:
– Bloody & costly war between Britain & Boers
• Conventional Phase:– British finally able to
dominate but Boers would not give up
– Excellent marksmen with modern rifles who refused to play by conventional rules or tactics
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The Second Boer War (1899-1902)• Guerrilla War Phase:
– Boers waged effective GW– Conducted hit & run ambush
against small separated Brit units – “Block Houses” were built along
main railroad lines to protect them
• Meanwhile Lord Kitchener employed harsh tactics to deal with the guerrillas & their supporters (families) – His scorched earth strategy
destroyed many farms– Families of guerrillas were placed
in concentration camps • Over a third imprisoned died
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The Second Boer War - Results
• British finally repress insurgency – Casualties: 8K British soldiers vs. 4K Boer fighters– Over forty thousand civilians died of disease in camps
• Significance of the war:– British appreciation for marksmanship of Boers– Tactical innovations:
• Indirect artillery fire (against positions on reverse slope)• Creeping barrage with advancing infantry
– Employed as tactic for cover and rushing advance
• Lessons not Learned:– Failure to incorporate above into future tactics (WWI)– Boer War considered unique & not relevant by generals
• Russo-Japanese War seen as more likely (Euro mil. observers)
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Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) • Origin of war:
– Struggle for control of Port Arthur & Manchuria
– Japan feels threatened when Russians occupy Manchuria
– Russia starts RR construction to Port Arthur
• Japan launches surprise attack on Russia Far East Fleet at Port Arthur– Follow up w/invasion
force of four armies (shown by white arrows)
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Russo-Japanese War- Significance• Japan’s determination displayed at Mukden:
– Flanking & frontal assaults– Wave upon human wave against
well entrenched defenders
• Role of Prussian System & Japan’s Sea Power & (Togo’s victory at Tsushima)
• Significance- War demonstrated complexities of:– Strategic & tactical surprise
• Surprise attack on Russian Fleet at Port Arthur caught Russia off guard
– Complex Command, control, & employment of large armies
– *Tactical impact of modern weapons used in defense against offense:
• Machine gun & effective indirect fire
– Costly but effective frontal and f flank assaults by waves of Japanese troops (with tragic implications for WWI)
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Russo-Japanese War’s Impact• Japan demonstrated superior operations & tactics
– Especially at sea: faster, modern battleships, superior gunnery, & better trained & motivated seaman
• Geo-Political & Strategic impact:– Japan gained parts of Manchuria &
Sakhalin’s lower half
– Eastern Power had defeated Western Power for first time:
– Great prestige was gained by Japan on the world stage
– Russia descended into 1905 Revolution
• Wrong lesson learned: – Élan can overcome strong defense
armed with machine guns & artillery
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Assessment
• Dramatic change in war’s conduct between 1871-1914:– New weapons & advanced technologies
– New techniques & tactics
– Command & HQ staff advancements:
• Command, control, & communications improved
• Strategic & logistical planning improved;
– Prussian system analyzed & selectively adapted
• By Japan, France, Britain, & United States
• Tactics employed during Russo-Japanese War– Indication of how future wars would be fought (WWI)
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Assessment- 2• Major changes linked to societal changes:
– Central government control & exploitation of:
• Industrial Revolution;– Technological advances & R&D & weapons & equipment innovations
• Population increase and its control & direction;
• Politics to support national goals (Nationalism & propaganda)
• Management & use of $$$ resources (mobilization for war)
• Reforms & application of lessons learned mixed:– Small wars provided new ideas & tactics to consider
– Still wrong lessons drawn from last war fought:
• Offense considered superior to Defense => World War I
• Morale (élan) over entrenched machine guns & arty?!!