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MH-8:Making War More Lethal

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New Technologies, Institutions, & IdeasStrategic Overview

• Late 19th Century – New Imperialism in West grows:– Scramble for Empire – Africa, Asia, LATAM:

– Competition & conflict emerges as a result;

– West controls 85% all Lands by 1914;

• Industrialization accelerates & expands:– Impact: advanced technology in West;

• Weapons technology increases West’s killing power;

• War now more dangerous & lethal;

• Central government’s power grew dramatically:– Control over $$$ resources & population;

– Able to direct state’s resources to military & war

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Impact of Late 19th Century Advances• Effect of advances & changes influenced & shaped:

– West’s military tactics, techniques, concepts, & methods– Organization & equipment for control & support– Weapons advances: rifles, machine guns, artillery:

• Greater increase range, accuracy, rate of fire• For artillery: accurate plunging fire (back side of hills)• Weapons now wore lethal, efficient, & effective in war

• For Navy: Dreadnought superseded older Battleships:– Impact: Shaped western International Affairs & National

Security Strategy– Western nations’ FP became more aggressive

• (Asia, Africa, & Caribbean for US)

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New Military & Naval Concepts & Ideas

• Major impact on models & systems for waging war– Adopt successful military models of recent history

• Prussian General Staff – successes studied– Austria-Prussian-1866 & Franco-Prussian Wars- 1871

– Planning, Command & Control copied & adapted

• A.T. Mahan’s theory & impact on Naval Strategy:– West embraces Sea Power & Control of the Seas

– Blue Water Navy sought by budding Imperialists

– Build Battleships & bases to protect $$$ markets

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Three Regional Conflicts • Three Regional Conflicts of the period:

– Refuted or verified these changes in methods of war

• Spanish-American War• Boer War• Russo-Japanese War

• Above offered a varied mix of lessons learned – Too often with the wrong lesson drawn- Boer War

• Weapons technology advances had a significant impact on tactics – Whether or not commanders were

alert to them & able to adapt

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New Weapons Technology

• Impact of Industrial Revolution:– Steam & steel:– More powerful explosives;– Population increases;– Greater destruction & killing power;

• Impact of various weapons technology advances:– Smokeless powder (visibility & concealment);– Artillery (potential for rapid indirect fire support):

• High round trajectory• Recoil mechanism• Breech loading

– Tactical impact was mixed

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New Weapons Technology- 2• Machine Guns:

– Replaced direct fire artillery support (up front)

– Artillery (plunging fire) placed to rear of infantry

• Rifles: increased range, accuracy, & rate of fire:– Smokeless powder;

– Magazine loaders;

– Metallic cartridges;

• Relevant innovations:– Telegraph & field telephone (HQ to front lines)

– Command, Control, Communication (C3)

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New Weapons Technology- Details

• Machine Guns:– Before 1884: required external power source

• Example=> Gatling gun

– Maxim invented a self-powered gun in 1884• Capable of firing 600 rounds per minute

– Russians first to employ machine guns during the Russo-Japan War

– British Vickers Maxim- more portable at 38 lbs & used WWI & II

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Advances in Rifles

• Sequence of advances in Rifles:– 1871: Mauser invents first

metallic cartridge, bolt action

– 1885: von Mannlicher invents clip loading magazine

– 1886: French Lebel rifle invented

– 1893: U.S. Army adopts .30 caliber, 5 shot Krag -Jorgenson rifle

• Employed during Spanish-American War

– 1903: U.S. bolt-action Springfield rifle invented & adopted

• Primary infantry weapon of WWI

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Advances in Artillery• Technical & Tactical changes in Artillery (arty):

– Firing trajectory became more rounded

– Able to fire behind enemy infantry

• (with tactical implications)

– Recoil system develop using hydrostatic buffer & recuperator system => tactical impact?

– More accurate sustained fire possible

• Key examples used in WWI:– Germany’s heavy guns (Fort busters) & on ships

– French 75 mm field gun- 1893- light, mobile, rapid fire

– Austria-Hungary’s Howitzers

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New Weapons Technology- Details-2

• Smokeless Powder:– Invented by Paul Vioillee (1884)

– Advantages: more powerful & stable

• Eliminated telltale smoke (position), cleaner & faster, more even burn

• Longer range projection of round

• Related Developments & Advances:– TNT- increased stability & yield of high explosives

– Improved Steel- improved design strength for lighter weapons

– Telegraph & telephone improved command, control, & communication (C3)

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Prussian General Staff System

• Impact Prussian victories in 1866 & 71:– Studied extensively throughout Europe & Japan:

• Prussian model & composition:– Elite general staff (direct peacetime access to Kaiser)– Highly educated & trained professionals (63 to 600+)

• Prussian model adapted in various ways & degrees:– Great Britain – ambivalent & stuck in British tradition– France- impressed but conflicted in attitude– United States:

• Traditional American attitudes (No standing pro Army)• Congress: concerns toward professional officers

– Japan- impressed & adopted Prussian model

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Navies & Naval Theorists

• Growing global (West & Japan) interest in Navies: – Competition for Empire & Social Darwinism

• As expressed by Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden”– Improved capability in range, speed, & fuel efficiency– British Dreadnought replaced old BBs- now obsolete– Mahan’s theory of Sea Power had major impact

• Naval Theorists & three contrasting views:– Admiral Aube & Jenue’Ecole – commerce raiding:

• Guerre de course and the small nation & Fleet (France) – Julian Corbett & Maritime Strategy:

• The real role of Navies: support the land force & a Nation’s overall grand strategy (Army’s view)

– Alfred Thayer Mahan & The Influence of Sea Power:*

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Alfred Thayer Mahan

• Major impact on Western Europe, Japan, & United States– Analysis of history of sea power throughout ages– Island Nation characteristics & maritime orientation

• Key purpose of Navy: Command of the Sea:– Ensure friendly commerce & trade of merchant fleet– Deny same benefits to Nation’s enemies

• Key Tactical Objective of Fleet:– Destroy enemy’s Fleet at sea in battle (Battleships)– Mahan: “Never divide the Fleet.”

• Professional Navy officer corps attitude on Mahan– More BBs means bigger Navy budget & promotions

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Small Regional Wars – overview

• Contributing Social Factors – late 19th century:– Social Darwinism applied Darwin’s theory of

“Survival of the fittest” to society & Nations=>– New Imperialism (prestige & image of power)– Christian missionaries (convert native peoples)– Economic incentives (trade, markets, raw materials)

• Contributing Western Technical refinements:– Screw propeller on ships (more efficient & protected)– More efficient steam engines:

• Less fuel consumption• Greater ranges• Greater cargo loads

– All above allowed West to dominate the “Third World”

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Escalating Competition

• Result: Competition among Western Powers grows• Industrial West easily overcame native resistance

through the use of:– Gunboat Diplomacy

– Threats & shows of force

– Bombardments of port cities

– Power projection, intervention, & invasion

• Main problem main with small wars: – According to Major Caldwell:

– Indigenous peoples follow their own rules & not West’s

• (Guerilla warfare & indigenous insurgencies)

– His unheeded advice demonstrated in 3 small wars

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Spanish American War- Prelude • America’s control of Western Hemisphere:

– Started with the Monroe Doctrine of 1823– Growing US – Spanish tensions in Caribbean – Cuban Revolution in 1895 & negative Spanish PR

• Two key events influencing American attitudes:– Spanish insult to President McKinley– Remember the Maine!

• US preparations for war:– Navy mostly ready with 4 new 1st class Battleships– Army totally unprepared:

• Lack of troops, training, logistics &competent HQ staff• Small unit operations experience only• No Strategic, Operational, or Tactical Plans

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Spanish American War- Strategy & Tactics

• Lack of strategic plan & tactical objectives:– Evolving strategic objectives: take Cuba, Philippines, & PR

– Ambiguous tactical objectives – plan as you go– Santiago, Cuba evolves as target for the Army

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Spanish American War- Strategic Deployment

• Navy divides the Fleet– Navy deploys to Cuba &

gains “control of the sea”

– Traps Spanish Fleet within Santiago

• General Shafter deploys with Navy to Caribbean – Conducts amphib landing

• Admiral Dewey deploys to the Philippines– Boldly sails into Manila Bay at night

– Destroys Spanish Fleet next morning

– Captures Manila & becomes hero

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Naval Strategic & Operational Execution

• Admirals Sampson & Schley deploy as ordered off Cuba– Schley blocked Adm Cervera’s

Fleet within Santiago harbor

– But Spanish guns blocked any further advance into the harbor

• What must happen first before the Navy can proceed to finish its mission? ?______________________*

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Army Operational & Tactical Execution• US Army was tasked to take out guns blocking harbor

• General Shafter landed at Daiquiri (later at Siboney)

• Tactical objectives:

– El Caney on RF (Fortified=> US severely repulsed & stalled)

– Kettle Hill & San Juan Hill (Concentrated Arty finally succeeds)

– But Shafter’s troops had stalled & want to await reinforcement

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Naval Tactical Execution• Fortunately for USN, Spain orders Cervera’s Fleet to break out

– He complies with what is essentially a suicide mission

• Como Schley attacks as Spanish attempt to flee; sink several ships

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Spanish American War- Results• Costly tactical “victory”

– Especially for the Army

– Future President becomes a hero

– With a little help from the Buffalo soldiers

• Operational & strategic victory:– Cuba & Puerto Rico put under US control

– Spain ejected from Western Hemisphere for good

– Downside: Philippines evolved into long term occupation and bloody insurgency

• American motives questioned as a result

• Lessons Learned:– Numerous US tactical planning & logistics shortfalls identified (also

generalship)

– Good defense appeared to trump offense

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The Second Boer War (1899-1902)• Overview:

– Bloody & costly war between Britain & Boers

• Conventional Phase:– British finally able to

dominate but Boers would not give up

– Excellent marksmen with modern rifles who refused to play by conventional rules or tactics

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The Second Boer War (1899-1902)• Guerrilla War Phase:

– Boers waged effective GW– Conducted hit & run ambush

against small separated Brit units – “Block Houses” were built along

main railroad lines to protect them

• Meanwhile Lord Kitchener employed harsh tactics to deal with the guerrillas & their supporters (families) – His scorched earth strategy

destroyed many farms– Families of guerrillas were placed

in concentration camps • Over a third imprisoned died

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The Second Boer War - Results

• British finally repress insurgency – Casualties: 8K British soldiers vs. 4K Boer fighters– Over forty thousand civilians died of disease in camps

• Significance of the war:– British appreciation for marksmanship of Boers– Tactical innovations:

• Indirect artillery fire (against positions on reverse slope)• Creeping barrage with advancing infantry

– Employed as tactic for cover and rushing advance

• Lessons not Learned:– Failure to incorporate above into future tactics (WWI)– Boer War considered unique & not relevant by generals

• Russo-Japanese War seen as more likely (Euro mil. observers)

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Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) • Origin of war:

– Struggle for control of Port Arthur & Manchuria

– Japan feels threatened when Russians occupy Manchuria

– Russia starts RR construction to Port Arthur

• Japan launches surprise attack on Russia Far East Fleet at Port Arthur– Follow up w/invasion

force of four armies (shown by white arrows)

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Russo-Japanese War- Significance• Japan’s determination displayed at Mukden:

– Flanking & frontal assaults– Wave upon human wave against

well entrenched defenders

• Role of Prussian System & Japan’s Sea Power & (Togo’s victory at Tsushima)

• Significance- War demonstrated complexities of:– Strategic & tactical surprise

• Surprise attack on Russian Fleet at Port Arthur caught Russia off guard

– Complex Command, control, & employment of large armies

– *Tactical impact of modern weapons used in defense against offense:

• Machine gun & effective indirect fire

– Costly but effective frontal and f flank assaults by waves of Japanese troops (with tragic implications for WWI)

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Russo-Japanese War’s Impact• Japan demonstrated superior operations & tactics

– Especially at sea: faster, modern battleships, superior gunnery, & better trained & motivated seaman

• Geo-Political & Strategic impact:– Japan gained parts of Manchuria &

Sakhalin’s lower half

– Eastern Power had defeated Western Power for first time:

– Great prestige was gained by Japan on the world stage

– Russia descended into 1905 Revolution

• Wrong lesson learned: – Élan can overcome strong defense

armed with machine guns & artillery

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Assessment

• Dramatic change in war’s conduct between 1871-1914:– New weapons & advanced technologies

– New techniques & tactics

– Command & HQ staff advancements:

• Command, control, & communications improved

• Strategic & logistical planning improved;

– Prussian system analyzed & selectively adapted

• By Japan, France, Britain, & United States

• Tactics employed during Russo-Japanese War– Indication of how future wars would be fought (WWI)

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Assessment- 2• Major changes linked to societal changes:

– Central government control & exploitation of:

• Industrial Revolution;– Technological advances & R&D & weapons & equipment innovations

• Population increase and its control & direction;

• Politics to support national goals (Nationalism & propaganda)

• Management & use of $$$ resources (mobilization for war)

• Reforms & application of lessons learned mixed:– Small wars provided new ideas & tactics to consider

– Still wrong lessons drawn from last war fought:

• Offense considered superior to Defense => World War I

• Morale (élan) over entrenched machine guns & arty?!!