.. , .. , ..
41 01 02 - ,
41 01 03
3-
3
2004
621.382(075.8) 32.852 73 82
: ,
- ..
.. : . . . 41 01 02 - -
, 41 01 03 - . 3 . . 3: / .. , .. , .. . .:, 2004. 88 .: .
ISBN 985-444-721-9 (.3)
- , .
621. 382(075.8) 32.852 73
1: .. -
. 3 . .1: . .:, 2001. 48 .: .
2: .., .. : . . . . 3 . .2: . .:, 2003. 76 c.:.
ISBN 985-444-721-9 (.3) .., ..,
.., 2004 ISBN 985-444-308-6 , 2004
82
1. - 1.1 ......4 1.2 - .....7 1.3 ....10 1.4 .....12 1.5 ...17
2. - 2.1 ..24 2.2 31 2.3 ...46 2.4 ....49
3. - 3.1. .55 3.2. - 61 3.3. .66 3.4. 73 3.5. .....77
,
() -. , . , - , , . - , . , , , . - , , , (, ), - ( ), - , , , , - .
. , - , , - .
, - , . - .
, - , . XX - () - - . - - .
, .
1.
, . , , -. , - , - , . - , , - , - . , - - , .
- - . , .
1.1.
, . , -. - . , - , -. .
, = Aexp(i). ,
W = 1 + 22 = A12 + A22 + 4A1*A2cos(1 2). (1.1)
, (1 2). - - - , , . -, , -
. -, - , . , , - .
- (Aharonov Bohm effect). , , . 1.1. , - , - , , . , , - , . , .
. 1.1.
. - , . , - , . , , - , , - . , . = 2(/0), 0 = h/e - (h , e ). , .
, 0, , . (-) , -. , . , -, , . - , ( ) .
, . . 1.2 - .
. 1.2.
(),
. . 0 /2 = h/2e. . , .
magnetic field
multiwall nanotube
electric current
i
Magnetic
, ()
, -, - -, - -
, -
field (Tesla)
. , . .1.3 - ( ), - . - . - , , , , . - , , . , ( A), , ( B). - , - B-. - . - e2/h, . (universal conductance fluctuations). - .
. 1.3.
, ,
, , - . , .
1.2. -
, , . -. , - -
, . , - . - - . , . , . [1, 2] - [3, 4].
(Landauer Buttiker formal-ism) . , , , -. - . 1.4, , - i .
. 1.4. , - -, i -
i. , i- ,
Ii = 2evi(dni/dE)i. (1.2)
e ; vi ; dni/dE - ; i =I o, o . 2 . , ,
dni/dE = 1/hvi, (1.3)
h .
, , i-,
i
Ijj
Ii
Ii = (2e/h)i. (1.4)
. , - Ri . , i- , , , - Tij j- i- . i-
=ij
jijiii TRheI ])1[(2 . (1.5)
, -
, Ni ,
=ij
jijiiii TRNheI ])[(2 . (1.6)
, i = eVi, Vi , i- . , . , m n , :
== iN
mn mnijTijT
iN
mn mniRiR ,,, .
(1.7)
Ri m, n. Tij. m n.
, i- , , , -
=+ ji iNijTiR . (1.8)
(1.6) -
. . . , -
, . , , , .
, , , kBT - . , - , .
- . - . . - , S- (- ) . , , , , . , , , . , . , -. , , , .
1.3.
-
. , , .
, , . 1.5,, 1 4, - 2 3.
. 1.5. ()
, ()
, , - , . , I2 = I3 = 0 I1 = I4, () R14,23 = (V2 V3)/I1. - k l, m n,
Rmn,kl = (h/e2)[TkmTln TknTlm]/D, (1.9) D , Ri Tij. - m., n, k, l, -, .
- .
, , , . - , , -, . , , , , - . , , - . 2 3, , 3 , 2. , (1.9),
R14,23 = (h/e2)[T21T34 - T24T31]/D. (1.10)
, T24 T31 - , T21 T34 - . - - , . -, , - ( 1) - ( 3), 90 ( 4). , T24T31 > T21T34 .
- . - (. 1.5,).
, - - ( ) - , - , , .
1.4.
(Hall effect)
XIX . - . , - - , . 1.6. - , - , . ( ), . V, I , R = V/I. - R, , -. VH, - , . - RH = VH/I.
. 1.6.
RH = B/(en), B ,
e , n ( ) . , . , R - , . 1.7,. , - .
, - , - , , - . - (. 1.7,) - (). (quantum Hall effect). ( ) . 1980 . - [5]. , , -, RH = h/(ie2), h , i . (integer quantum Hall effect). . h/e2, - , .
currentI
voltagedropV
HallvoltageVH
.1.7. () ()
, , - i , , 1/3, 2/3, 2/5, 3/5 . . [6]. i = p/q, p q , q . - (fractional quantum Hall effect).
RH , - R . , - . R . , - . - , .
. 1.8. , ,
() ()
, , , . c = eB/m, , m . , - -. (Landau levels). Ei = (i + )c i = 1, 2, -, , , -, . 1.8,. c. - . , - kBT
(extended states). - , , . (localized states) - . , , , ( . 1.8,). , - , . . - . - (mobility edge). - , (edge states), - . , , , .
, , EF. EF - , , . -, , , - - . , - . , .
, - , (filling factor). RH = h/(ie2) = (h/e)/(ie) - 0 = h/e e - i. , , . i - , , - . , i - , e2/h.
- . , - , - . - . - " " -, , , . - , , . 1/3, , -, . , , , - , , - . , , . - . - , , .
- - , , , [7], . - , - . , . , . [1-8], (- ).
1.5.
, , -. - . - - , . .
-
. - , , - . - , , , (quantum interference transistor). - . - , - .
, , (1989) (1989). , . - . 1.9,. ( ), - . () - . , - , , () , - , 50 . - , .
, ( ), - , L - , .1.9,.
, ( ), . , - (), . 100% (.1.9,) . , - .
(1984). , - , , , L, . 1.10. , , , -
. , .
.1.9. , ()
() ()
L
VG
GATE (Port
DRAIN (Port 2)
SOURCE (Port 1)
) )
Con
duct
ance
(Nor
mal
ized
to e
2 /h)
2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0,0
0,00 1,25 2,50 3,75 5,00 L (Normalized to wavelengths)
4,0 3,0 2,0 1,0 0,0
0 5 10 15 20 L ( Normalized to the wavelengths of the lowest transverse mode)
Con
duct
ance
(Nor
mal
ized
to e
2 /h)
.1.10.
, , 2, - . , - - , (kF kF)L=2n, kF L n . - , 100 % - .
(1990) , -. : kFL=2n, kF .
, . - . GaAs 105 /, ( ) - 100 10-12 . , , - , RC- . - , , - .
, - . , - . - -
Gate
I L Drain Source
70 100 . . , - -. , . - - .
GaAs/AlGaAs 10 . - , - , . - , , , , . , , - . - , , , . , , .
( ) - (.1.11). , , , , , , p1sin1 = p2sin2. , - kF , kF = (2n)1/2, , :
sin1/sin2. = (2/1)1/2. (1.11) .
.1.11.
() ()
- . (1990). , , -, . 1.12. - , , - , , - , , . - -, , - .
. , . ( ) , - (), . - ( - ) - , . , , .
n1 n2
12
n1 n2
Conduction Band Edge
Fermi Level
Heterojunction Surface
Gate Metal
.1.12.
(-
), - , - . , , - . , -, .
[8], ( ).
Electron Collectors A B C
10 m
Refractive Prism
Electron Emitter
2.
. , - - , . - , .
2.1.
, . , - , , , -. - . - , .
, , - , - . . 2.1.
. -. . - -. , . . - .
, - +e/2 ( ) e/2 ( ), . - - . (Coulomb blockade).
elec tron
c onductor conductordielec tric
tunneling
. 2.1. [9]
. . [9, 10]. (19851986 .) - (single-electronics). - .
- , . 2.2,. - Ct -
Rt, - . Ce . - - , :
E = e2/2C eV, (2.1) C = t + Ce. , E 0, , |Vt| = e/2C. e2/2C (Coulomb gap).
. 2.2. () - ()
. 2.2,. - . - Rt. - e/2C f = I/e, I .
- . - kBT
10-16 , , - . , , , - , , Rt > h/e2. - , . - , .
, - . 2.3.
. 2.3. , () ()
-
. - , - . , , CL CR. C, CL CR. , - , - . - , -, , .
, -. .
CC
LC
R
ELECTRODE
RELECTRODE
L
Central island(quantum dot)
Tunneljunctions v
Ce
C RL t L
C RR t R
, . [8].
, -, . - = I L = I R = eVo, . 2.4,. , - I, e/C. - , e/C - .
. 2.4. () -
() ,
, , Vo - Vo < e/2C. - - (I V) .
- , - . e2/2C. - .
0 (EF). eVo -, , , .
E = 1/2[(e/C + Vo)2C Vo2C]. (2.2)
-e/2C e/2C
I
V
, , - eCR/C. ,
V C(e/2C + Vo)/CR. (2.3)
- - . C CR >> CL . 2.4,. , Vo = 0 -, .
. - , -, (. 2.5).
. 2.5. -
,
(Coulomb stair-
case). . - , .
, - , . , .
, -, - . , -, . , - . - , , - . ,
, , -. , - -. , - .
, - , . - , . - , .
, .
, - , 0 , - (Rt >> h/e2). , -. ( ) . , , - , - . - - - , . , - , . . - , . - (co-tunneling) - (macroscopic quantum tunneling). - , - , , , - , .
(elastic) (inelastic) . .
.
VEEe
hI )11(
8 2122
21 += , (2.4)
1 2 ; ; E1 , ; E2 , .
- . - (e2/2C).
, , - , . - - . :
VeVTkEEe
hI B ])2
()[()11(6
222
212
21
++= . (2.5)
- -. . - , - , I ~ V3. -- . . , , . - , , . , , , -. - .
2.2.
, , , , . , -
. .
(single-electron transistor) - , , . .2.6. : , .
. 2.6. () ()
. 2.7.
. 2.7. , () ()
Gate
Source Drain
tunneling junction
Rd, Cd
Rs, Cs
Vd,s
Vs
Vd
Vg,s
Vg
Cg
quantum dot
CgVg+CdVd Cd
dSg
gg VCC
VC +Cg+CS CdCg+Cd
CS
,2
12
1
+
ggd
dggd
VCeneC
VVCeneC
(2.6)
+++ dgggsVVCene
CC 21 .
21
+ gg
d
VCeneC
(2.7)
.2.8, Vd Vg, (2.6) (2.7).
. 2.8. Vd
: Ids
, . () ( .2.8,, . , , , , , , , .2.8, ,
0 1 2 0 1
1,0,1 2,1,0
0 1,0 2,1
-1 1 2 Vg
Vd
-e/2Cg e/2Cg 3e/2Cg 5e/2Cg Vg
Ids
Vg=0
Ids
A
)
0
Vg (); Vg () Ids Vds ()
- . , - , . , , . Vds, -
Vds
, /2g, - . . - 1 , - . , , - . - -. Ids Vg ne/Cg + e/2Cg ( Ids), .2.8,. Ids Vg . Ids Vds . - Ids Vds . 2.8, : e/2Cg. , , - Vds~0, Vg=0, -. , . - +1. [10]
(, +1) = [ ] ,/)1,(exp1)1,(1
2 TknnFnnF
Re Bt ++
(2.8)
F(n, n+1) , -, Rt . - s (, +1), - d (, +1). - 1 +1.
=dt
dpn tot(n+1, n)pn+1 + tot(n-1, n)pn-1 [ tot(n, n+1) + tot(n, n1)]pn, (2.9)
tot(n, n+1)= s(n, n+1)+ d(n, n+1). (2.10)
,1=+=n np (2.11)
I
= npeI [s(n, n+1)- d(n, n+1)]. (2.12)
- ( ) , -.
- . - . , , , . , -, ( ) ( ).
. , - , . - .
- , - .
- . (single-electron trap) [11, 12] .2.9,. - , U, , -, .
. , .
= (/0)1/2, (2.13)
0 , - ( ). , * - . -
Wmax (e2/2C)min (M, N/4), (2.14)
N .
.2.9,. - (U = U+) - , . (N M), . , , - . , - U- < U+ ( .2.9,). - n(U) - , - (.2.9,).
- -.
Ec/kBT, -, N. - .
12 ( ) - .
- - , - (single-electron turnstile) .2.10,.
* ,
.
.2.9. (), - () ()
source island trapping gate array island
Q(t)
U
-e
-e
W(i)
UU+
U=0
i0 1 2 3 4
n
n=2
n=1
n=0U- 0 U+ U
.2.10. () (); -,
()
- 1990 . [12]. V = 0 , : ( ) U . - U. V 0 , U , - , U . , .
, (sin-gle-electron pump), .2.10, [13]. - Ui(t), , (.2.10,), . ,
U(t)
+V/2
-V/2
gate
source
U1(t) U2(t) U3(t) U4(t) U5(t)
drain
U(t)
i 1
5
23
45
t 0
. , . - .
- , , f = I/e. .2.11,. - R : Rs>>R>>RQ. .2.11, .
, - V Vt = e/2C, , I > 0,1e/RC.
, , - . , , , - . -, , , , - , V > kBT/e, - ( , , ).
- () . , - , - , (~1 ) - (
.2.11. () ()
, .2.11, (DC current stan-dard). - f. - n - , , , I = nef. - , .
(2 + 2)- , I/I 10-3. , -, .
tunnel junction (C,R)
resistor (RS)
I(t) V
Q (t)
Q(t)
+e/2
-e/2
t=e/
t
( ) - - , - - . , - -, , .
, - 10-12 ~10, - 10-16.
1,510-8, - - , - - ( ). , , .
, , 10-10 ( ) , .
- ( - ), -. f - - , 1/RC.
, , - . - . - , (I = ef ~ ). , - , - .
. , , - , - , - .
- (N > 1) - (temperature standards) [14, 15].
, - - (|V| < Vt) V = NRI + const |V| >> Vt. Ec/kB, Ec = e2/C, : G dI/dV Gn 1/NR. - V = 0 - G/Gn Ec/6kBT , V = 5,44 NkBT/e.
, - , - . -, , , - . (~ 1%) , , . (, -, ) .
, , - .
- . - (voltage state logics) (charge state logics).
[16]. , , , , , . - , , - 1 0.
(. .2.8,) , -, . , -.
- .2.12 [17]. - , . - , -
- . 1 .
, - . - 10-4e/RC. - 10-7 .
- . - . .
1987 . [18]. - - , . , , -. , - .
- , - (single-electron transistor parametron) [19, 20].
, (.2.13,). , .
- , .2.13,. - Ec . , . , - . , - . Es - . - W(t), , , Es . - Es . -, -
, , .
A+B
+VDD
A
B
AB
-VDD
+VDD
A A
-VDD
+VDD
A
B
-VDD
A
A
A
B
B
B
.2.12.
.2.13. () ()
middleisland
rightisland
left island
ES (signal field)
EC(t) (clock field)
-e
-e
ECEt
W(t) -e
- - . .
-, . , 10 .
-, - - , h/e2 (25,8 ).
-, , () . - , - , , - .
-, - - . . , , - .
.
2.3.
, - -. , -, . - (resonant tunneling). - -, .
- . . [21]. , - - . .2.14.
. 2.14. -
- -
GaAs-AlGaAs. - GaAs, - GaAlAs. - --, Si-CaF2, Si-SiO2.
E F E1
E F V
E F
V
2E1/e
E F
E F
E F
E 1
. a , E1 = 22/(2m*a2). , (EF) . , - , , .
V - , - . , . - E1 , . - , . E1 . , . - . - , - V = 2E1/e.
E1 - . . , - (negative differential resistance) . -, , - .
- . , , - z. - m*. k , - xy. z , . - . . T(Ez) Ez -. x- y- Ex,y = (2/2m*)(kx2 + ky2). E = Ex,y + Ez .
- :
= 003 ))]('()()[(4 zzzyx kEEfEfETdkdkdkeI
h , (2.15)
f(E) f(E') - - . [f(E) - f(E')] , . - E' E E' = E + eV, V - .
-. , - . - , , -- . , , - - - - - .
2.4.
-, , , (1012 ) [22-24].
- (resonant tunneling diode RTD) , - , , . - , - - . , - - . 2.15.
. 2.15. - (), - (), - - ()
- -
I(V) C(V), , Rs. I(V) C(V) , Rs , . C(V) . , . - , . - . , I(V) C(V) .
- - , . : - (peak current density) (peak voltage) - , (valley current density), (peak-to-valley ratio).
. , , , - .
- ( ), . . -
I
C Depletion
V
V
C(V) I(V)
RS
, . , -, , .
, ( ), , . , , . , , GaAs AlAs - 1 - 4 . , - . - - - , .2.16.
. 2.16. GaAs-
AlAs - : ;
(PVR)
- - . , - , : -, , , .
RC-. -, - . - - .
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Barrier Thickness (ML)
Experiment Theory 10
5 104 103
102 101
J(A
/cm
2 )
103
102
101
100
PVR
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Barrier Thickness (ML)
Experiment Resonant Tunneling Theory
, , - . - tlife, . 0
tlife = h/0 , (2.16)
h , 0 , - .
0 -. , - . . - - 0,1 . - .
- , - , RsC(V). , .2.15,.
- - ( ). p-n . -- - . , -- 6,8 105 /2 1,5 10-7 [23]. , , - C/Jp, 0,22 /. , - . , , 10 /. - , - , . , , - ( - ). , -- , . , - , - - p-n-.
- - (resonant tunneling transistor) .
- , .2.17. , - , - (. . 2.15,).
.2.17.
-
- -
, . - (resonant tunneling bipolar transistor) - - (resonant tunneling hot electron transistor) [24-26].
- - - , . - , - - . - .
, - - (gated resonant tunneling diodes). p-n- . .2.18 . -, , , - , p-n-, .
Emitter
n+-InGaAsGate 1 Gate 2
n--GaAs
n--GaAs
n+-GaAs
S.I. GaAs sub.
p+-region p+-regionCollector
i-AlAs 1.5 nm i-GaAs 5 nm i-AlAs 1.5 nm
.2.18. - GaAs-AlAs , .
-
- -, , - . - -, (monostable-bistable transition logic elements MOBILEs) [26].
- , [27]. . . 2.19 .
. 2.19. ,
I
I
I
Vp 2Vp
Vbias
Vbias
Vbias
S2 S1 S2S1
S
S
S
PE
PE
PE
S
Voltage Voltage
Vbias
Vout
(.2.19,), - , (2Vp). - , S1 S2 (.2.19,), 2Vp. . , - ( - ) S1 ( ). - , - (.2.19,) . - Vbias .
, , , , , . - [28].
3. C-
, - - , - , - (spintronics). . - XX - - - -. , , -, , , . -, , , .
C , . (magnetore-sistance), - , . - R/R0 , R - , R0 . - , -
. - , . cc - - . , . 3.1. , - , - . - (giant magnetoresistance effect). , , . - (current-in-plane CIP) - (current perpendicular -to-plane CPP). - . 3.1. - , - . , - , , , . , , , - . .
low current high current
low resistancehigh resistance
.3.1. : ; , . , - ( ), - . - . Fe-Cr- -Cu- . - 100 - . - . ( ) ( ), . - (oscillatory exchange coupling). . - , - - . - . , , - , - , ( ).
high resistance
low current
EF
low resistance
high current
EF
.3.2. - : ; , . - , - , . - . - , , . . 3.2 . - (), - , , . - , . , - - . , , - . , , , , , . 10 . , . . , - , . . - , . , , (spin valve). , - , - .
, , , - . - 1% . , -, , - . , , , -, - , , (Ni80Fe20). , . , - ( -). , - , , () - . - . , , ( ) . - 104 /. - - . - , . - - 105 /, . - . - - , , - , -. - . c (pseudo-spin valve). , ,
, -
.
-, . , , , -. -, , . - , . , . - 510 % 800 8000 /. - - , . - , . -, , . - [29] , - , . , -, - , . , , . , - -. - , , rI = 22 f ls f. (3.1)
- (, , ) - : = 2 f[1 ] = 2 f[1 + ], (3.2)
f - lsf - . - lsf . df dn, df dn , lsf, -
),(/1),(/1
1),(apprappr
appr++
= , (3.3)
p ,
[ ] ndnfdfpr 2)(12)( )( ++=+ , (3.4)
2/)()()( )(
++=+ prprapr . (3.5)
n , -. , , ,
2)2()()()( MbrMfdfapRpRapR +=
. (3.6)
- - - rb -, , r = 2rb[1 ] r = 2 rb[1 + ]. (3.7)
- - , - - , . 3.2. - - , , -
. - . -, , . - , . - , , - (tunneling magnetoresistance effect). , . - , CoCr, CoFe - , , Al2O3, MgO, Ta2O5, . - , - . -, , , -. - . - .3.3, CoFe-Al2O3-Co-, -, CoFe-. - , : + - . , , , - ( ). , - . - , ( ). - , - .
.3.3. . . , - ( , , - , , . .). , , . . . - . - , , - . , . - - - [30], -, , . - , - . , , , ,
21
21
12
PPPP
RRR
RR
ap
pap
+== . (3.8)
0
Mag
neto
resi
stan
ce (%
)
Magnetic field (Oe)0-600 -400 600-200 400200
0
0
2.5
5.0
10.0
7.5
0.060.12
-0.50-0.25
CoFe/Al O /Cojunction
2 3
CoFe film
Co film
Rp Rap - ; P1 P2 - . - . 3.4 - CoFe-Al2O3-Co-.
.3.4. CoFe-Al2O3-Co
-, 0 . . - - , - . -, : - , ( -), . - , , . - . , 2023 %, - Al2O3- . [31, 32] , . , - GT(T), - , ,
Mag
neto
resi
stan
ce (
%)
5
Bias (V)
00
10
15
20
1 2 3 4 5 6
4.2 K77 K295 K
GS(T). , , G = GT(T)[1 + P1P2cos] + GS(T), (3.9)
P1 P2 -; . , P1 = P2 = P(T), - , ( = 0), G = GT(T)[1 + P(T)2cos] + GS(T), (3.10)
, , - ( = 180), G = GT(T)[1 P(T)2cos] + GS(T). (3.11)
, -,
)sin(0 CTCTGGT =
, (3.12)
G0 T = 0 K C = 1,387x106d/U1/2, (1/2/K), , d U. - . P(T) = P0(1 BT3/2), (3.13)
P0 T = 0 K, - B - , . , B , . , - -, , , - - : GS(T) = ST, (3.14)
S , . - , - . 4/3, - -. - - . 3.5. - (1 BT3/2). - . - , , , , - - . - , , - , , , .
.3.5. () - ()
3.3.
. - , - , - . , - -, - -, -, , - . , - -
0.7
100 200 300 400
0.8
0.9
1.0
100
0.1
0.2
200 300Temperature (K) Temperature (K)
GT
G(
)/(7
7 K
)
GG
S/
Co/Al O /Co/NiO2 3
Co/Al O /Ni Fe2 3 80 20Co/Al O /Co/NiO2 3
, - .
- .
. - gBB B, g- 2, .
AIIBVI . ZnMnSe ZnBeMnSe . . - AIIBVI , - . n- n-ZnSe -. - - . 20 . 100 %- .
AIIIBV. , Ga1-xMnxAs -. , - , n- . -, - ( < 1 ) - - , - .
(- ) . , g- - . - , .
- - - . - , (Rashba effect) [33, 34]. -
. , , , - -.
, . - . - :
Hso = ( ) zk ys , (3.15) - ; z - ; k . - s - Esurf.
, - Hso . -
.
( )2 2 y k z2
k
sm= + h (3.16)
,
,
kmkkE s= 2)(
22h . (3.17)
,
k = 0 - k, s - , - .
, -, . -- - k, - - k, - . - , (Shubnikov-de Haas effect), .
- s, c [35]
GaAs
InAs
2D- 2,5x10-10 9,0x10-10 2D- 6,0x10-10
- InAs- GaAs - () g- - , .
- , , , - , , kz ~ /dz, dz . , - k
, , , . , - .
, -, - . . - , , - , - . , , - -. -, . -, -, , , -. - . . - , - , .
-, - ZnSe, -. - , . , . , . , -, , . - - , , , GaAs. , -- , BeTe-ZnMnSe-BeTe. BeTe ZnMnSe - GaAs. ZnMnSe- ZnBeMnSe-- AlGaAs 8090 % . . , , -
ZnSe . - .
, - - . , - , - -. , , -, - - -.
-
- . , - . , - -, .
, -. , , , , , . - (Bir-AronovPikus mechanism). . p- . - - (Elliot -Yafet mechanism), - - , - . , -.
, - IIIV, (Dyakonov Perel mechanism). - - - , IIIV. , , GaAs . , - - (100)- , . , -
IIIV . , , -, , . , . , GaAs - (110) - - , 2 -. , (100)- . ( ) - ZnSe- ZnCdSe- -. - - - , - - .
, - - . , - - , , .
- . - . , , - - AlGaAs-GaAs-AlGaAs- - , .
GaAs- . 3.6.
.3.6. AlGaAs-GaAs-AlGaAs- ZnBeMnSe
ZnBeMnSe - . GaAs AlGaAs- . - ( , ) ZnBeMnSe. - ZnBeMnSe-n-AlGaAs - i-GaAs- . , p-AlGaAs- , .
GaAs - ( ), - - , - . - GaAs- , - (mj = + 1/2) - (mj = 1/2) (mj = + 3/2 mj = 3/2) (mj = + 1/2 mj = 1/2) . - --, --, .
, , - mj 1. -- (mj = 1/2) , mj 1/2 3/2, , -
ZnBeMnSespin aligner
n-AlGaAs i-GaAs p-AlGaAs
+3/2-3/2
-1/2 +1/2
+1/2-1/2 mj
mj+1/2-1/2
-3/2
+3/2
-1/2+1/2
mj
mj
h
33 1 1
h
mj 1/2 +1/2. , , . - , , - , . Popt - - P
Pnnnn
nnnn
nnnnoptP 5,02
133
33=
+=
+++++=
. (3.18)
Popt = 50 % -
100 %. , -
- . , - -. . - . , , .
3.4.
, -. . . 3.7.
.3.7.
(0 10 K)
(, Cu, Au, Al) , - . (, Pb, Nb) - , - Tc. , , , Fe, Co, Ni, ,
Temperature
Res
ista
nce Kondo rise
super-conductivity
Tc TK
(Kondo effect) [36]. , . TK, , (Kondo temperature).
, .. (1961), - (. 3.8). - , - E0 . , , , , . , , . - , - . -, U. - E0 (.3.8,). - h/E0. - , - (.3.8,) (.3.8,). - , - . .
initial state
E0
U
final statevirtual state
Density of states
Ene
rgy
E
k TB K
.3.8.
-
. , -, - (Kondo resonance). - , - (Kondo state), , . . - - , , -, . , , - (Kondo clouds). - , . , .
- -. , . - . -
= AT5 BlnT + C, (3.19) A, B, C , , - , .
EUUEEEUTK
)(exp
200 += , (3.20)
E , (.3.8,).
. 1 100 K.
- R R0 - R/R0 = f(T/TK). , 1/2, f(T/TK). , - , U, E0 E.
-
, - , . - . , - , - . . . , , , , -, , s = 1/2.
- - --, - . - . 3.9,. - , - , . E - . , .
.3.9. () ()
, , - .
- . . . .
, - . - ,
dot
outcomegate
incomegate
gate
electrondrain
electronsource
n = even
n+1
n+2
n+3
n+4
Gate voltage
Con
duct
ance
(/
)e
h2
0
2
1
T = 1 K
T = 25 mK
. , . , - . . 3.9, - , -, . , . , . - , .
-, - T/TK. 2e2/h. , , , - . - .
, , .
3.5.
- . - . - . , -. - . - , - , - , - , . -, .
, - -, , - IBM 1997 . , - , - (),
10 100 . , , - . , . , , , -. , - , . - .
.3.10.
.3.10. ,
, -, -
() - ( ) .
- , . - . , . - , . , - , , , - , - . 25 .
, -, , -, .
magneticdomain
readhead
Iin Iout
S
NN
S
. 3.11. , , - , - , -. , - . -, -. , - , , - , . (xy) , . , - , , -, , - . . , , -.
.3.11. ,
, . , , - , , -, -. , , -, - , , . 90. -.
bit line
sense line
world line
. - . , - . , - , - . , , , .
-
- - . 3.12. , . . - , , , - . - 30 %.
.3.12. ,
-
, - . -, , ( - , - ). , - , , - ( ), , , -
. . , - . , , . , , , - . -. -.
, - , , -. . . , , - , - , .
-
- , . . 3.13 - [37, 38]. - , n- , -. - , .
n-Si emitter
NiFeAu
AuCo
Pt
+
+_
_ e-
e-
e-
e-
e-e-
emitter collectorspin-valvebase
VebVbc
E
EFn-Si
collector
Ie
Ic
.3.13. () () -
Si-Pt-, Si-Au- NiFe-Au-Co--
, n- , - . - - , .
- , , NiFe Co, , (u). NiFe Co - - . - . - . -, Pt Au . , . Si-Pt , . , . -, Si-Au, 0,1 Si-Pt-, . - , - .
. - ( I0), - -. Si-Pt- , , . , 0,5 1 -. , - , , -. , . , - . , - . , , Ic , -. - - .
, , , - -.
- , - ( magnetocurrent), , () ,
apcI
apcI
pcIMC = , (3.21)
p - .
- , - . . 3.14. - . - . , (22 ) NiFe (5 ) , NiFe . - . , 300 % 500 % 77 K. , . - .
.3.14. -
-
, , . - , - . , , , , . , -
Col
lect
or c
urre
nt (
arb.
uni
ts)
Magnetic field (Oe)0-40 -20 4020
0
12
8
4
, , - . - , , .
- - ( ). - , , .
, , - - . - .
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. 2004, . 83
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