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NRC Africa chose to study the African youth because they are an integral part of future socioeconomicdevelopment in the region; they have the potential to be the drivers of this given theirnumbers. Sub-Saharan Africa is the youngest region of the world - 44% of population is under15yrs. The overall goal of the project was to understand in-depth what being an African youth is allabout; map out the various challenges and opportunities in terms of education, employment andentertainment so as to create meaningful mobile solutions for development and empowerment ofyouth in Africa.
Citation preview
Nokia Research Center
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Research Team
Nokia Research Centre Africa:
Jussi Impio – Research Leader
Mokeira Masita-Mwangi – Social Scientist / Researcher (Project Team Leader)
Faith Ronoh-Boreh – Researcher (Ethiopia, South Africa)
Nancy Mwakaba – Researcher (Nigeria, Zambia)
Nyambura Kimani – Researcher (Senegal)
Country Coordinators:
Wahid Manaye – Ethiopia
Tsakani Nghalaluma – South Africa
Enock Chisanga – Zambia
Elijah Agnew Mbwavi – Senegal
Ajiga Olusegun – Nigeria
Other country support team:
Valentine Righa – Respondent Recruiter, Kwale, Kenya
Diana Nkirote Gitonga – Youth Scout, Nairobi, Kenya
Jane Mulanda – Youth Scout, Nairobi, Kenya
Patrick Kariuki – Youth Scout, Nairobi, Kenya
Cecilia Mkamburi – Youth Scout, Kwale, Kenya
Juma Shibe – Youth Scout, Kwale, Kenya
Binthamisi Toulu – Youth Scout, Kwale, Kenya
Harry Mwawasi – Youth Scout, Kwale, Kenya
Teke Kaleab – Respondent Recruiter, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Nahom Asrat – Youth Scout, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Tiblets Kaleab Birhane – Youth Scout, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Asebe Tekeste – Respondent Recruiter, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
Tariku Bacha – Youth Scout, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
Kidist Megzebu Aklilu – Youth Scout, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
Zodwa Shongwe – Respondent Recruiter, Johannesburg, South Africa
Samantha Bungali – Youth Scout, Johannesburg, South Africa
Luyanda Mbatha Ngoeese – Youth Scout Johannesburg, South Africa
Lesetja Reatlegile Mogoba – Respondent Recruiter, Jane Furse, South Africa
Percy Mabau – Youth Scout, Jane Furse, South Africa
Sammy Rasomane – Youth Scout, Jane Furse, South Africa
Moses Mpeta – Youth Scout, Lusaka, Zambia
Natasha Kabanda – Youth Scout, Lusaka, Zambia
Daive Sing’andu – Youth Scout, Chikankata, Zambia
Hamukamba M Hang’andu – Youth Scout, Chikankata, Zambia
Koutob Naoto Gilchrist – Moderator, Senegal
Sossehange Ouraga – Respondent Recruiter, Thiès, Senegal
Aissatou Ndiaye – Respondent Recruiter, Saly, Senegal
Abdoulaye SY – Respondent Recruiter, Thiès, Senegal
Moize – Youth Scout, Dakar, Senegal
Sunday Olaniyan – Moderator / Interviewer, Nigeria
Debbie Erinosho – Respondent Recruiter, Nigeria
Tulu Ojoabere – Youth Scout, Lagos, Nigeria
Suleodu Odutayo – Youth Scout, Ikorodu, Nigeria
Maragaret Eniola Apena – Youth Scout, Ikorodu, Nigeria
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Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa2
Contents
CHAPTER ONE: STUDY BACKGROUND 12
Study Rationale 12
Study Locations 13
Target Respondents 18
Research Methodology and Techniques 19
Research Questions 22
Report structure and content 23
CHAPTER TWO: EDUCATION 26
Education in Africa 26
Perceptions and youth attitudes towards education 36
An Educational Day at Starays Academy, Kibera, Nairobi 42
Student life and experience at Chikankata Basic School, Zambia 49
CHAPTER THREE: LIVELIHOODS 54
Youth and money 56
Livelihood opportunities; do they exist? 57
Ideal jobs versus the reality 68
Attaining the ideal jobs 70
Business as Usual at Kwale Youth Business Centre, Kwale, Kenya 71
All in a day’s work at the Sub-Saharan Africa Research and Training Institute, Addis Ababa 73
CHAPTER FOUR: LIFESTYLE 76
Youth categories 77
Pastime, fun and entertainment 86
Keeping Fit at the Cornichian ‘Sweat Factory’ Corniche Beach, Dakar Senegal 87
A Night out Partying at OZ Club in Soweto 89
Dressing 91
Traveling 95
Dreams and aspirations 99
Perceptions 108
Youth and Health 110
Reaching out to the Youth with Mobile Clinic Heath Services through the Arts in Kisauni, Kenya 115
CHAPTER FIVE: MEDIA AND COMMUNICATION 120
Mobile Phones 121
Computers 126
Mass Media 127
Social Networks 128
Nokia Research Center
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CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS 132
Education 133
Employment 135
Entertainment 137
Tables and Figures
Figure 1: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Kenya 13
Figure 2: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Ethiopia 14
Figure 3: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for South Africa 14
Figure 4: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Zambia 15
Figure 5: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Senegal 15
Figure 6: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Nigeria 16
Figure 7: Adolescent births per 1000 women in Kenya 111
Figure 8: Adolescent births per 1000 women in Ethiopia 112
Figure 9: Adolescents births per 1000 women in South Africa 112
Figure 10: Contraceptive use in South Africa 112
Figure 11: Adolescent births per 1000 women in Zambia 113
Figure 12: Adolescents births per 1000 women in Nigeria 114
Table1: Kenya focus group discussions composition 20
Table2: Ethiopia focus group discussions composition 20
Table3: South Africa focus group discussions composition 20
Table 4: Zambia focus group discussions composition 20
Table 5: Senegal focus group discussions composition 20
Table 6: Nigeria focus group discussions composition 20
Table 7: Types of immersions / observations 21
Table 8: Information areas 23
Table 9: Structure of education, content, capacity and technology use in education 29
Table 10: Enrollment rates in 6 African countries 37
Table 11: What youth in Africa like / dislike about school 40
Table 12: Examples of young people’s ideal jobs 68
Table 13: African youth categories 78
Table 14: Pastime activities for youth in Africa 86
Table 15: Youth descriptions of cool guys and hot chicks 93
Table 16: Health statistics of Senegal 114
Table 17: Internet usage in Africa 126
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa4
AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
BT Bluetooth
CBO Community Based Organisation
CDs Compact Discs
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CFA Franc Cefa
CRE Christian Religious Education
CV Curriculum Vitae
DFID Department for International Development
DHS Demographic Health Survey
DJ Disc Jockey
DoCWILs Department of Communication Web Internet Laboratories
EDP Entrepreneurs Development Programme
EFA Education for All
ETH Ethiopia
EU European Union
EUR Euro
FC Football Club
FGD Focus Group Discussion
FGM Female Genital Mutilation
FIFA International Federation of Football Associations
FOMO Fear of Missing Out
GAP Graduate Attachment Programme
GHC Geography History and Civics
HIV Human Immuno Deficiency Virus
IMEI International Mobile Equipment Identity
ILFS International Labour Force Survey
ILO International Labour Organisation
ICTs Information Communication Technologies
IRE Islamic Religious Education
IT Information Technology
JETS Junior Engineers Technicians and Scientists Club
Joburg Johanessburg
KBC Kenya Broadcasting Corporation
KCPE Kenya Certificate of Primary Education
KCSE Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education
KEN Kenya
KES Kenya Shillings
KIE Kenya Institute of Education
KIIs Key Informant Interviews
KKV Kazi Kwa Vijana
KMTC Kenya Medical Training College
KTN Kenya Television Network
LGAs Local Government Areas
LICODEP Likoni Community Development Programme
LLB Legum Baccalaureus / Bachelor of Laws
LYCC Likoni Youth Community Centre
MC Master of Ceremony
MP Member of Parliament
List of Abbreviations and Acronyms
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MPCC Multi Purpose Community Centres
MSMEs Micro Small and Medium Enterprises
NBS National Bureau of Statistics
NDE National Directorate of Employment
NERDC Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council
NGO Non Governmental Organisation
NIG Nigeria
NOAS National Open Apprenticehip Scheme
NRC Nokia Research Centre
NYSC National Youth Service Corps
OBE Outcome Based Education
PC Personal Computer
PITs Personal Information Terminals
PLC Public Limited Company
Prim Primary
R Rand
RADTS Rural Agriculture and Development Training Scheme
REP Rural Employment Promotion
RHRU Reproductive Health Research Unit
RHS Rural handicrafts Scheme
SA South Africa
SART Sub Saharan Africa Research and Training Institute
Sec Secondary
SEN Senegal
SMS Short Message Service
SNS Social Networking Sites
SOW Schools on Wheels
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
SPW Special Public Works
Sq/km Square Kilometers
SSA Sub Saharan Africa
SSE Small Scale Enterprises
STD Sexually Transmitted Disease
STI Sexually Transmitted Infection
TD Technical Drawing
3D Three Dimension
TV Television
TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training
UAE United Arab Emirates
UBE Universal Basic Education
UCAD University of Cheikh Anta Diop
UK United Kingdom
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNGASS United Nations General Assembly Special Session on HIV and AIDS
USA United States of America
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USD United States Dollar
VCT Voluntary Counseling and Testing
VSD Vocational Skills Development
WIBA Women International Boxing Association
ZAM Zambia
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa6
Prologue
In Africa 42% of the population is 15 years or younger. Many Asian countries managed to utilize
similar demographic structures by recruiting great masses of working age youth to low paying industrial
jobs. This attracted foreign investment and enabled rapid economic growth in India, China and some
other Asian countries. The situation in Africa compared to Asia 10 years ago is somewhat different: Africa
has 56 countries, corrupted governance, immature legislations, low education level, etc. Altogether it
is fair to say that most African countries are not yet ready for the “industrial revolution”, despite the
availability of young, healthy and motivated labor. Frances Steward from the Development Studies
Department in Oxford University says in his study “Root causes of violent conflict in the developing
countries” that the number of unemployed young men correlates with the overall instability of the
country. An idle mind is the devils workshop, says an old Christian proverb. Idle young men are also
a workshop and a resource for radical political leaders and other economically influential people that
are often behind the conflicts in Africa. The more idle young men there are, the more likely you are to
have war like conflicts. Young girls with low education level and no jobs are more likely to get into early
marriage and give birth to a large number of children or get into prostitution, as our study will show
you. Here are the two extremes where big numbers of youth with very little opportunities can lead:
Asian type economical wonders or internal and external conflicts and increased instability.
This study aims at understanding the lives of young people in 6 African countries from their
own perspective. What are the hopes and fears, who their heroes and role models are and what are
the realistic opportunities for these young people. With this insight we are better equipped to create
mobile solutions which are engaging and empowering at the same time. Mobile phones are part of
the lives of African youth. If one doesn´t yet have a phone, he or she is saving for it right now. Mobiles
can provide an effective channel for reaching African youth with empowering tools of self-expression,
education and employment.
African youth in general lack opportunities, this can create phenomena such as the “Yahoo
Boys” in Nigeria (whose products are a common annoyance and referred to as “Nigerian letters” on the
receiving end). Here we have a group of entrepreneurial young men with few opportunities to utilize
their skills in a legal way and operating in an environment where the grey area is so wide, that this kind
of activity is socially more or less acceptable. Can we offer something for the Yahoo Boys and people like
them where they can legally benefit from their adventures in a virtual world and pursue their ambition
in a more sustainable manner? Are we able to provide something for the rural girls with no access to
education and very little hope of getting a job? Though these challenges seem great, often just a little
push, or pull to the right direction is enough for the young person who is balancing between the ability
to sustain one´s life or not, between the legal and illegal or between hope and hopelessness. Mobile
solutions have a great promise in giving this little extra empowering push, and it is our challenge and
responsibility to deliver the tools for it.
Jussi ImpiöResearch Leader
Nokia Research Center Africa
Nokia Research Center
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About Young Africa Project
NRC Africa chose to study the African youth because they are an integral part of future socio-
economic development in the region; they have the potential to be the drivers of this given their
numbers. Sub-Saharan Africa is the youngest region of the world - 44% of population is under
15yrs. The overall goal of the project was to understand in-depth what being an African youth is all
about; map out the various challenges and opportunities in terms of education, employment and
entertainment so as to create meaningful mobile solutions for development and empowerment of
youth in Africa. The study was carried out in 6 countries in SSA namely Kenya and Ethiopia in the
east, South Africa and Zambia in the south and Senegal and Nigeria in the west. The main study was
qualitative in nature seeking to explore the the issues in-depth through group discussions, in-depth
interviews, ethnographic immersions and participatory youth scouts. Supporting pre-studies were
also conducted i.e. desk study (secondary data) and real time youth insights.
Findings on Education:
How accessible is education to young people in Africa? It appears that access to a good formal
education is still a challenge for many African youth. Completion of primary school equals the end of
the road for many trying to acquire a ‘good’ formal education. Hundreds of thousands drop out every
year after primary school as there are not enough secondary schools to accommodate everyone. Also,
while primary school is free in most places many cannot afford to pay secondary school fees and other
associated costs. Similarly many more drop out after secondary school because there are not enough
public universities to accommodate all. Most of those left out cannot afford fees at private universities.
The option for many of these drop outs is either to join vocational or technical training insitutions or
informal schooling altogether. Another factor contributing to the poor access is the severe shortage of
qualified trained teachers to deliver the curriculums to students in Africa. Rural and public schools are
especially affected and as such student teacher ratios are quite appalling. It is possible to find extremes
where one teacher has over 100 students in their class. Some country governments e.g. Ethiopia and
Kenya are introducing digitized curriculums and broadcasting live lessons to schools in an effort to
try and mitigate lack of teaching staff. However ICT infrastructure is still very poor (including lack of
electricity in most rural areas) and where ICT facilities exist they are limited and poorly maintained.
How relevant is the education in Africa? On the most education does little to prepare young
people for the realities of the job market. Curriculums are heavily theoretical with little or no practical
activities incorporated. The method of instruction is also mainly lecture based with little opportunity
for students to exercise creativity and critical thinking. In some countries revision and rationalization
of the curriculums has seen elimination of ‘practical’ subjects such as Art and Craft, Music, Home
Science among others which the youth appreciated for the technical skills they were previously able
to acquire. In addition though most countries have now introduced life skills or life orientation in
their curriculums it is still largely ineffective due to the limited topics covered and poor methods of
delivery. There is also little or no use of relevant technologies in education. Through the study it was
also established that academics are what matter; extra curricula activities are not a given and… they
really don’t count. This is evident in most public schools as there are no standards or enforcement of
extra curricula activities by relevant education authorities hence little or no emphasis on the same by
Executive Summary
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa8
the schools. The variety of activities available therefore is quite limited for most and very little time is
allocated for such activities. In some places like Zambia, the students are even made to do other tasks
such as cleaning the school during the time allocated for extra curriculas. Further, due to the absence
of enough patrons or coaches to drive these activities, they simply do not succeed. Extra curricula
activities are also mainly an in-school affair – it starts and ends here as youth have limited avenues for
continuation after secondary school. Nonetheless talent exists and youth are eager to develop and
nurture it to its full potential.
Findings on Employment:
Livelihood opportunities – do they exist? Formal employment opportunities are few and far
between. As such a good formal education does not necessarily translate into a good job in the formal
sector. The landscape is extremely competitive. There is also a livelihood tug of war between the older
and younger generation in that opportunities are withheld by the older persons and there is no room
for young people to exercise skills and creativity in the workplace. There is limited flexibility to allow
exploration and pursuit of ambitions. Also students are often locked in a career that is in line with
their study discipline which is difficult to break out. All in all the study therefore found that there is
thus a strong desire to by many young people to make a shift to self-employment. This is driven by
acknowledgement of job market realities and personal factors such as education background, skills,
talents, personal interests and passions, creativity and innovation. However this is also stifled by fear due
to lack of experience, business start-up know how and associated risks as well as no entrepreneurship
training and mentoring through education systems. Youth also lack access to start-up and expansion
capital hence never quite making the shift to self-employment despite the desire to do so. The Young
Africa study also established that youth have poor access to job market information. There is heavy
reliance on advertisements in mass media particulary newspapers yet the youth have limited access to
the same; distribution in rural areas is negligible hence rural youth are especially affected. There is also
a tendency by the youth to be fixated on the ‘Big’ companies. They have lmited awareness of the other
players and also display unrealistic expectations of employment – where they will work, how soon they
will be promoted, how much they will earn, benefits they are likely to get, etc. Youth also lack awareness
of and knowledge to seize meaningful business opportunities.
Findings on Entertainment:
What’s big on the entertainment scene? Entertainment equals music; it’s a way of life or life itself
– every youth wants a piece of it be it in terms of listening to it, dancing to it or making it for those who
have some talent that they want to exploit even in terms of livelihood. Youth listen to music either as
a solo activity during their regular day to day routines or with friends (including dancing) still within
regular day to day activities or sometimes during specific social events. Many access music through
radio and some also share and exchange music within their social networks.
Any news on the music industry? Young musicians in Africa are missing out on a big break. The
production industry is highly fragmented – too many people hold the rights for different aspects of a
song. As such musicians cannot sign for hence get paid for use of their music or placement in a music
store or other similar platform. Piracy persists and is still therefore a great challenge for many young
African musicians trying to eke out a living from their music. Nonetheless the appreciation for local
music is continmuing to grow. For example local music for genres that in the recent past have typically
been western are now available such as Kenyan Rock.
Nokia Research Center
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What else engages young minds and young time? Watching TV and Movies are a common and
favourite pastime for many youth. Like music it’s both a solo or social activity but the latter is more
preferred. Approximately 90% of what youth in Africa are watching is mainstream (western and other
from abroad) and 10% is Nollywood and other local programmes and movies. Youth have music on their
phones and now also want mobile TV and movies. They are also making the shift from broadcasted TV
to the same content on DVD because of increased availability and accessibility of the same. However
just like the music, most of the material is pirated. Some youth especially the urban and mid to upper
income ones also play games such as play station though there seems not to be a very strong gaming
culture especially with mobile phone games. The desire to read as a pastime activity also exists for many
though access to suitable literature is quite a challenge. Many depend on school resources which are
also rather limited. There are little or no community resources such as libraries through which youth can
also access reading material. There is also limited access to computers and the Internet which would be
the other option. How then can free literature or content that exists be packaged and availed for youth
in Africa? Significant numbers of youth also spend their pastimes in pursuit of given talents, passions and
interests. Many youth are big on sports; football is particularly popular across the various countries be it
in terms of playing or watching. Pay-to-view halls in rural and low income urban areas capitalize on this.
Other youth are into performing arts both in terms of performing or watching. Generally there is room
to experiment and grow given that audiences in Africa are quite receptive to new and raw talent. Youth
are also joining and forming art groups with hope of earning some income from it so how best can they
be helped to monetize their talents? Just as music is universal amongst young people, all youth simply
love to socialize with friends and there is need for new and more cost effective methods to help youth
keep in touch with their social networks.
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa10
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Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa12
Study Rationale
Why are African youth important? With 44%
of its population under age 15, Sub Saharan Africa
is the youngest region of the world (2006). We are
therefore living in the age of youth. The population
of Africa exceeded 1 Billion at the end of 2009. Youth
being the majority have the potential to play a
crucial role in bringing about great socio-economic
development in Africa. Asia is a good example
having started its economic development when the
large youth population attained working age and
joined the labour market.
Helen Clark, Head of UNDP is recently quoted
as saying: “In the next decade, Africa is either going
to rise or fall with it’s youth”. This statement implies
that despite the great potential that exists among
the youth, there are challenges that need to be
overcome such as unemployment, social vices, limited
education & training opportunities, urbanization &
globalization demands and influences, among others.
Thus the essence of this research study carried out
by Nokia Research Centre, Africa – to explore solutions
for development and empowerment of young Africans.
Broadly the key research objective was to understand
what being an African youth is all about in terms of:
exploring and defining African youth segments and their
lifestyles, mapping youth callenges and opportunities and
illustrating what impact and influence mobile technology
has had so far amongst young people. The findings of this
study will therefore enable NRC Africa develop meaningful
mobile solutions for the development and empowerment
of the youth in Africa.
Chapter One | Study Background
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Study Locations
Where was the study conducted?
The study was conducted in Rural and
Urban Kenya, Ethiopia, South Africa,
Zambia, Senegal and Nigeria in seeking
to gather insights from different parts
of Sub-Saharan Africa - East, West and
Southern.
Kenya
Kenya is a country in East Africa.
Lying along the Indian Ocean, and at
the Equator, it is bordered by Ethiopia
to the north, Somalia to the northeast,
Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the
west and Sudan to the northwest.
The capital city is Nairobi. In 2008 the
population of Kenya was estimated
to be 38.5 million with a population
growth rate of 2.6 percent. This growth
rate had declined from 2.8 percent in
2005 which is largely attributed to death from diseases especially HIV/AIDS
and better methods of family planning. The youth in Kenya, number about 9.1
million, and account for 32% of the population. Of these, 51.7 % are females.
The population density is estimated at 68.58sq/km in an area of 580,367km2.
The population pyramid reveals that Kenya is populated by young people as
shown below:
Figure 1: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Kenya
13
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa14
Figure 2: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Ethiopia
South Africa is the
fourth largest country in the
Commonwealth and has the sixth
largest population in Africa. With
50% of its population living in urban
areas, South Africa has a higher rate
of urbanization than most Sub-
Saharan countries. According to
2009 mid-year population estimates,
South Africa has a population of
49,320,500 persons with Africans
being a majority constituting
just more than 79% of the total
population. The White population
constitutes 9.1% of the population,
coloured population 9% and Indian/
Asian constitute 2.6% of the whole
population. 52% of the population
is female. The country occupies
a land mass of about 1,221,037
km2 and has a population density of 40.39 sq/km. South African population is
predominantly young, with youth constituting the largest segment as compared
to other population groups. The population pyramid of this country reveals that
the country is dominated by young people. This is especially so for the age group
10-34 years. The figure below presents a better understanding of the population
in South Africa:
Figure 3: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for South Africa
Ethiopia is a landlocked
country in East Africa and is one
of the most ancient countries in
the world. It is the second most
populous nation in Africa and the
tenth largest by area. The capital
city is Addis Ababa. Population
censuses and projections conducted
in different years show that youth
constitute a high proportion
of the Ethiopian population. In
2009, the population of Ethiopia
was estimated at 82,825,000 in
comparison to the estimate of 2007
which was 77,100,000. By then the
urban population was 16% of the
total population. The youth aged
10-24 years were 26,500,000 in
2006 which was 34% of the total
population. The population density of this country is 71.74sq/km in an area of
1,104,300km2 according to 2009 estimates. The population pyramid shows the
country experiences high birth rates due to the wide base. The death rate is also
high for individuals above 50 years. This pyramid indicates that the country has
more young people.
Ethiopia
South Africa
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The Republic of Senegal is a
country in western Africa. Senegal
is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean
to the west, Mauritania to the
north, Mali to the east and Guinea
and Guinea-Bissau to the south. It
also encircles Gambia on its three
sides, except that of the Atlantic
Ocean. Dakar is the capital city. This
country is 196,722 km² in size with
an estimated population of about
12.5 million by 2009. The population
density is 63.71sq/km. About a
third of the population lives below
the poverty line with about 70% of
the population living in rural areas.
The population pyramid reveals a
high birth rate and a high death
rate in the country with a youthful
generation.
Figure 4: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Zambia
Figure 5: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Senegal
The Republic of Zambia is
a landlocked country in Southern
Africa. The neighboring countries
are the Democratic Republic of
Congo to the north, Tanzania to
the north-east, Malawi to the east,
Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana,
and Namibia to the south, and
Angola to the west. The capital city
is Lusaka located in the southeast
of the country. The population is
concentrated mainly around the
capital Lusaka in the south and
the Copper belt to the northwest.
According to 2009 population
estimates, the population of Zambia
is estimated at 12,935,000 million.
The population density is estimated
at 17.19sq/km and the country
occupies a land mass of 752,618km2.
The major challenges facing youth
in Zambia include unemployment, access to education and HIV/AIDS. The wide
base of the population pyramid indicates a large proportion of the population is
young. This is an indicator of a high birth rate. The narrow top indicates a small
proportion of the population is old implying a high death rate. Ageing or youthful
populations may have implications on labour availability and unemployment,
economic growth, educational provision.
Zambia
Senegal
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa16
Urban and Rural Locations
Nairobi, Addis Ababa, Dakar and Lusaka being
the capital cities of Kenya, Ethiopia, Senegal and Zambia
respectively were selected as the ideal urban settings
to study as they very well satisfy most of the key urban
characteristics such as piped water, good access roads,
proper medical services, schools, ICTs among others.
Entertainment and pastime activities that the youth like
to get involved in such as clubs, cinema halls, malls and
other recreational facilties are also abundantly available as
compared to other urban centres. These cities also have
a wider variety of institutions of higher learning, both
private and public, that offer a wider range of faculties and
courses to students and also differing varying experiences
in socialization, religious affiliations and cultures. In
addition it would be quite likely to capture findings on
research questions related to migration and globalization
as a whole. For South Africa and Nigeria, Johannesburg
and Lagos respectively were selected despite not being the
capital cities but definitely measure up to the mentioned
urban characterstics as do the capital cities of the other
countries of study.
Youth in rural and urban settings are generally
exposed to different cultures, opportunities, experiences,
and youth related issues hence the reason to also study
youth in rural or peri-urban settings for more comprehensive
findings. The dichotomy and the interrelatedness of the
two are of great importance in understanding who the
youth are and in raising relevant issues to the study.
Globally, the definition of rural is relative hence for
purposes of the study and as would be expected in most
of Africa, the definition of rural settled on for this study is a
place that largely satisfies the following characteristics:
z No electricity or limited to central market places or
shopping centres hence majority of households depend
on other forms of power
z No piped water schemes or limited access to these
hence majority of household either fetch water from a
river, dug wells or boreholes or harvest rain water
z Housing structures are simple and temporary or semi-
permanent e.g. mud, mud plastered, thatched roofing,
timber, corrugated iron sheets
z Transport and communication infrastructure and ser-
vices are limited – mostly earth or murram roads, limited
public service vehicles or personal cars but more use of
traditional means such as bicycles, carts, or simply walk-
ing, no or limited access to computers, fair use or access
Nigeria, a country on the
West Coast of Africa, with an
estimated population of 148
million (2008 Population Reference
Bureau), is the most populous
nation in Sub-Saharan Africa. It
occupies a landmass of about 923
768 km2, and is generally known to
have over 274 ethnic groups in the
Federation. The population density
is 167.49sq/km. The Government’s
desire to move closer to the people
has progressively led to the division
of the three major regions into
36 states grouped under six geo-
political zones with a total of 774
local government areas (LGAs). The
average life expectancy at birth is
47.1 years. More than 55% of the people are female and the poverty rate is about
67.8%. The majority of the people (70%) live in the rural areas, and over sixty per
cent of the young people are aged under 15 years (Population Reference Bureau,
2008). This makes Nigeria a country of young people.
Figure 6: Predicted age and sex distribution for the year 2010 for Nigeria
Nigeria
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to mobile phones generally one per household or com-
munity payphones at the market centre
z Significant distance to large commercial centres where-
by the rural residents have to travel a long distance that
cannot be accessed on foot to get there hence limited
visits to and interaction with an urban-like setting
z Limited education and health facilities – few and with
limited resources that cannot adequately provide qual-
ity services to the populace
z Ownership of assets in majority of households is quite
basic or simple and may include such things as simple
wooden furniture – chairs, beds, tables, and cupboards.
Also traditional cooking stove that uses charcoal or par-
affin, basic household utensils, a radio, bicycle, wheel-
barrow, torch and paraffin lamp
Nonetheless, at least some of the rural locations
eventually selected for the study did not quite meet these
criteria given that the level of development in general
for their rural areas was more advanced than in the other
countries. These were Ikorodu in Nigeria and Jane Furse
in South Africa. In Senegal, more than one rural site was
visited for the study due to difficulties in recruiting suitable
respondents in only one place to satisfy the targeted
sample size; many people in Senegal were quite skeptical
about participating in the study and even wanted to be
paid large sums of money if they were to do so. A brief
insight into each of the rural areas of study is as follows:
Kwale, Kenya
Kwale is a small town in Coast Province, Kenya. It is
located 30km southwest of Mombasa and 15 km inland.
It is capital of the Kwale District. The town has an urban
population of 4,200 (1999 census). It is next to the Shimba
Hills National Reserve. The colorful town of Mombasa can
be seen from Golini due to its high altitude. Past Kwale is The
Shimba Hills Hotel and Mwaluganje Elephant Sanctuary
running along the KWS strip. Kwale is the main town of the
Digo and Duruma. These people belong to the Mijikenda
Ethnic group of the Coast Province of Kenya. Other tribes
found in the district include the Kambas, Arabs and Indians
though to a very small proportion compared to the Digos
and Durumas.
Kwale is a very important town for small scale
farmers from the inland areas of Golini, Kinango, Mkongani,
Mwaluphamba, Tiribe and others for the sale and transport
of their produce. Among other farm products, Kwale
produces oranges, pawpaws, mangos, bixa, coconuts, a
variety of vegetables and cereals.
Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
Debre Zeit, which means ‘mount of olives’ in
Amharic is a town that lies South East of Addis Ababa, the
capital city of Ethiopia. It is a resort town that is known
for crater lakes such as Lake Bishoftu, Lake Bishoftu Guda,
Lake Koriftu, Lake Cheleklaka and Lake Hora. The area is
home to a mixture of ethnic communities of the country,
but the Oromo are the main inhabitants of the land. The
history of the town is interwoven with that of the Ethiopian
Air Force. The beginning of what later on became the Air
Force was moved to Debre Zeit from the Bole International
Airport when Ethiopian Airlines needed the airport space.
Being the national Air Force base, it is therefore common
for young men in Debre Zeit, to consider fighting as a
sign of masculinity and a source of pride as they grow up
watching airforce officers looking all ready to defend and
fight for their country. The main economic activities in
Debre Zeit are Agriculture, industry, a variety of medium,
small and micro-enterprises and hotel and service industry.
Some of the industries that have been established in
the region include the Ada Flour and Pasta Factory, the
Pasqua Giuseppe PLC and the Salmida Leather Products
Manufacturing industry.
Infrustructurally, Debre Zeit has good roads that lead
to the area from Addis Ababa but roads that lead deep into
the hinterland are rural access roads that are mainly dirt
roads. The main means of transport within the rural areas is
horse drawn carts which have a capacity of up to 6 people.
The Addis Ababa – Djibouti railway has a station in Debre
Zeit and the Harar Meda Airport is also found in the region.
Other than the Airforce training there are a few colleges
such as the Kristos College and a marine college that takes
advantage of the water bodies to train its students. There
are two main hospitals that serve the area, one serving
the public and the other serving the Airforce but there
are smaller clinics that also provide health services to the
residents of the region. A telephone service has existed
in the region since 1954, providing fixed line means of
communication that has now largely been overshadowed
by the mobile phone.
Jane Furse, Limpopo, South Africa
Jane Furse is a small town in Limpopo Province, South
Africa. It was named after Jane Furse, an only daughter of
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa18
Michael Bolton Furse, an American missionary. As
Jane accompanied her father to work, she became
sorrowfully aware of the poverty and disease rife
among the African people, hence she made up her
mind to become a doctor in order to serve them.
She however died before she accomplished this
dream, but a hospital was built in Sekhukhune land
in her memory. Jane Furse Memorial Hospital grew
in reputation and attracted a great number of staff
internationally. As the mission hospital grew, so did
the town, businesses and services around Jane Furse,
which eventually became known by the name of the
hospital.
It is administratively located in Sekhukhune
district, one of the 6 districts of Limpopo province.
The majority of its 967,126 people speak Nothern
Sotho according to the 2001 census, and the ecocomic
activities include retail and wholesale trade, farming
(especially poultry and livestock farming) and there
are also a few industries within the area. The type
of soil and climate only allows subsistance farming,
mainly of maize. The area is characterised by a flat
terrain with huge piles of rocks that stand out on
the terrain. The places that are nearest to it include
Mokwete, Ga-Moretsele, Madibong, Ga-Molepane,
Maleetse and Moripane.
Chikankata, Zambia
Chikankata is a small village located in the
southern part of Zambia. It is about two hours away
from Lusaka City by road. The main hub of activity
is the Chikankata Salvation Army complex which
houses a primary school, high school, nursing and
biomedical sciences college as well as a hospital.
This huge complex also includes housing for the
employees and guesthouses for the mission’s visitors.
Apart from the mission there are a number of primary
schools. Most of the people live and work on the
farms. For their banking needs, they have to travel to
Mazabuka Town which is some kilometers away.
Thies, Senegal
Thiès (pronounced “chess,” Wolof: Cès) is the
second largest city in Senegal with a population
officially estimated at 320,000 in 2005. It lies 60 km
east of Dakar on the N2 road and at the junction of
railway lines to Dakar, Bamako and St-Louis. It is the
capital of Thiès Region and is a major city complete with in all
social amenities and manufacturing.
Saly, Senegal
Saly (also called Sali or Saly Portudal) is a seaside resort area
on Coast of Senegal, south of Dakar. It is the top tourist destination
in all of West Africa. Saly was originally a Portuguese trading post
known as Porto de Ale, which became Portudal, and later Sali
Portudal. Saly’s economy relies almost entirely on tourism. Hotel
complexes, nightclubs, bars, restaurants, shops, water sports, real
estate agencies all compete for the business of wealthy visitors
from other countries.
Mbour, Senegal
M’Bour or Mbour is a town in the Thiès Region of Senegal.
It lies on the Coast of Senegal, approximately eighty kilometers
south of Dakar. It is home to a population of 153,503 (2002
census). The town’s major industries are tourism, fishing and
peanut processing.
Ikorodu, Nigeria
Ikorodu is in Lagos State and less than half an hour away
from Lagos Town by road when there is no traffic, otherwise it
can be a two to three hours journey. It is a fast growing town and
though regarded as rural by some, it is fast developing into a fully
fledged town with many banks and businesses coming up in the
town centre. However many still have to make the trip into Lagos
daily in order to earn a living. It is cheaper to reside here and the
transport system is good.
Target Respondents
How was youth defined? A desk study on youth in Africa
recently conducted as a pre-study to the main Young Africa
study revealed that some African countries define their youth as
persons between ages 15 to 35 for policy purposes while most
African countries define them as persons between the ages of
29-40. United Nations however defines them as those between
ages 15 and 24 and Commonwealth as those between15 and 29.
For this study therefore, the age bracket of 14 to 25 was chosen;
it is closely aligned to the UN definition which some African
countries have adopted. This age range also served to keep the
research fairly focused without bringing in the risk of issues too
broad, usually brought about by very large age differences in the
target respondents. Also a stretch to age 35 or 40 posed a risk of
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missing the mark as far as youth issues are concerned in terms
of analyzing findings and addressing issues based on an age
group that would soon be out of the youth bracket, and who
therefore Nokia would not be catering for in terms of mobile
solutions for empowerment of young people. Age 14-25 can
also be considered broad in many respects; as such this was
broken into three age sets of 14-17, 18-21 and 22-25. This
was to help make the findings more focused on issues arising
from youth who are in more or less the same phase of life and
therefore face the same challenges and opportunities and to a
significant extent have the same needs in terms of ICT, mobile
usage among others.
In line with NRC Africa’s mandate to conduct studies
amongst low income communities in Africa, the Young Africa
Study largely targeted youth who belong to lower to middle
socio-economic classes but for comparison purposes also
included a few discussion groups with youth in middle to
upper socio-economic classes. A good mix of youth in different
stages and facets of life was captured in terms of youth in and
out of school, colleges / vocational insitutions, unemployed
youth, self-employed and employed youth.
Research Methodologyand Techniques
How was the study conducted? Prior to the main study,
two pre-studies were conducted. One was a desk study whose
objective was to use secondary data to describe the situation
of youth and youth life in Africa; highlighting interesting trends
as well as gaps and / or insights that would require further
exploration. The other was a youth insights study whose
objective was to collect real time youth insights into
youth culture and lifestyle in Africa so as to form a basis
of good understanding of the youth and youth issues
hence develop a suitable approach and plan for the
upcoming main study.
The methodology used for the main study was
qualitative in order to fully explore and understand the
issues surrounding youth life in Africa in depth. The
study made use of a variety of qualitative techniques as
follows:
1. Focus Group Discussions (Mini Groups)
These were conducted with youth at central
locations. Homogeneous groups of youth were defined
and recruited to participate. Because of the interest in
both genders and possibility of sensitive issues arising
which girls would possibly not want to speak about
openly in the presence of boys and vice versa mini
groups were opted for where every main group was
divided into into a and b, the former to cater for boys
and the latter for girls. Each mini-group had a minimum
of 3 participants and a maximum of 5. Relevant topics
from the reseach questions were used to develop a free-
flow discussion guide. Use of projective techniques was
also incorporated to uncover deep seated issues. Short
simple self-fill in questionnaires were also distributed to
the FGD participants towards the end of the discussion
to enable collection of data that satisfied research
questions which were not really suitable for group
discussion such as their individual mobile phone usage.
The following tables show the group composition
for the 6 countries.
Table1: Kenya focus group discussions composition
14-17 Male 18-21 Male 22-25 Male 14-17 Female 18-21 Female 22-25 Female
Nairobi Mid to upper income
Secondary school
Mid to upper income
College
Church group
Low to mid income
Technical institute
Low income
Secondary school
School drop outs
Self-employed
Mid to upper income
Secondary school leavers
Unemployed
Low to mid income
College students
Employed /
Self-employed
Kwale Low to mid income
Primary school students
Low to mid income
Unemployed / Self-employed
Secondary school leavers
Married / Single
Low income
Unemployed / Casual jobs
Married / Single
Primary school drop outs / secondary school leaver
Low to mid income
Primary school students
Low to mid income
College students
Married with children / Single
Unemployed / Informally employed
Low income Primary school dropouts
Married with children / Single
Casual jobs / Unemployed
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Table2: Ethiopia focus group discussions composition
Table 6: Nigeria focus group discussions composition
14-17 Male 18-21 Male 22-25 Male 14-17 Female 18-21 Female 22-25 Female
Lagos Low to mid income
College
Self-employed
Low to mid income
Secondary School
College
Unemployed
Low to mid income
University / College
Ikorodu Low to mid income
Senior Sec. School
College
Low to mid income
College
Self-employed
Low to mid income
College
Employed
14-17 Male 18-21 Male 22-25 Male 14-17 Female 18-21 Female 22-25 Female
Addis Ababa Mid to upper income
University
Low to mid income
Secondary school
Low to mid incomeGraduatesPart time employmentUnemployed
Debre Zeit Low income
Preparatory School
Out of school
Low income
Vocational institution students
Low to mid income
Secondary school
Table 4: Zambia focus group discussions composition
14-17 Male 18-21 Male 22-25 Male 14-17 Female 18-21 Female 22-25 Female
Lusaka Low to mid income
Secondary school
Low to mid income
College
Unemployed
Mid to upper income
College
Chikankata Low to mid income
Secondary school
Low to mid income
Primary school
Low to mid income
Primary school
Unemployed Married with children
Table3: South Africa focus group discussions composition
14-17 Male 18-21 Male 22-25 Male 14-17 Female 18-21 Female 22-25 Female
Johannesburg Low to mid income Secondary school
Mid to upper income University students
Mid to upper income University students
Employed
Limpopo Low to mid income
Secondary school
Low to mid income
College
Low to mid income
Secondary school
Table 5: Senegal focus group discussions composition
14-17 Male 18-21 Male 22-25 Male 14-17 Female 18-21 Female 22-25 Female
Dakar Mid to upper income
Secondary School
Low to mid income
University
Mid to upper income
Primary School
Saly Low to mid income
Primary School
Thies Mid to upper income
Secondary School
Mbour Low to mid income
Unemployed
Casual employment
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There was one FGD for each of the chosen age sets
for both rural and urban settings in Kenya bringing the
total number of FGDs to 6 but satisfied by 2 mini-groups
each hence a total of 12 mini-groups, and one FGD for each
of the chosen age sets for either rural or urban settings in
the other countries bringing the total number of FGDs to 3
but satisfied by 2 mini-groups each hence a total of 6 mini-
groups. The respondents were recruited through the use
of a recruitment questionnaire and screener to determine
their suitability to participate in the group discussions. The
FGDs were conducted at convenient central locations.
2. General Observations and Immersions
These were general observations of young people within the various existing youth communities. These were done by the NRC researchers as a one day activity per youth
Suitable immersions were identified through the
information obtained from the pre-studies but were also
informed by more interaction with the youth through
the FGDs as well as Key Informants who helped identify
specific places to conduct the immersions e.g. the popular
nightclubs or other youth spots and other realities on the
community e.g. a school, a college, an entertainment venue, a church and / or other relevant places as were identified. For schools / colleges for example, youth were observed throughout the different activities – in class during lessons, while on breaks or lunch time, doing extra curricula activities, when school was out and the resultant departure from school, etc. The observations were combined with short informal interviews and discussions with the youth present at the selected sites either in small groups or individuals depending on the situation. Other people around the youth and who have some knowledge of youth issues and impact or influence on these youth in one way or another were also interviewed during these observations and immersions. Teachers, guardians, parents, youth leaders, religious leaders, etc were some of the possible persons in the social dynamics of the youth and who were interviewed as a result. The achieved immersions were as follows for the various countries of study:
Table 7: Types of immersions / observations
COUNTRY
Immersion Type Kenya Ethiopia S. Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
School / College Secular live concert Nightclub Health mobile clinic for the youth Formal / semi-formal work place with numerous young employees
Business place / jua kali area where youth entrepreneurs can be found
Shopping mall Fitness / sporting activity Religious concert Youth day (special event) Youth picnic
Total Immersions / Observations 6 3 2 3 2 2
ground that needed to be taken into consideration. The
information areas covered in these observations were
closely aligned to the particular setting e.g. in schools the
focus was more on education issues, at church religious
issues and at recreational places more on entertainment
and leisure, and at work or business the relevant / related
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa22
issues. Nonetheless other research questions were also
addressed through observations as long as the situation
arose that could feed into findings for these questions.
The researchers also made an effort to get involved with
the activities that the youth were doing so as to in essence
immerse themselves in the youth lives and experience by
doing. This also enabled better rapport between the youth
and the researchers i.e. ‘breaking the ice’ so that the youth
got comfortable in the researcher’s presence and were able
talk freely when responding to questions as and when they
arose.
In addition, during each of the FGDs conducted
observations on youth behavior, language, dressing, use
of mobile phones, mode of communication and general
behavior were accomplished.
3. Key Informants
These took the form of in-depth interviews with persons who have significant insight into youth and youth life in the countries of study. Key Informant Interviews composition was as follows:
Kenya:
z NGO Youth Programme Coordinator (Nairobi) z District Youth Officer (Nairobi) z University Student Leader (Nairobi) z Youth Coordinator (Kwale) z Program Manager - Youth (Likoni) z Muslim Youth Leader (Old Town, Mombasa)
Ethiopia:
z NGO Program Manager - Youth (Addis Ababa) z Youth Leader (Debre Zeit)
South Africa:
z Government Officer – Youth (Johannesburg) z School teacher (Jane Furse, Limpopo)
Zambia:
z Youth Consultant (Lusaka) z Social Worker (Chikankata)
Senegal:
z University Student Vice President (Dakar) z Community Youth Leader (Mbour)
Nigeria:
z Pastor (Lagos) z Community Youth Leader (Ikorodu)
4. Youth Scouts
This is a participatory technique that involves young
people being co-opted inot the research to lead their peers
in discussions around the research questions and draw
their own conclusions on these. This is important as a way
of gaining insight into how youth really see the issues;
they are unlikely to alter their answers or their behaviour
when speaking amongst their own as they might do
when interviewed by the researchers directly. Different
youth scouts were recruited to represent different youth
categories as identified through the pre-study exercises
and the different age sets that the study respondents were
divided into. They were identified and selected from the
FGDs and were trained intensively on their assignment
which was to strike up conversation with other young
people similar to them on specific subject matter relevant
to the study but in as natural a way as possible so that
the youth being studied would not get uptight or begin
to answer in a specific way. They gathered data through
discussions but partly also through observation. Having
already participated in the FGDs, they were required to take
more of a neutral stand despite leading and contributing
to the discussions so as to allow the other youth make the
conclusions on the subject matter. The youth scouts were
then required to spend some time reporting their findings
in a workshop with all the other youth scouts where NRC
staff had opportunity to interrogate the findings with them
so as to collate the findings and draw conslusions. One
week was spent by the youth scouts to gather their findings
and reporting was done the following week. In Kenya 7
youth scouts contributed to the study, 4 in Ethiopia, South
Africa and Zambia, 3 in Nigeria and 1 in Senegal.
Research QuestionsWhat was investigated in the study? The research
questions generated were distributed according to the
different techniques being applied. Some research
questions were relevant to all or more than one technique
while others were relevant to only one or two. Nonetheless
the research questions applied to the different techniques
and respondents was done to help compare and
corroborate the findings to ensure more solid conclusions
are made.
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FGDs KIIs Immersions Youth Scouts
How youth categorize themselves and defining elements of these categories x x
Youth numbers in different places and facets of life in Africa x
African youth in the eyes of society x x x x
Challenges and opportunities African youth face x x x x
Media, communication and information exchange x x x
Report structure and contentThe following chapters of the report contain the
findings of the study. Chapter two summarises the findings
on education, chapter three on livelihoods, chapter four
on lifestyle, chapter five on media and communication
and chapter six provides conclusions. In each of chapters
two to five, relevant secondary data and past research
studies literature from the desk study have been used to
demonstrate the extent of the issues under discussion as
related to the research questions. The main qualitative
study is also presented first in terms of the main issues
identified across the 6 countries of study with relevant
country examples. This is then followed by country specific
sections which report on any extra information about the
given country in as far as the study topic is concerned
particularly any issues that may be unique to the country as
compared to the others. Verbatim quotes have also been
used within the various sections to help emphasize certain
findings and conclusions. Pictures taken during the study
have also been used within the various chapters so as to
provide the reader with actual visualization of the situation
of youth in Africa. References and sources of any secondary
data used have been provided at the end of the report.
Separate country reports (Kenya, Ethiopia, South
Africa, Zambia, Senegal, Nigeria) providing more detailed
findings and insights per country have also been written
up and are available in soft copy for those interested in
learning more about the youth of specific countries only.
Table 8: Information areas
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa24
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Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa26
Education in Africa
Everyone has the right to a basic education, including
adult basic education and further education, which a
country’s government, through reasonable measures, must
progressively make available and accessible to all its citizens.
There is a positive relationship between the quantity and
quality of primary and secondary education and economic
growth. People with education have healthier families and
reduced fertility rates. This is especially true with respect to
educating girls and women. Educated people also tend to
be more active citizens in political life. Improved human
capital is conducive to higher quality of public servants and
of public service provision (Bloom et al., 2007).
Africa has made great progress in gross enrollment
in primary education. Today more than 95% are enrolled
in primary education and about 63% complete primary
education. However, there is still an estimated more than 30
million children of school going age who are out of school
(DFID, 2006a). Demand for and participation in secondary
education is growing as a consequence of the expansion of
basic education. Average secondary net enrollment ratio
is still only 25% of primary school graduates. Less than a
third fail to complete lower secondary education to enrol
in upper secondary grades. More than 70 million children
of secondary school age do not have access to secondary
schooling (DFID, 2006a). In all of these statistics, boys are
better off than girls, urban pupils better off than rural pupils,
pupils from wealthier homes better off than those from
poorer homes. Technical and vocational education and
training (TVET) is in short supply in most African countries.
It is estimated that only 6 per cent of secondary students are
enrolled in TVET in Sub-Saharan Africa (Global Monitoring
Report, 2008). Yet, TVET is necessary to provide skills and
opportunities for young people for better employment,
in a situation where many African countries are facing a
shortage of skilled workers. Africa is seriously lagging in
tertiary education and research. In Sub-Saharan Africa the
gross enrollment rate for tertiary education is around 5%,
compared with 23% in East Asia and 30% in Latin America
(DFID, 2006b,). However, there appears to be an increase in
many African countries in investment in tertiary education,
not least in private universities.
Based on findings across the 6 countries of study,
it appears that structure of education systems is fairly
similar in terms of number of years students spend in
Chapter Two | Education
26
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school through primary, secondary and tertiary levels
of education. In total students spend about 16 years on
average to go through the formal education system. In
terms of academic courses, at primary level most of the
countries have 9, 10 or 11 subjects with the exception of
Kenya where the subjects were reduced to 5 from 13 after
rationalization of the curriculum. In most countries English
and Mathematics are standard compulsory subjects while
the others vary from country to country. At secondary
level number of subjects is fairly similar in terms of the
number (between 8 and 11) a student is expected to take
though some countries have more variety to select from as
compared to others. Officially, the medium of instruction
is English (French in the case of Senegal) but local ethnic
languages are also used especially in rural areas and
particularly at primary level. This is also the case in Ethiopia
except that here this is official; Amharic which is the
national language is the medium of instruction in schools.
English is only used at university level and at the lower
levels is only taught as a subject. Local ethnic languages
are also taught as subjects in all the countries except Kenya
where only Kiswahili which is the national language is
taught as a subject. Generally the method of instruction
across the countries is mainly lecture based where teachers
go through the lessons of the day and often dictate notes
to the students. With the exception of South Africa which
is now implementing Outcome Based Education (OBE),
education in the other countries is largely theoretical as
opposed to practical. Even for very technical courses, some
students in various countries complained that they are not
getting enough practical experience within their studies.
In Zambia for example some engineering companies are
reluctant to employ fresh engineering graduates as they
have little experience handling the machines. Similarly in
Nigeria the students feel that they have to take the initiative
to gain the practical experience e.g. through roadside
apprenticeships.
“We have so many graduates fromthe colleges who are still in the street
because the companies say they don’t want them to experiment on our[their] machines. ‘We want someone with experience who
can actually do the work.’”
Key informant Lusaka, Zambia
Lifeskills or life orientation also considered as a
practical aspect of learning exists in most of the countries,
some like Kenya and Ethiopia having recently introduced
this in the curriculum. However many young people seem
rather dissatisfied with the content and method of delivery.
In some cases they complained of it being too general or
shallow and in some cases lacks relevance in that it does
not cover the life issues that they feel are important to
them. In terms of delivery some Key Informants said that
the teachers who are delivering life skills to the students
are too far removed from youth issues hence cannot relate
to the youth and in turn the youth are not comfortable
around them.
27
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa28
On the whole academics seem to be emphasized
more than extra curricula activities. One of the main reasons
for this is lack of enforcement by the governments in that
schools are not required to meet certain standards as far as
offering these activities. It is therefore up to the individual
schools to decide what to offer if anything and how much
time and resources they will allocate to extra curricula
activities. There is also a lack of coaches or patrons to drive
the activities. Clubs that are related to academic subjects
tend to exist and function fairly well especially in secondary
schools since there are academic benefits of engaging
students in these activities in terms of their performance.
All in all youth attitudes to extra curricula activities such
as sports and various performing arts is generally positive
but there is no room to nurture this in school and their
desire and talents are also somewhat suppressed by lack
of community support. In some countries like Senegal
sporting and fitness is a culture hence the love for sport
and practice is quite evident in youth even at an individual
level, in and out of school.
With the exception of Senegal there is generally fairly
good capacity at primary level for most of the countries
in that there are enough schools to accmodate children
of school going age. The main concern is availability of
enough trained teachers to deliver the curriculum to the
students. The advent of free primary education across the
countries of study has compounded the matter so that
student teacher ratios are quite high as indicated in table
9 below. The Africa average pupil teacher ratio is 40:1
for primary and 26:1 for secondary. In some places the
situation is quite chronic where a primary school teacher
has to deal with as high as 100 students in one class.
It appears that the teaching profession is not
attractive to many – governments are the biggest employers
of teachers yet generally pay poorly. Many teachers hence
opt to work in private and urban schools should the
opportunity arise. Also those who study teaching though
not out of choice tend to seek for employment in other
sectors.
There are generally fewer public schools at secondary
level as compard to primary hence not enough to
accommodate all students who have qualified to proceed
to secondary school. In Kenya for example hundreds of
thousands of students miss a place in secondary school
every year. Senegal presents a similar scenario. The
option therefore for such students is to enroll in vocational
training either in formal institutions or through informal
apprenticeships so as to gather some skills after which
they can join the labourforce. With the exception of
South Africa the number of public universities just like
secondary schools is not sufficient to cater for the number
of secondary school graduates.
ICT policies exist in many countries but there is a
gap between practice and policy. Few schools have access
to computers and internet use and ICT infrastructure
is generally poor especially in rural areas which are not
connected and lack electricity. There are some projects by
development organizations working towards increasing
access; they provide computers to schools though these
are mainly refurbished. IT or computer studies as a subject
also exists in some countries though its impact is minimal
since the facility i.e. computers and computer labs simply
does not exist. In addition the curriculum is somewhat
underdeveloped and there are insufficient trained teachers
to deliver the same. In Senegal however the gap between
ICT policy and practice is relatively smaller than the other
countries of study; students generally have access to
computers in school with high speed connectivity and cost
is relatively low. This can be attributed to earlier access to
the fibre optic network and active implementation of the
ICT policy by government. Senegal is widely recognized as
West Africa’s ICT hub.
“My mother is a teacher at VugaPrimary School and when I went to visit her
there one day I saw that she has over100 students in her class! I asked her whether
she is really able to cater adequately forthe needs of each of those children and she frankly said no. As much as teachers wouldlove to deliver quality to their students, the
numbers are unmanageable…”
Key Informant, Kwale, Kenya
Phew! A break from Saturday classes at last. Now we can sit around, chat and do our hairs…
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Table 9: Structure of education, content, capacity and technology use in education
Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Stru
cture 8-4-4 System. Covers 8
years primary, 4 years secondary, 4 years
university
Covers 8 years primary, 2 years
secondary, 2 years preparatory, 4 years
university
Curriculum 2005. Covers 9 years primary, 4 years secondary and
4 years tertiary
Covers 7 years primary, 2 years
junior sec, 3 years senior sec and 4 years university
EFA Curriculum (Education for All).
Covers 5 years primary, 6 years
secondary, 3 years university.
6-3-3-4 System. Covers 6 years
primary, 3 years junior sec, 3 years senior sec and 4 years university
Cont
ent
Academic courses
Primary 6 subjects,
Secondary 9 subjects
University – variety of courses
Primary 9 subjects, secondary and preparatory 12
subjects, University – variety of courses
Primary 7 subjects one of which is an
elective technical skill, secondary
Primary 7 subjects, secondary 7 subjects
(examinable), University – variety
of courses
Primary 11 subjects, secondary 11
subjects, University – variety of courses
Primary 10 subjects, JSS 11 subjects, SS 7 subjects, University – variety of courses
Medium of instruction
Officially English. Many rural primary schools also instruct in ethnic
languages though unofficially.
At primary & secondary Amharic
and other ethnic languages; this is official. English at
tertiary level
Mainly English. The Department of Education language
policy also recognises and permits other official languages.
Many rural primary schools also instruct in
ethnic languages.
Officially English. Many rural primary
schools also instruct in ethnic languages though unofficially.
French for mainstream and
Arabic in quaranic schools, Wolof in
the rural areas
Up to grade 3 in language of immediate environment
and from grade 4 onwards in English.
Instruction method
Mainly lecture based Mainly lecture based
Mainly lecture based Mainly lecture based Mainly lecture based
Mainly lecture based
Extracurricula activities
Some activities in school exist but
without standards and with limited emphasis
Clubs related to academic subjects
tend to do well
Good number of activities exist but without standards and with limited
emphasis
Good number of activities exist but
without standards and with limited emphasis
Some activities in school exist but
without standards and with limited
emphasis
Clubs related to academic subjects
tend to do well
Sports is fairly well emphasized especially soccer.
Other activities exist to a limited extent
Some activities in school exist but
without standards and with limited
emphasis
Clubs related to academic subjects
tend to do well
Government frameworks
for interschool competition exist
Government frameworks exist
to support the activities
Facilities and equipment somewhat
limited
Facilities and equipment are
barely there
Facilities and equipment exists or can be availed but
security is a concern. That which is there is
poorly maintained
Facilities and equipment are
somewhat limited especially in rural
schools
Facilities and equipment barely
exist
Facilities and equipment are
somewhat limited especially in rural
schools
Capa
city
Schools exist; at primary level can
accommodate most; significant limitation
at secondary and university level – many
miss space after primary
Schools exist some even put up by the
communities
Schools exist but some have limited facilities
and equipment due to security issues
Schools exist though not enough; many are also poorly
constructed with limited facilities and
equipment.
Chronic shortage of schools at all
levels – government (ministry of labour) indicates difficulty in coping with the student numbers
Schools exist though not enough to accmodate all the
numbers
Shortage of trained teachers especially in rural areas – national pupil teacher ratio of 40:1 for primary and 32:1 for secondary
Extreme shortage of trained teachers
– national pupil teacher ratio of 72:1 for primary
and 54:1 for secondary
Shortage of teachers especially in public and rural schools – national
pupil teacher ratio of 36:1 for primary and 31:1 for secondary
Shortage of trained teachers – national
pupil teacher ratio of 51:1 for
primary and 34:1 for secondary
Shortage of trained teachers – national
pupil teacher ratio of 42:1 for
primary and 26:1 for secondary
Shortage of trained teachers – national
pupil teacher ratio of 37:1 for
primary and 40:1 for secondary
25 universities(7 public)
26 universities 23 public universities 3 public universities 2 public universities, 5 private
universities
Over 40 universities (most state owned)
Tech
nolog
y use
Limited. Poor ICT infrastructure.
Government currently digitizing curriculum
1 Million laptops initiative for university
students soon to be implemented
Limited. Some digital broadcasts of lessons using plasma screens.
School mini media for recording academic and entertainment content. Poor
maintenance of the equipment.
ICT clubs spreading across schools
Limited ICT use but mainly due to security concerns especially in
township schools
Limited ICT use due to lack of facilities and infrastructure. Public universities
are developing infrastructure e.g.
wireless.
Developmental organizations in
collaboration with government to
provide computers in schools.
ICT is an integral part of the
education system; majority have
access even out of school and wireless
connections are universal
Computer studies as a subject in schools;
not always up to date.
Limited ICT use due to lack of facilities and infrastructure.
Lack of enough trained computer
teachers.
The table below provides a summary of various education data in the 6 countries studied.
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa30
education, social education and ethics, agriculture, home
science, art and music as well as industrial, business and
physical education. Of these students were required to
select a suitable combination of 8 or 9 subjects. Some of
the vocational or talent related subjects at secondary level
were also scrapped though students are still required to do
more or less the same number of subjects; 7 to 8 in total.
In some of the public and / or rural schools, there is
no interest in the teachers to nurture talent; the students
are often discouraged to pursue their talents and are
instead told to focus on academics.
Capacity:
As in other countries student teacher ratios are
high. Statistics from the Ministry of Education indicate
that the country is currently facing a teacher’s gap of
65,000, with primary schools being the worst hit with a
shortage of 40,000 while secondary schools 25,000.
Below are additional country specific findings and
insights on education:
Kenya
Structure and content:
The 8-4-4 curriculum launched in January 1985
emphasized vocational or ‘practical’ subjects so as to enable
school dropouts at all levels to be either self-employed or
to get employment in the informal sector. 13 compulsory
subjects at primary level included Mathematics, English,
Kiswahili, Science, Agriculture, Music, Art, Craft, GHC
(Geography, History and Civics), CRE / IRE (Christian Religious
Education or Islamic Religious Education), Home-Science,
Business Education and Physical Education. After revision
and rationalization it now covers 6 compulsory subjects in
primary - Mathematics, English, Kiswahili, Science, Social
Studies and CRE, and Physical Education. Ironically though,
some young people interviewed were not necessarily happy
about the changes. They were concerned that the ‘practical’
subjects are no longer available yet it is through these
subjects that they would be able to identify and nurture
their talents. This was mostly amongst the rural youth as well
as the low income urban youth who attend public schools
where there are limited extra curricula activities that can act
as the fallback for a lack of some of the practical or talent
related subjects. Indeed there were also some school drop-
outs in many of the rural groups interviewed and at least 2 of
the urban groups (14-17 female and 22-25 female). As such
the vocational subjects were quite relevant to them as their
livelihoods are now pegged to the informal sector which
requires vocational skills.
“They are still cutting down subjects yetthe whole objective of the 8-4-4 system was to
impart practical skills like carpentry but now eventhose have been scrapped … If you fail to move
on to secondary and university it means you have to find a vocational school to teach you the skill…”
Key Informant, Nairobi, Kenya
“Our school did not supporttalent – the teachers would keep telling us
to stop acting and concentrate on our studiesin class even if you were already doing well in your academics. They would not acknowledge
our success in drama festivals and in factwould do things to sabotage our
participation like not having the bus readyfor us on the days we needed to go…”
Male, 18-21, Kwale, Kenya
“My mother is a teacher at VugaPrimary School and when I went to visit her
there one day I saw that she has over100 students in her class! I asked her whether
she is really able to cater adequately forthe needs of each of those children and she frankly said no. As much as teachers wouldlove to deliver quality to their students, the
numbers are unmanageable…”
Key Informant, Kwale, Kenya
In secondary school subjects were 17 before
rationalization including English, Kiswahili, a foreign
language, mathematics, physical sciences, biological
sciences, geography, history and government, religious
Technology use:
According to media reports, the government has
plans to introduce digital learning platforms so as to make
it simpler to demonstrate some of the more practical
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lessons and also to help bridge the gap of insufficient
teachers. So far KIE has digitized content for Form 1 in
secondary school and Standard 5 for primary school and
is moving on to do so for the other classes. There are still
a number of hurdles to be overcome in terms of capacity
building for teachers, buying of the computer hardware
and software and most importantly ensuring that the
computers are well maintained, powered and connected to
the Internet. Currently, out of the 19,000 primary schools
only 2,000 have computers out of which only a quarter are
connected to the Internet. According to the Kenya Country
Report for ICT and Education, most secondary schools have
some computer equipment; however, this could consist
of one computer in the office of the school head. Very few
secondary schools have sufficient ICT tools for teachers
and students. Even in schools that do have computers, the
student-computer ratio is 150:1. Attempts to set up basic
ICT infrastructure in primary schools are almost negligible.
Ethiopia
Structure and content:
In the pre-European education in Ethiopia, children
in primary schools, learned to read and write. Emphasis
was placed on memorization, where elementary pupils
between the ages of 7-12 had to learn to read, write, and
recite the Dawit Medgem (Psalms of David) for about
two to three years. Next they learned to sing kum zema
(church hymns), which took four years, and msaewait
zema (advanced singing), which took an additional year
to learn. Liturgical dancing and systrum holding required
three years. Qine (poetry) and law required five years to
learn. The interpretation of the Old and New Testaments,
as well as the Apostles’ Creed, took four years on average,
while the interpretation of the works of learned monks and
priests took three years. When a student knew the psalms
by heart, he had mastered the “house of reading” and was
now considered an elementary school graduate. Orthodox
Coptic Church schools provided much needed training in
reading and writing in preprimary schools. Many children
therefore already had basic literacy skills by age six upon
starting primary school. The first postwar formal curriculum
was a 6-6 structure: six years of elementary school followed
by six years of secondary school. Adoption of the secular
education evolved into the current education system that
is not skewed to any specific religion but focuses on the
sylabus that has ben put in place by the government. The
latter system of education, in spite of a few hurdles here
and there is largely appreciated by both the youth and
the community at large. It is thought of by most as an exit
point from poverty and the only way to get a good future.
Methods of instruction and technology use:
Over and above lecture based methodology, school
mini-media is used to relay education material as well
as entertainment to students. This is an initiative of the
government that is funded and supported by NGOs and
other organizations. A mini-media center is a planned
set of materials which include tape recorders, computers,
microphones, amplifiers, and direction sheets and kits.
“Every school system works based oncurriculum, having objectives which guide it.
Hence the curriculum designers should have a great deal of knowledge about their responsibil-ity. Teachers should act accordingly. In general
everyone in the system should be a positive thinker and optimist. No school shall go for maximizing
profit. Rather it should concentrate on networking, empowering and producing good citizens”
Male, 18-21, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Students from an afternoon shift of classes in Debre zeit enjoy some chit chat as they leave school
Basic facilities available in a typical classroom in rural and public schools in Kenya
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa32
Individual students or groups of students who share similar
interests learn to prepare visuals, charts, audio and video tapes,
slides, games, books, movies, radio shows and other material
through direction sheets and kits, teacher guidance and peer
teaching. They then serve as mediators between what they
have learnt and what the other students may learn through the
center. The mini media centers are also used by the school to
make announcements as everyone within the school is able to
hear the loudspeakers.
Another method of instruction that has been adopted
by the Ethiopian government is the Plasma. Plasma is a screen
that is fixed in one classroom of every school, and is used to
broadcast academic instructions live to students across the
country. There is a time table that indicates timings of classes for
the various grades. Students therefore gather for these classes at
the appointed times. The classes are not substitutes to teachers;
the content of topics taught by way of the plasma are tested
in the national examinations. The classes are broadcasted live
from Addis Ababa for all to attend. Last year the students had a
chance to interact with the country’s prime minister through the
plasma, where they discussed various issues and had a chance to
raise their concerns to him.
There seems to be a gap between the Information
technology as taught in schools and the practical experience of
the same that the youth feel they need. Information technology
is offered as a subject right from primary school level, yet a
large number of youth, especially in rural areas expressed the
need for skills in the same implying that they are currently not
getting much out of the subject. Those that have had a chance
to use computers in school only have very basic knowledge
of it, while others have not had the chance to use a computer.
There is need for enough IT equipment for students. ICT clubs
have been introduced in at least thirteen schools in Addis Ababa
and there is intention to spread these clubs throughout the
country. Although this process might take some time, the clubs
are definitely a worthy cause as youth are eager to embrace
technology.
South Africa
Structure and content:
Before democracy, black South Africans went
throught a system of education that was called the
Bantu education. This system of education served the
interests of white supremacy. It denied black people
opportunities and resources enjoyed by white South
Africans and promoted myths and racial stereotypes
in its curricula and textbooks. The “Bantu culture”
was presented as crude, whereby African people and
communities were portrayed as traditional, rural,
and unchanging. Bantu education treated blacks as
perpetual children in need of parental supervision by
whites, which greatly limited the student’s vision of
“his/her place” in the broader South African society.
The disparity and differences that existed in the system
of education then is still evident today, despite the
fact that all schools are open to all citizens regardless
of race. The difference in the quality of education
and facilities available for teaching is still clearcut
and students in township schools are still quite bitter
about the inequality which is one of the main causes of
some of their actions such as ‘reposession’. They steal
equipment given to schools, not necessarily because
they really need it but because they want to prove that
they can and as a means of expressing their bitterness.
Curriculum 2005 is the brand name given to the
South African national curriculum framework that is
currently used in schools. This framework adopts an
Outcome Based Education that stresses group work
and common tasks that are shared by students. The
idea behind OBE is to give a more practical experience
“If you don’t go to school youcan’t reach anywhere you want to go”
Female, 14-17, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
“We don’t use the internetfrequently because it is not accessible easily and we don’t have enough skills to do so for differ-
ent advanced purposes”
Female, 14-17, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
“I think in Soweto there was an NGO or acompany called ‘Soweto Digital Village’…
you find that ok, so digital village installs this big satellite dish for the computer networks
in schools but then the computer lab ends up being dark. Because of them trying to block so
that people wouldn’t see what’s insideor trying to barricade…it ends up notbeing a friendly environment to be in.”
Key Informant, Johannesburg, South Africa
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to the students while at the same time encouraging
interaction between students and teachers. Instruction
therefore focuses on the eventual intention of education,
which is to give students a more rounded approach in
terms of knowledge and practicals. The challenge in the
education system in SA however is that the department of
education has in the past few years changed the system a
number of times such that before one is fully implemented,
another is introduced or amendments are made on the
first one. Some students found it a bit confusing and
challenging to quickly adopt these changes.
Public universities in SA offer courses that are of a
specific kind in terms of content. There are therefore three
categories of public universities: traditional, technology
and comprehensive universities. Traditional universities
offer degree courses that are more theoretically oriented
and require minimal practicals. As the name suggests,
technical universities offer degrees in technical fields
that involve practical applications while comprehensive
universities offer a combination of traditional and
technology courses.
Capacity:
In order to combat the problem of shortage of
trained instructors and teachers, SA government uses its
colleges of education to offer three or four year diploma
courses for secondary school teachers. A number of
colleges have come to agreement with universities,
enabling endorsement of the certification of teachers.
Some colleges of education offer a Bachelor of Primary
Education degree which is conferred by a university. This
way the country gets qualified teachers for the various
levels of education in the system. The education system
in South Africa does not only focus on curriculum for the
school going age children but also offers early childhood
education, adult education, vocational training and
distance learning. This is to cater for all ages of the country’s
education needs. SchoolNet South Africa was established
in 1998 to support and advance distance learning through
information and communications technology.
Schools with special education needs have also
been established. The SA government has tried to develop
“diversity schools” to cater for students/youth with special
needs. Unfortunately, there aren’t enough schools or
qualified teachers to absorb this segment of the youth.
South Africa is one of the few countries that have a social
safety net that caters to the welfare of school drop-outs
who have dropped out because of teenage pregnancies.
Financial assistance in the form of grants is given to
legitimate cases of school drop-outs particularly girls who
have dropped out because of early pregnancies.
Zambia
Content:
The primary syllabus consists of Mathematics,
English, Religious Education, Home Economics, Music,
Integrated Science, Local Language, Social Development
Studies, Literacy (where pupils learn how to read) and
Community Studies (where pupils learn what happens in
the communities where they live). The junior secondary
syllabus consists of subjects like Mathematics, English,
Music, Art, Geography, Environmental Science, Office
practice, Home Economics, Local Language, Religious
Education, Agriculture Science, Book Keeping and
Carpentry. English, Mathematics and a science are core
subjects.
Its revision time for the boys of Chikankata High School, Zambia as they make their way to the library loaded with plenty of books.
High school students in Soweto on their way home from school. Classes end at 2:00 pm in all public schools in SA.
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa34
Capacity:
There has been a dramatic increment in net
enrollment in primary schools since 2000. This is
due to the elimination of tuition fees in primary
school although according to one key informant,
there are still hidden charges in the name of
development fees. One way that Zambia is dealing
with the large number of students is to have them
come in at different times i.e. in shifts. Students
report to school by 6:30am and start classes at
7:00am all through to 12:40pm. According to one
key informant, those who come for the afternoon
classes pay lower fees. They come in for 3 hours
from 2:00pm to 5:00pm while those in the morning
benefit from more than 5 hours of lessons. The
inability to afford fees for secondary and tertiary
levels of education however also exists and many
fall on the wayside. The basic education schools
(primary) are also expanding their capacity by
going on upto grade eight and nine (secondary
grades) so as to accommodate those who miss
places in other secondary schools. In Zambia there
is a lack of adequately trained teachers; the counter
measure especially in rural areas is that those who
have graduated from grade twelve and performed
well are employed as untrained teachers by their
respective schools to teach others.
Technology use:
The use of technology is limited to schools
near towns because of lack of ICT infrastructure
including electricity. Most schools teaching
computer will be found in the urban areas as
opposed to hard to reach rural areas. However in
Lusaka the 22-25 year old male respondents had
hardly used a computer. In their college they did
not have access to the computer lab because they
were not doing courses that required direct use of it.
Conversely, a youth scout reported that most other
college and university students own laptops, which
are available for purchase locally including second-
hand ones. It seems therefore that exposure to
technology depends on which school one attends.
In Chikankata some of the respondents were from
the Chikankata High School which has a computer
lab and offers lessons to its students.
Senegal
Structure and content:
The structure of the Senegales education system is fairly fluid
meaning that there is no clear separation between primary and
secondary education. Vocational training is meant to give technical
skills to students and prepare them for university. The different
levels of schooling are as follows:
z Elementary/ primary – 6 years (examining/administering insti-
tution: l’école primaire)
z Middle school and general secondary – 3 years (offered by col-
lège)
z Technical and professional secondary – 2 years (offered by Lycée
professionnel)
z Higher education/university – 2 years (baccalaurèat proffesionel)
There is also a strong non-formal education system
comprising of literacy programming and community schools
usually designated for 9-14 year olds who are not enrolled in school
or who have dropped out early. Under this category, there are
koranic schools or daaras whose curriculum is entirely based on the
teachings of the Quaran. This system exists as an alternative to the
mainstream system (the French-based formal system).
“They could say that they have computer classes but when you go to the classes you find two
computers being used against thousand of pupils so the access issue is a major obstacle to
technology application in education.”
Key Informant, Lusaka, Zambia
Two girls on their way to daaras – Senegal’s alternative to the formal education system
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Capacity:
The Nigerian educational system has been on
the decline for many years and recently the president
pledged to improve the situation. In recent years the
government has put in more funds towards education
and one respondent acknowledges that Lagos State
is improving in providing facilities such as free books
and stationery. One key informant blamed the
government for not paying teachers well and on time.
In Nigeria the teachers pay can be as low as 7500 Naira
(EUR 37.5). The highest amount that they can be paid
is 150,000 Naira (EUR 750). There is a common saying
therefore, “a teacher’s reward is in heaven”. The poor
pay has caused teachers to engage in other money
making activities rather than being present in class.
It has also resulted in many youth seeking education
in other countries. One key informant claims that
50% of the students in Cotonou, Benin are Nigerians.
Apparently the education syllabus there is better and
the time line more predictable as compared to Nigeria.
Corruption has also eroded the value of Nigerian
education. Many respondents complained of some
students bribing teachers and lecturers in order to
pass exams. Buying certificates has become common
place such that it is difficult to say who rightly deserves
theirs. As such Nigerian qualifications are on the whole
losing credibility.
Capacity:
Amongst the key problems in the Senegalese system of
education is poor infrastructure and shortage of desks, lack of
textbooks, high repetition and dropout rates, irrelevant teaching
programs (which have not changed for decades), the inexistence
of a culture of evaluation in schools, departments and regions
and a lack of trained teachers. Respondents reported that
selection and recruitment of teachers is very subjective; often
they are hand-picked by school administration. This has created
a huge competency problem in Senegal which has eventually
compromised the quality of education offered.
Lack of sufficient schools also leads to youth starting their
professional lives immediately or going into the informal system
of education. It has been reported that as at 2001, 32.5% of
children in Senegal have already began their professional lives.
Nigeria
Structure:
Those students who wish to be employed in the formal
sector in future must undergo one year of National Youth Service
Corps after university or other tertiary course.
Content:
The curriculum has undergone many changes since
independence. NERDC (Nigerian Educational Research and
Development Council) has completed drafting a new curriculum
which will be implemented starting September 2011. Among
the new subjects are ICT, Civic Education and skills acquisition
through technical education.
“Nigerian youth hardly read, insteadthey pay to pass exams and get their
certificates. You can pay your way through anything in Nigeria. Even government
officials can’t defend their certificates.”
Key Informant, Lagos, Nigeria
Saidou Nourou Tall Academié de Dakar: Catching up…Youth from an urban school “en pause” (on break). Nigeria: University students walking into UNILAG.
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa36
Perceptions and youth attitudes towards education:
Do the youth value and appreciate education?Does the society as a whole?
Generally the youth do value education across the
countries of study. They all generally seem to equate a
good education to the means to a good job hence why
they all agree that it is important to go to school. The better
education one has the better the opportunities especially
for formal employment. In addition, education is deemed
to give one better stature in the society – self confidence,
expression, acceptance and ability to interact with different
people.
In some instances, some young people interviewed
appeared not to have as much appreciation for education
as some of their counterparts. This is mainly because they
have been disillusioned by the high unemployment levels
evident by the jobless youth in their neighbourhoods
including those who have secondary and tertiary education.
There is also the need for youth to strike a balance between
education and earning a living; some youth especially those
from lower socio-economic classes sometimes opt out of
school so as to engage in small businesses, make some
money hence support themselves and/or their families.
As such they do not necessarily place the same value on
education as do those who have sufficient provision of their
basic needs therefore can focus on getting an education.
Others who already have a steady source of income do not
on the whole value education since they do not see what
further benefits education would add to their lives. A good
example is as illustrated by one Key Informant in Nairobi,
Kenya who is a District Youth Officer in the Dagoretti area.
He gave an example of how despite most youth having
completed their secondary education in Dagoretti this
usually comes with a lot of prodding and coercing by their
parents. Those who are exposed to their own income at
teen age often do not want to continue going to school
and these are such as children of slum landlords who are
allocated some rooms of their own to let out. They no
longer see the need to go to school since they are now
making their own money and many have thus dropped out.
African society as a whole generally seems to value
education although in some countries like Kenya and
Senegal, certain communities were seen not to place as
much emphasis on the importance of education because
as they argue, there are those who have succeeded
without it and on the other hand there are those who are
highly educated yet have little to show for it. Wrestling
for instance is a major money minting activity for youth
in Senegal. In Nigeria, internet fraud is a major activity in
which young people engage a lot of their time. Such youth
are referred to as the Yahoo Yahoo boys. In Kenya beach
boys and prostitution as well as drug peddling as a whole
is quite rampant especially in the coastal region and this
is another way in which youth are making money hence
opting out of school. Similarly prostitution in most other
countries; in South Africa a key informant revealed that
they were expecting an estimated 40,000 more commercial
sex workers come the 2010 World Cup in June.
“I mean look out our president (Jacob Zuma), he is not that educated but he has people writing
speeches for him. He probably doesn’t know that Jub Jub (hip hop star) killed 16 children. He will
find out weeks later.”
Youth Scouts, Johannesburg, South Africa
“As you are growing up,you can’t stay at home the wholetime for 17 years of your life…
you have to do something substantial. School is also a social place – you get your
friends there… I think that iswhere life begins...”
Male 14-17, Nairobi, Kenya
“Without education today,no man wants to listen to you.”
Male 18-21, Ikorodu, Nigeria
“Everyone should go to schooleven if he or she is a dancer, singer or
celebrity because if one didn’t go to school, during a conversation, he or she feels rejected because of his or her inability to express him /
her self. For example Drogba is nowinternationally famous because of his football. On the other hand we have Cadee who is also
very good but cannot become as famous as Drogba because he cannot express himself.”
Female 22-25, Mbour, Senegal
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“Many people in life have made it through football.The majority of Senegal football national team are people who never went to school and have made it
in life. In Senegal the wrestlers sign contract of100 million franc (152,000 EUR), we are talking
about only 3 minutes of a fight and you have your 100 million Franc. This emphasizes that it is not only
through formal education or school that onesucceeds in life that means that school is not the
only means of success in Senegal.”
Key Informant, Dakar, Senegal
“The diplomas for us youth I would say are like mere papers because there is nothing (no opportunities) after getting diplomas. They (youth) try to do other things such as trade and enterprise after school.”
Key Informant, Mbour, Senegal
The table below shows enrollment rates for primary,
secondary and tertiary levels for the 6 countries studied.
It appears based on this that there is generally a positive
attitude towards education as a whole. Enrollment rates
have been on the increase over the years particularly
primary schools where free primary education has been
introduced such as in Kenya and Zambia. This signifies that
youth and the society to a good extent value education;
the main barrier is poverty where people are unable to raise
the fees and other school related costs especially at higher
levels i.e. secondary and tertiary. Even at primary level,
some students are still locked out despite free primary
education since there are often other hidden costs which
parents are compelled to pay in order for their children to
be enrolled (admission fees) and some ‘development funds’
that they have to contribute to every year. There are also
other societal attitudes and cultures which are barriers
to education; for instance some African societies do not
Table 10: Enrollment rates in 6 African countries
GROSS ENROLLMENT NET ENROLLMENT COMPLETION RATE
Primary Secondary Tertiary Primary Secondary Tertiary
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
KEN
2000 97.5 96.2 40.2 38.2 3.6 1.9 65.3 67.1 33.6 33
2004 111.1 104.9 49.2 46 3.4 2.1 74.1 74.2 39.6 39.9 91.5 88.6
2007 107.3 104.4 52 48.6 74.8 76.1 43.3 42 93.7 91.6
ZAM
2000 82.9 77.3 25.6 20.7 3.2 1.5 68 66.4 20.9 17.5 65.2 54.9
2004 105.3 100.7 30.8 24.5 83.1 83.3 28.5 22.2 76.1 66.1
2007 120.7 117.2 45.7 40.6 93.7 94.4 43.7 38.1 93.5 82.6
NIG
2000 100.8 80.1 26.2 21.6 7.1 5.4 66.6 54.9
2004 103 85.3 36.5 28.7 12.7 6.7 67 57.3 79.9 64.7
2007 104.5 88.9 35.2 28.4 12 8.3 67.6 58.2
SEN
2000 71.8 62 18.9 12.3 60 52.8 43.6 31.8
2004 79.8 75.5 23.3 16.8 69.4 65.7 18.4 13.2 50.2 42.7
2007 83.6 83.5 27 20.5 72 71.9 23.1 17.6 50.7 46.6
ETH
2003 to 2008 97 85 37 24 74 75 29 19 58 58
SA
2003 to 2008 105 102 93 99 86 86 70 41 77 77
Source: 1) World development indicators database 2009 at http://go.worldbank.org/KGT2YR91F0
2) http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/statistics.html
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa38
How relevant is education in Africa today?
Based on findings across the 6 countries, it seems
that education does little to prepare young people for
the realities of the job market. As discussed earlier most
of the curriculums are heavily theoretical with little or
no practical activities incorporated and are more geared
towards formal and white collar jobs. Unfortunately in
most countries the opportunities in these sectors are quite
limited hence the high rates of unemployment. In Kenya
for example the rationalization and revision of the 8-4-4
system led to the elimination of subjects that were deemed
to offer certain practical skills which a young person could
then utilize to earn a living within the informal sector.
These subjects included Art, Craft, Music, Home Science,
and Business Education. Individual areas of interest in
Kenya are also therefore not adequately catered for and
the fallback would be to pursue this through an extra
curricula activity which may not necessarily be available.
The other countries however still retain some form of
‘practical’ subjects in their curriculums though they are still
heavily theoretical and in some instances outdated. On the
whole varied interest areas are catered for by the variety
of academic subjects available for the students to select
both in arts and sciences. Some students acknowledged
that they had been able to select their subjects of interest
or those that they are especially talented or skilled in and
hence nurturing the same. There is room for improvement
though as far as languages are concerned as in most
countries schools tend to offer only one international
language. Senegal is the exception as they offer a wider
variety i.e. about 4 international languages of which Latin
is compulsory.
Because of use of lecture based approach in teaching,
many young people are also ill prepared for working life
since they have not been nurtured to think critically and
creatively. South Africa is currently implementing the OBE
system which should add value to the students in this area
though students complained that the teachers are still
struggling to learn how to deliver in this way. The desired
outcome for lecture based method of teaching is content
acquisition and conceptual understanding hence students
are compelled to focus on passing particular exams set in
a particular way. The examination systems in most of the
countries are designed to fit certain responses which the
students should deliver in order to pass. Student teacher
interactions and relationships are also not conducive to
learning so as to develop critical thinking and creativity.
Often, teachers wield a lot of power, are unapproachable
and cannot be questioned or challenged by the students.
Students in turn are therefore afraid to ask questions or
reveal that they have not understood certain concepts for
fear of being humiliated. In Zambia for instance students
were punished for not knowing the right answer. The
teachers are simply not role models for the youth; they do
not encourage the students to reach their full potential and
nurture them to do the same.
Education to some extent also fails to prepare
young people for life in general. Although most countries
are trying to incorporate some form of lifeskills or life
orientation in their curriculums, it is yet to make significant
impact due to somewhat shallow content and ineffective
methods of delivery. For example the life skills courses
are mainly taught as theory and using the same lecture
based approach as is done for other subjects; there is little
creativity in how these courses are delivered. Also as earlier
discussed delivery is also ineffective due to the teachers
who are sometimes too far removed from youth issues
hence cannot relate to the youth and in turn the youth are
not comfortable around them.
“Most people said that they don’t like life orientation as a subject. They said that it was an
unnecessary subject. They teach you general life skills but as a woman they don’t teach you how to take care of your hair. They should add more. It’s a subject you
can miss the whole year and still get an A.”
Youth Scouts, Johannesburg South Africa
believe in educating the girl child. In Senegal for example
this is a very big phenomenon and part of the culture not
to send girls to school. The disparity between male and
female literacy levels is a reflection of this culture – male
literacy is about 50% while that of females is only 29%.
Such communities would rather send the boys to school
and keep the girls at home to help out with various chores
and eventually marry them off. Some of these children will
still therefore miss out on school despite it being free and
even compulsory in some countries such as Senegal and
South Africa. In South Africa education is compulsory for
all children between 7 and 15 years of age and in Senegal
for children between 6 and 16 years. Similarly in Nigeria the
law that established the UBE (Universal Basic Education)
stipulates a 9 year formal schooling for all children though
this is not necessarily enforced by the government.
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Most of the schools also have a heavy emphasis
on academics as opposed to extracurricula activities or
other such as life skills and life orientation. As such there
is more focus on booksmarts as opposed to streetsmarts
despite the fact that many young people interviewed
acknowledged that both are quite important. Streetsmarts
or life skills are in many instances a by-product of the
education system as opposed to being made an integral
part of learning. Despite this being the case some young
people appreciated that they had acquired various social
skills by going to school. These included such things as
expression and interaction with people, good grooming
and dressing, among others. In addition because of the
heavy focus on academics, young people who have various
talents and interests in terms of extra curricula activities are
often not adequately catered for. Nonetheless schools do
have some extracurricula activities such as performing arts
and various sports and some young people interviewed
were happy that they had been able to nurture their talents
in various areas.
Career counseling in schools is also limited or
altogether lacking in many of the countries studied and as
such contributes to the gap between school life and the
realities of the job market. Many young people as a result
do not have enough information when selecting subjects
or courses they would like to study at tertiary level. They
instead rely on advice from family and in many cases
parents often impose their personal desires and aspirations
on their children hence coercing them to take courses that
they do not necessarily have a passion and interest in.
“I can give a tick to extra curriculaactivities in primary and secondary school.
There are things like drama, music, debate… Talent is identified, harnessed
and promoted very well at this level but at university it is very poor, it exists but overall it is very very poor. We are trying to organize a talent night for our students. We have great singers here who don’t know who to show
their talent to. What will make thembillionaires is not classwork but their talent. Still society respects education and holds it
in very high esteem so our students must not neglect their classwork…”
Key Informant, University Student Leader
In such a technological age, education in many
African countries also does not offer the relevant training
and use of technologies so as to prepare students for the
job market. As seen earlier few schools have incorporated
ICTs and the infrastructure is still quite poor. Little has
been done to move beyond the policy on paper to
implementation.
Is the education in African countries inclusive enough?
There are substantial efforts that are being made
towards making education in Africa accessible to all. Over
the years various actions have been taken by the different
stakeholders – development partners and governments
in order to provide education to all; hence the advent
of free primary education in many countries which has
led to an overwhelming increase in enrollment rates. In
addition there are school feeding programmes that have
been started in various schools especially in rural areas and
urban low income schools. This has been done in all the
six countries of study. Some respondents said that this has
really encouraged school attendance since many who are
poor have nothing to eat at home; the meal they get at
school may be the only one that child will get for the day.
It has been established that one of the reasons children do
not go to school in some areas is extreme hunger which
means that they cannot concentrate in class. In some
countries there are even extra incentives built into such
feeding programmes to incorporate the families in the
community. In a past study carried out in Somali region of
Ethiopia a development organization was running a school
feeding programme whereby children got a meal at school
and in addition got a bottle of cooking oil to take home
to their families if they attended school for a consecutive
number of weeks. As such the families in the community
were quite motivated to send their children to school.
Other unique efforts also exist albeit on a small scale. For
instance in Kenya one of the youth scouts reported about
the existence of a mobile computer training programme in
“They could say that they have computer classes but when you go to the classes you find 2 computers being used against thousands of
pupils so the access issue is a major obstacle to technology application in education.”
Key Informant, Lusaka, Zambia
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa40
are kept hidden. Individual parents of such children are
therefore also often at a loss of what to do with them since
there are no supportive structures either in the community
or in educational institutions.
What do youth in Africa like / dislike about school?
The table below shows some of the mentions by
young respondents of what they like and dislike about
school. It provides some additional insight into the
strengths, weaknesses and gaps of the education systems
in Africa based on the 6 countries studied, over and above
the various issues that have been discussed in previous
sections.
Kibera which is an informal settlement in Nairobi. There is a
bus with computers which parks at the bus stage in Kibera
every day and those who wish to learn computers enrol
for a minimal fee of KES 200 (EUR 2) and learn for a period
of 3 months. There are also other similar mobile schools
and mobile libraries for various courses in the different
countries especially in nomadic areas. Such initiatives
are however few and far between and cannot cater for
all the populations who are seeking to get an education.
Overall formal education still has a long way to go in terms
of accessibility to all especially at secondary and tertiary
levels. There are not enough institutions to cater for all
students and there is a disparity in terms of number and
type of insitutions available to students from different
regions; those in the urban areas have more opportunities
and variety to select from as opposed to those in the rural
areas. In the long run, how effective is formal education in
Africa if universal access is still a great challenge?
Youth with special needs are also not adequately
catered for in terms of school facilities more so at the
tertiary level and have limited opportunity to be absorbed
into the mainstream job market. The communities are
also not supportive in advocating for the rights of children
with special needs and in many African communities such
children are believed to be an abomination or a curse and
“I have many friends who are blind so I want to invent new cell phone features that aid the disabled and the elderly in their day to
day activities… its screen has a Braillesystem so it will assist the blind people.”
Female 22-25, Addis Ababa Ethiopia
Table 11: What youth in Africa like / dislike about school
KEN ETH S.A. ZAM SEN NIG NOTES
LIKES
Socialising, interacting and making friends
Learning how to be confident, express oneself and communicate with different people
Playing various sports
Music and drama
School outings and trips
Going home for mid-term and holidays
Acquiring new knowledge and gaining exposure
Free or atleast affordable education
More accessibility due to increased number and type of institutions
Removal of the cut off point for the exam at grade 8, meaning more students go onto grade nine
Variety of subjects and courses offered
Good education policy
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KEN ETH S.A. ZAM SEN NIG NOTES
DISLIKES
Cults
Punishments including corporal forms of it in some schools.
Interestingly some respondents in Kenya were of the opinion that this is important since it instills discipline in the students
‘Bad’ food in boarding schools
Strict rules, regulations and restrictions E.g. students in Kenya are not allowed to bring and use certain personal items to school such as mobile phones, other music and electronic gadgets, clothes and fashion accessories
Theft from other students
Bullying
Sexual advances and defilement of female students by male teachers
Tribalism, ethnicity and other forms of social discrimination by the teachers and also amongst the students
Teachers with low morale due to lack of pay and lack of commitment from the government
Doing ‘irrelevant’ subjects that may not be useful later on
Examination set-up for primary, secondary and some colleges and training insitutions under
After studying for a period of 8 or 4 years, this all culminates in one final exam over a few days and this one exam is what determines your fate. What happens to those students who have performed well over the years but an unfortunate occurrence like illness on exam days makes it difficult for them to perform to their level best?
Students giving bribes to teachers to pass examinations or be given certificates.
Lack of practical training in subjects that require it
Insufficient number of books in school and also high cost of text books
Having to resit exams because of missing results
Some courses are offered only up to diploma level Some students would like to further their courses of choice to degree levels but the courses can only be furthered to diploma levels
Maths as a prerequisite to joning university – one must perform well in mathematics in order to join university
Feeling that certain courses e.g. arts do not require maths
Lack of consistency in the education system Numerous curriculum changes confuse students
Quality of education system is poor as compared to the West
Insecurity in schools Some students are drug peddlers, violent and involved in crime
Learning international languages – afterall those in the west don’t learn African languages
In SA Afrikaans is also compulsory in some schools and some don’t want to learn it.
Disparity between public and private schools in terms of facility, equipment, teachers and the quality of education
Lack of facilities such as books, laboratories and structures such as toilets
Excessive work or overload for students Engineering and Medicine degrees are now taken in fewer years than before but same content covered
Education policy is outdated and irrelevant
Lack of practicals to back up theories taught
Use of TV screens to air live lessons (The plasma) It discourages interaction and is too fast for some students. Students cannot stop to ask questions or learn at their own pace.
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa42
S tarays Academy also referred to as Starays Hope
Community Centre is an ‘informal’ school within the
Kibera slum in Nairobi just behind Olympic Estate.
The school was founded in 2004 by a married couple Jane
Okeyo and Paul Odhiambo to cater for children in Kibera
who could not afford to proceed to secondary school
due to poverty yet they had passed their KCPE exams
at primary level. Madam Jane, a graduate teacher by
profession had been working at a similar school elsewhere
as a volunteer and where she found the inspiration to start
Starays. The school’s vision is to give a second chance to
students from poor backgrounds and also those who have
experienced various life and social challenges that would
normally lock them out of the mainstream education
system. These include things such as pregnancy or early
marriage, drug abuse among others. There are girls at the
school who are mothers and so are allowed to go home
to nurse their babies at lunch hour before they get back
to school for the afternoon lessons. There was also an
incident in the past of a boy who was found smoking
bhang in school – he would go to the toilet after every
couple of hours to smoke since he was addicted and
when the manager found this out, they simply worked
out an arrangement where he would be allowed a
couple of hours before afternoon classes to go home and
smoke his bhang then return to class and hence be able
to concentrate. At the same time they still recognized
that the boy needed help and were able to get him
some counseling and rehabilitation services outside of
school. The teachers too have had problems of their
own but Starays has tried to help and accommodate
them as they are in turn willing to give their time and
effort to educate the children. Madam Jane gave one
example of a teacher who had been an alcoholic for a
long time but had eventually come to the realization
that he needed to make himself useful in the society
and therefore volunteered to become a teacher even if
he wouldn’t earn much from it. Starays is referred to as
An Educational Day at Starays Academy, Kibera, Nairobi
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an informal school because it does not function under the
specific rules and regulations of the Ministry of Education
though there is hardly any diference between theirs and
formal schools’ educational activities. The curriculum they
offer is the same 8-4-4 and so is the national examination
which they register and sit for i.e. KCSE. So far they have
had 4 groups of KCSE candidates. On average majority of
the students attain grade C’s with a few obtaining B grades
overall. The school does not rely on any donor funding.
The students are charged fees according to their family
situation and ability to pay; some pay KES 20 (EUR 0.2) a
day, some KES 500 (EUR 5) every half month and those
who can pay monthly. No student is turned away because
of lack of fees.
All the buildings are made of corrugated iron sheet
and cement floors. Although occupying a small area, there
is maximum utilization of space. At the time of visit there
was one Form 1 class, two Form 2 streams, one Form 3
and two Form 4 streams. There is a library, laboratory,
staffroom, kitchen and administration office and
reception. There are also dormitories, the girls’ has thirty
two borders who sleep two a bed while there are about
eighteen boys who each sleep alone. The girl’s dormitory
is a small room that has small double decker beds. There
is a small bathroom on one corner with a wooden floor
that water flows through into a tunnel underneath. The
boys’ dormitory is much smaller than the girls’ and is close
to the caretaker’s room for safety and close monitoring. It
is also congested. The manager tells us that they had to
increase boarding facilities for the boys because some of
them get into bad habits at home and get into trouble
with their fathers so it is better to keep them in school at
the request of their parents. All the buildings and facilities
in the school are very modest with very simple furniture
– mostly makeshift wooden benches and tables. The
library has the only computer in the school and a small
collection of books that were donated to the school by a
well-wisher. They therefore have about 5 copies for each
class/form and for each subject for the students to refer
to when doing homework. Teachers can also borrow the
books for the students to use during lessons but they
must be returned promptly when the lesson ends. Given
the limited number of books students are not allowed to
borrow to take home hence they have to go to the library
to do their assignments before they go home or during any
free lessons or during lunchtime. These limited text books
have to be shared by all the students as most cannot afford
The modest library facility that has gone a long way in providing reading material and text books to the students
For lack of a better storage area given the limted space in the school, extra mattresses for boarders are kept on one side of the lab.
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa44
to purchase their own books. The librarian also doubles up
as a CRE teacher; she sits in the library to serve the students
whenever she is not in class. The laboratory is also a basic
one and is used for all science subjects; students therefore
do their examinations in shifts during exams as the facility
is obviously not enough for all of them at a go and for all the
science exams. There are some chemicals and equipment
stored in a cupboard on one side. They have some very
basic lab equipment such as test tubes, beakers, and
Bunsen burners which were donated by some well-wishers
but they lack more sophisticated and essential equipment
such as microscopes. There is a lab technician who sits right
in the middle of the rather empty room and there are a few
sinks along the wall and surfaces for students to work on.
The school has six male graduate teachers and one
young female untrained teacher. She is hoping to train as
a nurse at KMTC later this year. She is the one who also
doubles up as the librarian. The teachers range in age
from late twenties to early thirties. There is a manager,
Paul Odhiambo who mostly deals with the parents. Jane,
currently the head of the school is a graduate teacher and
has been offered a government position since starting the
school but she has refused to take up a well-paid position
because in her words, “I am the one who had the vision,
how can I leave?” The school cannot afford to pay any of
the staff a salary so what they get is a small stipend to keep
them going. In total there are about 300 students in the
school with about 40 to 50 students per class. The students
wear school uniform – at all times they are supposed to be
neatly dressed in green skirts (or trousers for the boys),
white shirts, green pullovers and green ties with white
stripes, black shoes and white socks for the girls, grey for
the boys. Personal grooming is also taken very seriously
for example one boy is sent home during assembly for
keeping long untidy hair with the instruction to shave it
afterwhich he may come back to school. He is therefore a
little late for his classes that day but is readily re-admitted
back since he has now shaved the hair. Later in the day
another boy is reprimanded for an untucked shirt and
loosened tie which he quickly corrects.
School starts at 7:00 am at Starays Hope Community
Centre in Kibera and ends at 5:00 pm for the non-boarders
and 10:00 pm for the boarders. The routine is strict and
emphasis is mainly on academics.
7:00 – 8:00 am preps with the teachers. This time
is dedicated to extra study, tuition and revision. Students
are expected to make it to school in time to attend these
preps.
Plastic containers for water in the lab. Lack of water is a common phenomenon in the slums.
Welcome to Starays School… Perhaps that’s whatthe sign would read at the entrance, if there were one
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On a tour of the school with the manager. Current stop – the science lab.
8:00 – 1:00 pm regular classes with a half hour tea
break at around 11 am. On some days they have a school
assembly from 8:00 to 8:30 am hence classes start a little
later than usual. We visit various classes and sit in to go
through the lessons of the day with them and in a day
are able to go through various subjects – English, Maths,
Business Education, and History. The method of instruction
is largely lecture-based where the teacher discusses the
topic of the day and dictates notes to the students. He
has a blackboard at the front of the classroom in case
he needs to write down anything for reference. There is
some opportunity for class participation where teachers
ask questions and students can answer and similarly
students are free to ask questions to their teachers. The
atmosphere in class is quite relaxed and informal whereby
students seem quite free with their teachers and will
jovially interact with them sometimes asking questions or
introducing topics that are outside of the lessons for the
day. Most of the students also speak Kiswahili or Sheng in
class and even with their teachers. There seem to be a few
students in every class who are most active as compared
to the rest – they answer most of the questions and also
ask questions. Generally students seem to be overloaded
with assignments – every teacher leaves an assignment
and some of these are supposed to be done in the course
of the day and delivered to the staffroom yet the students
have very little free time to do the assignments; there are
some teachers who even carry out extra lessons over lunch
hour and on weekends which are said to be optional but it
is established that students feel obliged to attend so as not
to miss out.
Mostly it is observed that students of the same
gender sit together but there are a few desks where girl and
boy sit together; the students generally pick where they
want to sit as opposed to allocation by their teachers. The
classes have large openings for ventilation which is what
serves as the windows but because of the iron sheets, it
still gets quite hot inside especially from midday when the
sun is high. There is a foul smell in some of the classes
indicating that there are toilets nearby and sanitation is
generally not very good. Looking around the classes one
notices that there are different types of bags that students
use to carry their books; backpacks, small metallic boxes
and simple polythene bags. Some students also don’t
seem to have some of the necessary books and stationery
they need for their lessons; some have geometrical sets,
others just have a pen, some have large A4 exercise books
while others have smaller A5 ones with very few pages
and they write in very tiny handwriting so that they can
maximize on that small book as much as possible. Others
have very neatly covered books using brown paper while
others do not. Seemingly therefore, there are different
socio-economic categories of students even though they
all come from the same neighbourhood. For example in
the mathematics class for Form 1 as well as Form 4, the
particular lessons attended involved graph work and
not all students had graph books. In Form 4 the teacher
declined to mark assignments from those students who
had done their work on ordinary ruled exercise books
while in Form 1 those who did not have the required graph
books were warned that if they did not acquire them by
the next day they would be caned. Apparently corporal
punishment is used for students in Form 1 and 2 while the
older ones receive other forms of punishment.
1:00 – 1:30 pm Time for lunch. Students and
teachers alike have their lunch at school. There is a kitchen
with two staff members who start to prepare lunch for
the school from as early as 8:00am. The daily and basic
An aerial view of Kibera surrounding the school
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa46
meal is ‘githeri’ which is a mixture of maize and beans. For
dinner, the school prepares ‘ugali’ which is made out of
maizemeal; they eat this with vegetables. Some students
who have certain medical problems and cannot therefore
eat githeri for lunch are served with ugali and vegetables
instead. These meals cost Kshs 20 per student (EUR 0.2)
so as to ensure affordability for the majority. All students
who have paid for the lunch get a meal card which they
submit at the kitchen in order to be served. A few students
who have a little more to spend buy bhajia also available
from the school kitchen at KES 1 (EUR 0.01) a piece. The
administration decided to introduce this option so as to
avoid students going outside of the school compound over
lunch hour seeking alternative meals; this way they avoid
time wastage and students can quickly settle back to class
after lunch for more lessons or assignments.
During this time we get to engage with various
students and find out more about school life from their
perspective. One boy in Form 4 shares his experiences.
Apparently he is not completely convinced about the value
of the education he is getting and basically why he has to be
in school. His father has forced him to come to school and at
that become a boarder so as to keep him away from negative
influences of other youth in his neighbourhood who have
dropped out of school. He comes from Kawangware
which is another low income area and informal settlement
in Nairobi. He acknowledges that with his education
he is better off than his drop-out friends because of the
exposure, confidence and general knowledge that it has
given him and so he will have better survival skills in terms
of livelihoods than they will. However he still feels that he
is missing out on life out there especially the opportunity
to hustle and make money. He would also like to have
a mobile phone in school so that he can keep in touch
with the world out there and perhaps be able to run his
businesses but alas mobile phones are strictly forbidden
and anyone found with one faces serious punishment
and the phone is destroyed or thrown into a pit latrine.
He concedes though that there are still some students in
school secretly keeping and using their mobile phones
but its tricky and one can easily get caught especially if
you fall out with some students who would then sell you
out to the administration. On extra curricula activities
and clubs, he says there is not much at their disposal
because the school is more focused on academics and
there is little physical space anyway for sports. The most
active clubs therefore are also those that are related to
academics such as Maths club, Science club and Debate.
They receive a lot of recognition and support from the
school administration and they also do not require a
lot of space for their activities. Generally the school
atmosphere is friendly though he reveals that for the
boarders there is sometimes some underlying animosity
between students of different tribes hence people tend
to prefer to hang out with their own. Another female
student also shares her experiences. She is now in Form
4 but she joined the school only a year ago after having
been transferred from a rural school. She says she is very
happy here; apparently she finds the teachers at Starays
to be very committed to delivering quality education to
the students whereas in her old school teachers were
rather demotivated and didn’t really care about teaching
the students. According to her the students at Starays are
also very focused with their studies and this helps keep
everyone in check. About subjects and subject choices,
she says there is not much guidance to students as to
Out for a break – students gather around the kitchen area trying to get a bite
The plot adjacent to the school which they hope to acquiresoon for expansion purposes.
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how to select subjects to specialize in when they get
to Form 3. As such there is some confusion whereby
students keep switching from one subject to another
before they finally settle to one and in the process miss
out on a lot. This is partly driven by fear especially when
it comes to tests and assessments and partly by lack
of understanding of what selecting a certain subject
means in terms of tertiary studies and future careers.
This particular girl says that she made her selection of
subjects based on some advice from her big brother; he
simply told her to select subjects that are relatively easy
to pass; subjects that would not be difficult for her and
that is what she did.
1:30 – 2:00 pm Students go back to class for any
additional lessons or to the library to read or complete
assignments.
2:00 – 4:00 pm Regular classes resume. Because
of the limited number of teachers in the school, it is
common to see students from the different streams of
a given class all congregating into one classroom for a
given lesson. For example there was only one English
teacher at the time hence the two Form 4 classes all
came together into one classroom to have the lesson
together. The lack of textbooks is another challenge
that is quite evident. It is therefore not unusual to see
4 to 5 students huddling around one textbook trying to
get the benefit of the lesson. There is a railway line just
adjacent to the school and because of the deafening
noise of the passing trains this creates some disturbance
very early in the morning and in the afternoon usually
towards the final lessons of the day. We experience one
train passing at about 4pm. The teachers have to stop
speaking if they were in the middle of a lecture until
the sound subsides with the train disappearing into the
horizon. They all seem to be used to this as part of their day
to day experiences.
4:00 – 5:00 pm Games, club activities or prep
afterwhich non-boarders go home. The school manager
explains to us that they sometimes have some football
practice in the field across which they have been allowed to
use by the owners. They have not got round to doing this
for this school term however. He continues to explain that
students at the school have various talents, passions and
interests especially in the arts but unfortunately they have
not been able to nurture these through regular activities.
He says this is partly due to the lack of space but also a
lack of teachers who have the same interests and passions
therefore can take up these activities as the patrons
and drive them successfully. Nonetheless whenever
opportunities arise for their students to take part in certain
arts related competitions or the like, they take them up and
prepare the students to participate. They are usually not
the initiators; anything they have participated in, in the
past has been initiated by other schools or organizations
and to which they were officially invited.
We leave the school just before 5:00pm as the day
draws to a close. As reported to us by the school manager,
the remainder of the evening for students who are boarders
is spent as follows:
6:00 – 7:00 pm Dinner for the boarders
7:00 – 9:00 pm Prep for boarders
9:00 – 10:00 pm Prayers / Christian Union Meeting
10:00 pm Boarders go to sleep.
The only computer in the school. Limited ICT facilities means that students miss out on critical technological aspects of learning.Assignment completion and study time in the library
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa48
School type:
This is a middle basic school, meaning it runs from
grade one to grade nine. It has three levels of education
namely lower primary (grade 1 - 4), upper primary (grade
5 - 7) and junior secondary grades (8 - 9). The school is run
by a female head teacher assisted by a deputy and heads
of various departments such as math department, English
department and so on. It has senior school teachers and
ordinary teachers. The school is mixed both boys and girls
and by observation the numbers are quite equal.
The students wear uniform although some students
wear sports shoes instead of the required regular black
shoes. Others in the grade seven class that we sat in had
worn out and even torn uniforms perhaps a reflection of
their low income background. Obviously the school is not
too strict in this regard as this would lock many students
out. However no necklaces, neck chains, fancy hair styles
or other improper dressing is allowed.
The teachers are held in utmost respect and pupils
must stand up each time a teacher enters the classroom.
In fact students who were late for the first morning
lesson, knocked, came in and knelt before the teacher
as they asked for pardon. Other rules are that pupils
will take part in sports, academic, social and production
unit activities as may be arranged by the school. The
production unit is when the school engages in farming
activities like during the previous school term when the
school had a thriving vegetable garden.
School programme;
The school day starts at 6:30 am when pupils
report to school and start by cleaning the classrooms
and the surrounding. They then assemble briefly before
going in for the first lesson at 7:00 am. At 9:40 am there
is a twenty minute break. They resume again and break
off at 12:40 pm. (Another lot of students will come in at
Student life and experience at Chikankata Basic School, Zambia
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2:00 pm and knock off at 5:00 pm). The ones who leave at
12:40 pm will come back at 3:00 pm for clubs, cleaning and
other activities until 5:00 pm.
The head and deputy head teachers meet daily
for a briefing while a staff meeting is held every three
weeks. Every Monday there is also assembly to make any
important announcements to the pupils.
What they study;
The primary syllabus consists of subjects like
Math, English, Religious Education, Home Economics,
Music, Integrated Science, Tonga (local language), Social
Development Studies, Literacy and Community Studies
(learning about what happens in their community). The
junior syllabus comprises subjects like Math, English, Music,
History, Art, Geography, Environmental Science, Office
Practice, Home Economics, Tonga, Religious Education,
Agriculture, Science, Book keeping and Carpentry.
The teaching method is mainly the lecture method.
Teachers explain the topic and give a few examples on the
board and then give a few questions which are then done
in class and for home work. The reason for this seemed to
be the lack of enough textbooks. In grade seven pupils are
seated in groups of eight to ten around two tables joined
together, facing each other (see photo). They then share
one book among four pupils if not more. The books are
distributed at the beginning of class and later collected
so the teacher has to write the homework exercise on the
board. Similarly for subjects like Social Development, the
teacher has to write the notes on the board so that the
students copy. The seating arrangement also differs in
Teachers have to make their own visual learning aids such as these charts in a grade seven class in Chikankata basic school.
This is the school block which is still undergoing somerefurbishment hence the missing doors and window panes.
Students crowd over the obviously limited number of textbooks to do exercises in Chikankata basic school.
some classes; in some, bright students are placed in each
group so that they may help others while in some classes
the brightest students sit together then followed by the
next brightest such that those who usually lag behind sit
together in one group. We observed that one table always
raised their hands to answer questions while the table
with the pupils who do not perform well, looked almost
lost and hardly raised their hands to answer anything.
Extra curricular activities;
There are social clubs like debate club, anti-aids
club, drama club, school choir and junior engineers,
technicians and scientists club (JETS)
There are sports clubs; football, netball, volleyball,
athletics, long jump, high jump and triple jump club.
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa50
There is also preventive maintenance i.e. where
pupils clean up the school and work in the garden.
Interactions
The teachers are dedicated in their work and want
the pupils to understand what they are being taught.
Slow learners are given special attention. If they are
having difficulty understanding, the teacher for instance
may explain the point in mother tongue. The students
are also eager to learn and look up to their teachers
with a lot of respect. They look to them to guide them
towards a better future. Pupils who come out top of their
class are awarded to encourage others.
The students group themselves according to
status and seem to feel that those from well to do families
look down on others. They also form study groups to
help each other to perform well and also help each other
perfect their skills e.g. in football, netball.
ICT use
The school does not have computers. Only a
small number of pupils have mobile phones but these
are not permitted in school. The most common medium
After school activities in Chikankata basic school. Dance, dance, dance… as teacher and other pupils look on.
of communication therefore is face to face. English is
spoken in class but at breaks one will hear Tonga being
spoken.
Pupils’ comments
Some common problems among them are the lack
of school shoes, mathematical sets and exercise books.
Some of them do piece work like watering vegetables at
the Chikankata mission to earn some money.
Some students would want to change the class
time to begin at eight because they have to walk long
distances to school. Similarly those who live far away
would want to be exempted from extra curricular
activities in the afternoon because this means arriving
home late in the evening.
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The main market. Mbour is one of Senegal’s largest cities with a vibrant informal business trade
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa54
Chapter Three | Livelihood
Youth unemployment rates are about three times
the unemployment rates of older adults in Africa
(ILO 2006). Youth unemployment is higher in ur-
ban areas than in rural areas which clearly points out the
substantial difficulties of youth participation in the labour
market. The number of unemployed youth grew by 30%
from 1995 to 2005. In addition to the unemployment rate,
which is measured in relation to the labour force, a large
part of youth in Africa can be classified as “inactive”, i.e. not
part of the labour force (under education or completely
outside the labor force). Youth make up 43.7% of the to-
tal unemployed people in the world despite accounting
for only 25% of the working population. In fact, in Sub-
Saharan Africa, 3 in 5 of the total unemployed are youth
(ILO 2006). Most young Africans in work have employment
that is characterized by long hours, low pay and no secu-
rity. Many young people working in the informal sector
are “working poor”, i.e. earnings are still below US$1 a day
(DFID, 2006b).
Youth are more likely than older adults to be in the
informal sector, and less likely to be wage employed or
self-employed. For example, in 2005, 81.4% and 12.5% of
Ethiopian youth were in the informal and self-employment
sectors respectively, against 43% and 49.6% of adults (ILO
2007). Young people are more likely to work longer hours
under intermittent and insecure work arrangements, char-
acterized by low productivity and meager earnings. Un-
deremployment is more prevalent among youth than older
adults, and is more prevalent in rural rather than urban ar-
eas. Youth are employed primarily in agriculture in which
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more effective in the utilization of local social and natural
resources using simple and affordable production technol-
ogy. Also, MSMEs are better positioned to satisfy limited de-
mands brought about by small and localized markets due
to their lower overheads and fixed costs. Although micro,
small and medium scale informal businesses are dynamic
and employment generating entities, they are not socially
and economically preferable jobs. This results in a kind of
frictional unemployment where the young job-seekers pre-
fer large companies and therefore tend to wait for a satis-
factory job to come up.
Many micro and small sized enterprises in East Af-
rica are informal because the administrative procedures for
business registration are too cumbersome, long-winded or
costly. The barriers to setting up new businesses are par-
ticularly high for young people who on the other hand face
complex entrepreneurship barriers. These structural prob-
lems include: the lack of voice and representation; and lack
of access to credit due to lack of collateral that banks re-
quire for a loan. Isolation and lack of support are problems
many young women and men entrepreneurs experience
and this often prevents them from gaining a foothold in
modern business.
they account for 65% of total employment. In rural areas
the youth work longer hours and spend a lot of their time
in household work. In rural Ethiopia for example, they work
43 hours a week in contrast to the 31 hours worked in urban
areas. Of those 43 hours worked, the rural youth spends
31 hours in household work (fetching water, collecting fire
wood, and other domestic activities), in contrast to the 22
spent on these tasks in urban areas. Rural youth attached
to agriculture are disadvantaged in terms of employment
status as compared to those engaged in non-farm activities
(ILO 2007).
In practice, there are many complex structural and
frictional constraints related with lack of employability
(Semboja 2005). These include preference by employers,
lack of work experience during school years; poor quality
in the education; inadequate preparation of the youth in
career development and low level of information technol-
ogy. The art of taking a business endeavour where one
becomes self employed have become a challenge to most
young people. Micro, Small and Medium Scale Enterprises,
(MSMEs) are in both formal and informal sectors engaging
in farm and non-farm economic activities such as manufac-
turing, mining, commerce and social services. MSMEs are
55
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa56
Youth and money
Like everyone else, youth say they definitely need
money. What for? This ranges from basics like food,
clothing and shelter to other secondary needs and
wants such as entertainment, mobile phone and airtime,
transport, among others. The priorities depend on age, life
circumstances, culture or family socio-economic class. As
such some young people’s prioritization may not need to
cover basics such as food, shelter and clothing hence the
things that one would consider secondary then become
the priority for them when spending their money. On
the other hand some youth may need to contribute to
family needs because of poverty and / or a culture of
dependency where families simply expect their young
people to provide for them even from a fairly young age.
This is quite evident across the countries of study. For
example in Senegal, a young person aspires to build a
house for his parents and ensure that they are well catered
for financially before taking care of his own personal
needs and desires. Similarly in other countries, there are
various manifestations of the dependency culture.
The dependency culture can be said to be
counterproductive to the African communities despite
having some good intentions. Some youth felt that
they were being held back from personal development
and success because of the constant need to provide
for family. It also has negative effects on the very
same communities who are being supported in that
they become complacent and unproductive.
On a personal level some of the things that youth
spend their money on include clothes, shoes, airtime,
busfare, entertainment / social costs (e.g. alcohol, music,
cigarettes, clubbing). Those who are living on their own
also spend money on other basic needs like rent and food.
The desire to satisfy these personal needs and wants is
quite strong amongst the youth yet at the same they have
family expectations to meet hence youth are quite good at
juggling and stretching the little money they have to cover
all the needs. There was not much evidence of youth making
a conscious effort to save and invest for the future; it seems
that they are generally spontaneous in their spending,
live for the moment and are short-sighted about the
benefits of making solid financial plans for the future.
Where do the youth get their money? Many get
money from their parents especially the younger ones
(14-17 and in some instances 18-21), particularly those
still in school or college and of better socio-economic
standing. The amounts of pocket money or allowances
vary a great deal depending on socio-economic status and
living arrangements for the students in boarding school
or college. This also varies from country to country. The
amounts ranged from EUR 5 to EUR 3000 in Kenya per term
or semester, EUR 5 per week in Nigeria, and EUR 32 to 48
per month in Ethiopia. Some have come up with ‘creative’
“There are very high expectations,very high expectations. Though they know your salary is very small you have to give,
you have to educate your younger ones, you have to help in terms of buying clothes and shoes and when holiday comes you have to buy some things - some animal to slaughter. You sometimes have to say what you earn.”
Key Informant, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
“Young people hardly ever save. Campus students are living large yet most of us here come from lower to middle income backgrounds. When the Higher Education
Loans Board loans come through you should see what happens… Everyone has bought woofers, music systems but no computers!
Some of them get the money andactually pay school fees for their siblings but most are just spendthrifts and later run into problems when they have to pay their school fees and other expenditure to sustain them
at school which is what theloan was meant for in the first place…
I think society has let young people lose…”
Key Informant, Nairobi,Kenya
“It is the general disease affecting black men. Once they have money
they want to show the world they have money by the kind of car, house, shoes and clothes. They would prefer to go where they sell a bottle of coke for
5000 Naira instead of buying it where they sell it for 50 Naira just to show they are rich. It is mainly a Nigerian
thing anyway.”
Key Informant, Lagos, Nigeria
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ways of having sufficient money to cater for
needs that their parents or guardians will not
necessarily finance. These are such as keeping
change when sent to purchase something,
walking certain distances instead of spending
the busfare provided, skipping meals,
overstating amounts required e.g. for school
fees or other school related costs, money from
politicians, selling certain items in their homes,
prostitution (including sugar daddies and
sugar mummies) and internet scams. Some of
the Key Informants particularly at the Kenyan
Coast shed some light on some of these sources
of money that the youth are making use of
mostly out of desperation and frustration;
other ‘acceptable’ sources are either non-
existent for them or are failing to yield sufficient
amounts of money from which they can live a comfortable life.
Other youth earn wages from informal / casual jobs or doing
their own small businesses so as to make some money to keep them
going. Some of the examples mentioned were hairdressing, farming,
community services like selling water, managing public toilets and
bathrooms, weeding farms and slashing grass, making bricks for
construction and digging pit latrines, running errands, performing
arts, selling snacks and food, doing laundry, burning and selling CDs
for music or movies, selling scratchcards for airtime, photography
and fine art, masonry, tour guide, among others. In terms of monies
earned, the youth in Kenya reported that for doing laundry they
could earn about EUR 5, for live gigs (performing arts) they could
earn between EUR 2 and 5 per gig because they are usually in groups
therefore have to split the earnings. In Zambia youth were able to
earn EUR 4 per hour for piece work (chores, construction, farming, etc)
and EUR 16 per week in Nigeria for handicrafts, EUR 7 per week for an
apprentice cobbler and EUR 6 per day for onsite construction casual
workers while in Zambia such labourers were paid EUR 48 per month.
In Senegal youth said they can make wages of EUR 0.7 to 3 per day in
urban and some EUR 7.8 per week also in urban areas. There are also
those youth who are formally employed or self-employed especially
in the upper age bracket (22-25) and therefore earn a monthly
salary. In rural South Africa youth earnings ranged from EUR 10 to
37 per month and in urban EUR 53 to 213, EUR 48 per day in Nigeria
(business owner), EUR 80 to 160 in Zambia and in Kenya EUR 250.
Livelihood opportunities; do they exist?
Formal employment opportunities are few and far between
in most African countries as such a good formal education does
not necessarily translate into a ‘good’ job in the formal sector. The
landscape is extremely competitive given that population growth
rate is expanding faster than economic growth rate and the pool of
qualified professionals is getting bigger every year due to increased
emphasis on education by various stakeholders. In addition, there
appears to be a livelihood tug of war between the older and younger
generation. Employment opportunities are withheld from the youth
because there is preference for people who have more years of work
experience hence fewer opportunities for fresh graduates. Also, some
of the older generation who are in employment have worked their
way up through the ranks and continue to maintain the positions
despite the fact that they may not necessarily possess the professional
qualifications that some of the youth now have. Employers are also
not willing to invest in training and developing the youth in the
workplace; there is a feeling that the quality of graduates coming out
are not particularly well prepared in terms of practical experience and
skills as well as knowledge of the realities of the work environment.
“When you get money from an older man you will always have that guilty conscience because you cannot get
anything for free. No man can give you anything for free.”
Female 18-21, Lusaka, Zambia
“There are no jobs here in Kwaleand many young people havedropped out of school so theydo not have a good education
background that canguarantee them a good job.
Even those who have gone to school are unemployed… The trend now
is that many young men arebecoming beach boys… In reality there is no work that they do at the
beach, the truth is that they areGigolos and the reason they hangout at the beach is to look for old
European women who then finance their every need. Some of themare even married but because of
hardship have come to an agreement with their wives that they can takeon these rich European women and get some money for the family…”
Key Informant, Kwale, Kenya
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa58
There is a strong desire by many young people to
make a shift to self-employment. This is driven by their
acknowledgement of job market realities such as lack of
opportunities. In addition students do not necessarily have
a say in the courses they pursue at tertiary level – this is often
dictated by cut-off grades, family or teacher influence and
subjects studied at secondary level. On completion of their
studies, the rigidity of the job market also does not allow
them to break out of their area of study and explore or pursue
other interests and ambitions. They are therefore locked in
a career that is in line with their study discipline which they
may not necesaarily have a passion for. Self-employment
is therefore an option for such young people as it is more
likely to offer them the flexibility to venture into other areas
of interest as they so desire. Being in formal employment
is often not enabling of exploration of other talents, skills
and interests outside of the workplace in terms of time
and general support. There is also an inherent ‘old school’
approach to tasks and activities in the workplace which
stifles young people’s creativity; they are seldom allowed
to weigh in on important decisions and activities.
The desire to shift to self-employment is also driven by
personal factors or realities such as education background,
skills, talents, personal interests and passions, creativity
and innovation. Some of the respondents who had only
primary education and / or secondary education were quite
“We have so many graduates from thecolleges who are still in the street becausethe companies say they don’t want them to
experiment on our[their] machines.‘We want someone with experience who
can actually do the work.’”
Key Informant, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
“They don’t encourage creativity.For example if you want to be a musician, families still consider music as very bad
work so you don’t do such… ‘please study hard, study the formal things (as would be said by parent). So it starts from the family. In your workplace from your boss if you try to do an assignment in your own creative way your boss might not be happy so such
pressures are a big challenge.”
Key Informant, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
aware that the option for them lies in self-employment
and many of them were already actively engaged in one
entrepreneurial activity or other. Others were evidently
trying to make use of their talents to earn a living.
Young South Africans and Senegalese are an
exception as compared to youth from the other countries
of study. In South Africa key informants were of the opinion
that the youth have not clearly seen the big picture and
understood what self-employment encompasses. They
perceive it to be only the small menial jobs that they
don’t want to be associated with. Hence with a wider
understanding they would probably have the same desire
for self-employment as do youth in the other countries.
Some of the reports by the youth scouts in South Africa
support this. They said that the youth have numerous
business ideas but the problem is that they tend to think
too big and want to start at that level as opposed to
starting small and growing it hence never implement their
ideas. Similarly in Senegal some youth argued that the
common belief that it is not possible to succeed in their
country because there are no opportunities for the youth is
not entirely true since there are immigrants from countries
such as Mauritania, Guinea Bissau and Guinea who are
engaged in micro enterprise and succeeding at it.
“In Senegal we have manyyoung people who leave school
very early and give themselves to sports. Many people have made it in life through football. In fact majority of the Senegalese football team are people who never went to school
and have made it in life.”
Key Informant, Dakar, Senegal
“I think South Africans arevery intelligent. They have a lot of
ideas and if we had to come up with 6 ideas each, we would probably
come up with 100. But we just don’t carry out because we probably know it is gonna fail. You just think ‘hm-mmm where do I start?’ and that’s
where it ends.”
Youth Scout, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Despite young people’s interest in self-employment,
there are challenges and obstacles that they face that
make it difficult for them to make the shift. Some of them
have a lot of fear and lack confidence fueled by lack of
experience, business start-up know-how and associated
risks. This is partly due to a failure in the education systems
whereby there is hardly any entrepreneurship training and
mentoring to prepare young people for this field. There
is also lack of access to start-up and expansion capital
as youth do not have collateral for loans from financial
insitutions among other formal requirements. Many youth
in some of the countries of study were keen to go into self-
employment but felt that they first need to be formally
employed for some time (on average 5 years) so as to
gather experience and save some money before venturing
into their own businesses. In Ethiopia, most young people’s
immediate choice was for self-employment the obstacle
being the capital to start. Some country governments
are making efforts to avail business capital to young
people though on the whole this is yet to make a noteable
impact. In Kenya for example, the Youth Enterprise Fund
was introduced to give loans to groups of young people
to implement their business ideas. However they were
required to submit convincing proposals which many
did not even know how to put together. The money was
also to be disbursed to groups rather than individuals and
this brought about other challenges of group dynamics
which many youth were unable to manage. In addition
the amounts given were rather low (EUR 500) per group
hence starting and sustaining a successful business which
would be a source of livelihood for all the group members
and still manage to repay the loan proved to be quite
difficult for most. As such the whole fund turned out to
be unsustainable as most of the loans were never repaid
and as a result other young people have not benefited
from subsequent loan disbursements. Similary in Ethiopia
there is a government fund whereby loans are disbursed
to the youth through regional cooperatives. The youth
also have to be in groups hence have experienced similar
challenges as their counterparts in Kenya. However
unlike Kenya there has been significant sustainability
and impact from the loans since the youth are at least
offered training to help them manage their businesses.
There are also other initiatives related to job
opportunities that have been started by governments
and development organizations. In Kenya the Kazi Kwa
Vijana which was a nationwide initiative which was meant
to employ 200,000 to 300,000 Kenyans, primarily the
youth who were at risk of hunger and starvation so as to
enable them earn income to buy food and other basic
items as well as to support their families. Youth were
employed in jobs such building water dams and irrigation,
repairing boreholes and access roads, clear bushes, plant
trees and sow seeds. There is also the recent Jobs Abroad
Programme by the Kenyan Government aimed at sending
10,000 people to work abroad so as to alleviate the
unemployment problem. So far 390 young people have
been sent to Iraq and Afghanistan. In Senegal the Ministry
of Public Functions and Employment in conjunction with
the Ministry of Education have come up with initiatives
to help create jobs for young people ‘National Politic for
Young People’. Similar to Kenya where we have KKV, the
Government of Senegal has set up a public works program
to cater for unemployed youth with the aim of providing
short-term employment through labour-intensive private
works such as construction, rehabilitation and maintenance
of public services and provision of essential services.
During the 1st phase of the program, approximately
80,000 jobs were created for young people in 416 projects
in microenterprises. Overall 3,226 projects have been
implemented resulting in the creation of 350,000 temporary
jobs perannum. These projects also led to the establishment
of 6,000 permanent jobs. But do such jobs really provide
long-term opportunities and impacts for the youth or
are they just a source of cheap labor for the government
to undertake infrastructure projects? Apprenticeships in
Senegal are also a good model for providing the youth
with post-primary training and integrating them into the
informal economy. If properly organized, they will meet
the needs of Senegal to stimulate the creation of jobs and
activities for the young generation. These reforms would
for instance link formal and informal training and aim to
develop a comprehensive and integrated training system
that would ensure the maximum number of Senegalese
youth acquire skills needed to stimulate the informal
economy. This would also encourage the shift from survival-
based approach to development-based approach.
Below are further country specific insights on
employment and livelihoods.
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa60
According to the National Youth Policy (2006),
the economic growth rate has not been sufficient to
create enough employment opportunities to absorb the
increasing labour force of about 500,000 annually. Only
about 25% of youth are absorbed, leaving 75% to bear the
burden of unemployment. Furthermore, some of those
absorbed in the labour market have jobs that do not match
their qualifications and personal development goals.
The youth in Kenya account for about 32% of the
population or 9.1 million. Of these, 51.7% are female
youth. These form 60% of the total labour force. Despite
this, opportunities are very scarce to
absorb them in the job market. These
young people are a potential resource
for growth and social development if
gainfully and productively engaged.
The majority of the working populations
are engaged in agriculture as their
main occupation, where 71% of the
working population are subsistence
agricultural workers. The professional,
semi-professionals and administrator
categories collectively constitute 7% of
the total working population, while the
sales and service workers are 9% of the
total working population.
Youth unemployment in Kenya is on the increase
as is under-employment. An increasing number of youth
is moving to urban centers but are unable to find work,
suggesting that this is due to lack of skills and working
experience, but also that the urban Kenyan economy is
unable to absorb the potential work-force (Manda 2003).
The ILFS 2000/2001 (quoted in Semboja, 2007) shows
youth unemployment rate is about four times the older
adults’ unemployment rate and is growing at double the
rate for older adults’ unemployment.
Kenya
Youth at work in the newsroom at Pamoja FM community radioKenya
Appreciating other young people’s artistic works displayed for sale
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44% percent of the country’s population is below
the absolute poverty line. Under this situation of poverty,
the youth is the hardest hit segment of society. The
widespread unemployment prevailing in the country is
the main expression of poverty. In this poverty related
situation, the variance between skilled human resources
supplies on one hand and demand on the other has further
widened the gap.
The national labour force survey conducted in 1999
by the Central Statistical Authority indicates that 1,890,249
persons in the age range of 15-64 are unemployed.
Out of this 1,260,177 (67%) are youth. The number of
female unemployed youth is 899,426 (71.4%) and the
corresponding number of males is 360,751 (28.6%). The
fact that majority of the unemployed youth constitute
females indicates the magnitude to which young women
are the main victims of the problem. The view regarding
the alleviation of the problem, especially the perception
that the government alone would resolve the problem of
unemployment has been a cause for aggravating that very
problem.
Although sufficient data and information on the
situation of rural and urban youth engaged in the informal
sector are not available, it is assumed that rural youth
could deploy themselves in off-farm activities. Similarly,
as a finding of one study conducted in urban areas to
establish the number of people engaged in the informal
sector indicates that, out of 146,460 persons engaged in
this sector 64,441 or 44% are youth. Large numbers of rural
youth are migrating to urban areas due to abject poverty
and in search of better opportunities (World Bank, 2009).
A street in Mercato, the market. Religion, tribe, socio-economic class and levels of education are unknown
here. The market is maximally used by all to the extent that supermarkets are not quite relevant.Ethiopia
Transportation – Horse drawn carts are
the most common means of transport
in Debre Zeit. Tuk Tuks are also used
by commuters and lorries for transiting
goods and heavy material.
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The South African economy was reported to be growing
at an impressive annual rate of 4.5% since 2004, up from
a mere 3% average from 1994-2004 (it is acknowledged
that this trend has however, been impacted on by the
current global financial crisis). However, there are concerns
that the increase in employment numbers is insufficient to
absorb the current (and growing) labour force. Concerns
have been raised about youth unemployment, which was
estimated at 50.3% for 14 to 24 year-olds and 29.5% for
25 to 35 year-olds in March 2006. Even though this figure
constitutes a fall of about 2% from the previous year, it is
worrying that there is still a significant number of young
people who are unemployed and therefore vulnerable to
poverty (Trialogue, 2007). Morrow et al (2005) estimates
that 65% of the four million young South Africans who
were part of the labour force were unemployed in 2005.
This rate is among the highest rates in the world. One third
of all youth are living in poverty, and approximately half
of this one third live in extreme poverty. In 2007, almost
two-thirds of youth aged 15-24 lived in households with
expenditure of less than R1 200 per month (EUR 120), as
did approximately 60% of youth aged 25-34 (Labour Force
Survey, 2007).
Youth poverty in South Africa is attributed to
continuous unemployment (Morrow et al, 2005). Poverty
tends to reproduce itself among children and young
people from already impoverished families. Conditions of
poverty further hamper access to basic services for large
numbers of young people living in poor households.
Unemployment in return brings with it a number of social
problems including: crime, drug and alcohol abuse, poor
health and the loss of self-esteem and the confidence
needed to participate in the broader society.
One of the specificities of South African education,
and the transition between school and the labour market, is
that the country is still dealing with issues of transformation
and the legacy of apartheid era inequalities, with
particularly high unemployment rates among the young
African population relative to coloured and white youth.
There is a strong correlation between the importance and
the quality of schooling with the probability of finding
work.
Deficiency in youth education and labor market
preparedness is still a relevant concern in contemporary
South Africa. A Labour Force Survey conducted in 2005
reveals that 42% of African youth who were between 15
and 24 years of age had stopped their studies and entered
the labour market. What is troubling is that more than 60%
of these youth had less than a complete secondary school
qualification, while 33% had nothing more than a complete
secondary school qualification. Racial differences appear
even before youth finish school, with white youth much
more likely than any other group to work during the years
they are enrolled in school.
African Sourvineirs and memoirs on sale in Soweto.
A livelihood opportunity for the youth.South Africa
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Young people relax at the Mandela
House in Orlando West, Soweto. The
house in which Mandela spent a
good part of his life is now a tourist
attraction and young people act as
tour guides at the house. They have
the Mandela history right at their
fingertips and impressively take
visitors down memory lane.
The informal sector of
the economy also has
its role to play. Services
ranging from mechanical
to upholstery and
photocopy are availed to
meet the varied needs of
the population
Youth express
themselves artistically on
a wall in Johannesburg.
This is the only wall in
the whole of Joburg
that they are allowed
to paint and draw
on. It is through such
opportunities that youth
get to discover and
nurture their talents.
Youth working at a car wash. Youth
don’t cease to come up with money-
making ideas whenever they need
money.
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa64
Young women with a food stall in the market in Lusaka.
Food industry is a lucrative livelihood opportunity for many.Zambia
A second hand clothes market in Lusaka where many youth are
either buyers or sellers – its booming business.
Over 70,000 youths are floated on the job market each
year. Unemployment is generally very high since
only 350,000 of the total population are formally employed.
The closure of industries in the various provinces due
to the open market economy and privatization as well
as economic decline has reduced formal employment
opportunities for young people.
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Dakar: Young men traverse the streets of Dakar on a horse. They are most probably going
to or coming from ferrying goods. Informal transport like this provides self-employment
opportunities to the youth but also causes major traffic casualtiesSenegal
Gender exerts a significant influence on what choices
youth make in regarding education, fertility, marriage
and livelihoods. In Senegal, there is a strong demarcation
in household decision along gender lines. Unlike men,
whose work is done mainly outside the home is distinct
from it and is associated with cash income, for women, work
is deeply interwoven with her family and home. Formal
sector opportunities in industry and services are limited
for youth, especially females and/or early school leavers,
and formal sector jobs can also go unfilled because youth
do not have the skills/training required, thus contributing
to the unemployment of youth. The formal economy
absorbs only about 16% of youth who have completed
their education leaving the remainder to their own devices.
“Plutot homme que femme, adulte que jeune,” is
a common statement in the Senegalese society which
translated means “Rather a man than a woman, rather an
adult than a young person,” and is a statement that reflects
the attitudes towards female/youth seeking employment.
Occupations in Senegal are generally stratified along
gender lines and this is why we find that in the Senegal
formal economy, women outside of sales and clerical
positions are either nurses or teachers, or are employed in
low-paying public sector jobs that offer job security and
fringe benefits. In these jobs, women are concentrated
in subordinate positions, with limited opportunities for
upward mobility, as noted in survey of women in Dakar
conducted in 1994. This occupational pattern can be
explained in terms of the relatively lower level of education
and training achieved by women, but also by societal
attitudes and norms that govern the nature of skills that
females acquire namely, training in secretaryship, catering,
dress-making, hair-dressing and similar vocations.
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa66
It is worth mentioning the following characteristics
of unemployment in Senegal:
• There are more men (64%) than women (36%) who are
seeking employment (about half );
• The youth (age 15-35) represents 56% of total job-
seekers;
• The majority of job-seekers (53%) have no education,
while 74% and 87% of those who entered school have
not gone beyond primary school and 4th grade of
secondary school, respectively;
• 57% of job seekers have no diploma and only 1.6%
have a university degree;
• The capital (Dakar region) has the highest percentage
of job seekers (21%) followed by the second largest
region of Saint Louis (15%)
• The proportion of youth (age 15-35) among job-seekers
is particularly high in the most urbanized regions of
Dakar (74%) and Thies (60%).
The above picture of job seekers is in sharp contrast
with the supply of employment opportunities. As indicated
earlier employment in the public sector is subject to tight
budgetary policies. The data related to employment
opportunities offered by the modern economy, as recorded
in the relevant offices in the regions, is scarce and non
reliable. (UN)
With high rates of unemployment among Senegalese
youth and illegal migration to Europe persisting, Senegal
has partnered with the Spanish government to give young
people skills that respond to the local job market. Senegal
has been a jumping off point for Africans heading to Europe
for work. Many make it only as far as detention centers, like
the one in Spain, and then are expelled. To partly combat
the problem, the European Union has been allowing some
legal immigration, favoring people who have skills needed
in the EU.
“I’d rather die enroute to Babylon rather than deteriorate intoa ‘nobody’ here in Senegal”
Youth Male, Senegal
Corniche beach, Dakar: A man exhales after his workout enjoying
some ‘Atlantic therapy.’ Senegal is a transit point for many youth
wishing to illegally immigrate to Spain, Italy and Europe to seek
better economic opportunities.
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The estimated labor force of Nigeria as at 2009 was
47.3 million (ILO). There has been an increase in the
unemployment rate and as of March 2009 according to the
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), it stood at 19.7% of the
labour force meaning 9.3 million Nigerians. The figure is
slightly higher in the rural areas (19.8%) compared to 19.2%
in the urban areas. The highest rates of unemployment are
among the youngest and the oldest age brackets with the
highest rate of unemployment being among youth aged
15-24 years (41.6%). Statistics also show that the highest
employment rates by gender are among the females while
by educational level the highest is among secondary
school leavers (38.7%) and least among those who have
more than the first degree (0.5%) (NBS, 2010). This shows
that having an advanced education increases ones chance
of employment.
The National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) is a
program to involve Nigerian graduates in the development
of their country. It involves graduates from universities and
polytechnics. The ‘corpers’ are posted to cities and states
outside their origin and learn to mix with people from a
different background and tribe from them. This is done in
order to foster unity in the country. The program has also
helped in creating entry level jobs for many Nigerian youth.
An NYSC forum dedicated to the NYSC members was
recently built to bridge the gap amongst members serving
across Nigeria and also as an avenue for ‘corpers’ to share
job information and career resources as well as get loans
from the National Directorate Of Employment.
The National Directorate of Employment (NDE) was
set up in 1986 as an initiative to combat unemployment.
It has four main programmes namely Vocational Skills
Development (VSD), Small Scale Enterprises (SSE), Rural
Employment Promotion (REP) and Special Public Works
(SPW). These programmes target unemployed school
leavers at all levels (graduates and non-graduates)
and are aimed at training through apprenticeships,
entrepreneurship programs, training on agriculture and
agro-based activities. The special public works program
gives youth short term placement in public sector jobs
that are labor intensive enabling them to earn while they
acquire work and trade experience. They also have a
resettlement loan scheme in the VSD programme aimed
at equipping those who graduate with tools of trade
that they will require going into self employment. In
2006 for instance, 1480 trained youth were given tools
and equipment in the national open apprenticeship
scheme (NOAS). In the same year, a total of 29,405 people
benefitted in the four programmes under various schemes
such as NOAS, Entrepreneurship Development Programme
(EDP), Schools on Wheels (SOW), Graduate Attachment
Programme (GAP), Rural Agriculture and Development
Training Scheme (RADTS), Rural Handicrafts Scheme
(RHS) among others. (NDE) Considering the much larger
population of unemployed youth, more needs to be done
to make accommodate them into these schemes and other
initiatives.
A young man displays and sells his
paintings on the street in Lagos.Nigeria
Street hawker selling a variety of goods including watches to car
passengers in a busy Lagos street. Are they genuine?
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa68
Ideal jobs versus the reality
The table below shows a few country by country examples
of what the youth described as their ideal jobs:
Table 12: Examples of young people’s ideal jobs
Ideal Job Reasons Salary expectationsper month
TV Reporter especially doing investigative journalism the likes of Mohammed Ali (Kenyan TV Reporter)
Appears to be a very exciting career and one also participates in bringing important issues to the public’s attention
KES 50,000 (EUR 500)
Real Estate Developer (own company) There is big money to be made in real estate In the millions
Engineering – machine maintenance. In a big well known factory preferably in Nairobi like Bamburi Cement, Coca-Cola Bottlers or Kenya Malting with a friendly and understanding boss as well as colleagues
Related to current studies and interests KES 70,000 (EUR 700)
Football player Loves playing football and is good at it 2500 Birr (EUR 90)
Real Estate business It makes good money and can be satsfactory 2000 USD (EUR 1650)
Governmnet Employee Job security 2000 Birr (EUR120)
Driver and mechanic He drives an old man’s tractor and he would like to drive and be a mechanic at the same time
R 2400 (EUR256)
Lawyer To prove that a black female can succeed in a traditionally male and white dominated field
Minimum R20,000 (2130 )
Doctor (General Practitioner) For the pay R30-40,000 (EUR 3,196-4261)
Working in an NGO Want to work with the community 20 Million Kwacha (EUR 3200)
Nurse in Chikankata Has always admired nurses in their uniform and the mission hospital is the largest formal employerv
EUR 48-56
Policeman Has a brother in the police force who will facilitate the process
EUR 240
Software Engineer Wants to work for Microsoft EUR 760 – 4,500
Civil Servant Not specified EUR 120
Paeditricianvv Wants to save lives. Also doctors are well paid. Not specified
Job with Mobil Company Not specified EUR 27,000
Job in a communications company Not specified EUR 810
Any fresh graduate entry job Not specified Starting salary for a graduate should be EUR 378
KEN
YAET
HIO
PIA
SOU
TH A
FRIC
AZA
MBI
ASE
NEG
AL
NIG
ERIA
Many of the youth interviewed talked about jobs
in the formal sector as their ideal. Others qualified this
by saying that they eventually desire to run their own
companies or practices within the same formal fields after
acquiring enough experience, developing the necessary
networks and saving the required capital to invest. The
older youth (18-21 and 22-25) who were already studying
a particular course at tertiary level tended to describe their
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ideal jobs within the same fields of study hence if studying
engineering, they desired to become engineers in future.
Generally, media and journalism came out as one of the
attractive sectors for many youth in South Africa, Zambia
and Kenya and this seemed to be driven by the significant
growth of the sector over the years as well as the excitement
and ‘glamour’ associated with the profession. In Senegal
most young people desired careers in the medical field
for two main reasons – it pays fairly well and the national
university (Cheikh Anta Diop) is reputed to produce the
best doctors in West Africa. Similary in Chikankata Zambia,
young people also wanted to become doctors or nurses
mainly influenced by the presence of the Chikankata
Mission Hospital which is the main formal employer in the
area. In Nigeria the telecommunications sector was quite
popular. Overall, there was a tendency for fixation on the
‘big’ / multinational companies; many youth want to work
in these companies due to the perceived benefits of the
same. They believe that in these large companies they
can earn big salaries, get to travel extensively and have
other luxurious benefits that they desire such as a house,
a car, and other motivational facilities within the workplace
such as TV and also the perception that such companies
treat employees better. The fixation on big companies
however could also be attributed to lack of awareness of
the job market as a whole in terms of other medium or
smaller players and what they have to offer. The youth
to some extent also seem to have somewhat unrealistic
expectations in terms of what they expect to earn, what
levels or grades of jobs they will work in, how much work
they will actually have to do, how quickly they will rise up
the ladder among other things. In addition there appears
to be some kind of desire to have a relatively easy working
life hence why they are quick to mention high ranking
jobs perceiving them to be highly rewarding but not as
demanding. In Senegal and Kenya for example some
young people wished to work in government not as civil
servants but as high ranking government officials e.g. MPs,
Ministers, and Ambassadors.
However some, particulary the older ones (22-25)
are a little more realistic and even the salaries quoted are
fairly in line with market rates. Having had real life work
experience, a few youth who are already employed also
have something to say about challenges they face or are
likely to face in the workplace. Examples of this in Zambia
are such as poor pay and poor working conditions such
as lack of protective gear for those working in the mines
or factories. Others in Nigeria said that they have to deal
with unrealistic targets e.g. those in sales and marketing
and some females also talked about constant sexual
harassment as another challenge. In Ikorodu Nigeria
and Debre Zeit Ethiopia youth also complained of long
commute to and from work every day since some opt to
look for job opportunities in the nearest urban centres (1
to 3 hours away) but still live in their rural places so as pay
lower rent.
In defining their ideal jobs, there were other youth
who outrightly expressed preference for self-employment
and went on to describe the kind of businesses or companies
they would like to run often related to personal talents and
interests. This was especially evident in Ethiopia and also
amongst Kenyan youth who were already self-employed
even at a fairly early age (14-17).
All in all there seems to be a gap between the
ideal jobs and the reality. As earlier discussed formal
employment opportunities are quite limited. By extension
those studying certain disciplines may not necessarily
land jobs within those fields since by virtue of the limited
opportunities they may be forced to settle for whatever job
comes their way or become entrepreneurs.
Metal frames displayed by the roadside. Many young men are
engaged in the informal sector industry in Zambia.
Inspirational signage at a workplace in Nairobi signifies the
recognition of self-employment as a good opportunity for youth
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa70
Attaining the ideal jobs
One of the major obstacles standing in the way
of the youth in attaining their ideal jobs is corruption
and patronage. With the exception of South Africa, this
is evident across all the countries of study as expressed
by the youth. Many youth complained that bribery is
the name of the game as well as nepotism or having
connections with certain people in the main agencies
or corporations both public and private so as to be ‘fixed’
in any given position. In a sense those who are deemed
to have already made it in life are the same ones who are
said to have the necessary connections hence the lower
income youth feel that they will never get there. In Zambia
for example one respondent’s ideal job was to become
an army commander and he was quite confident that he
would get in. He explained that this is because his uncle
is a Major in the army and so had already assured him that
he would get him the job on completion of his studies.
Some of the female respondents expressed more woes
in addition to this. They said that in order to secure a job
women are sometimes required to concede sexual favours
and once there are also required to do the same so as to
move up the ladder or benefit from salary increments and
other benefits. According to some female respondents in
Zambia, this matter has even led to husbands forbidding
their wives to seek employment especially in the corporate
world as they fear that their wives will definitely succumb
to the demands of the male superiors in the workplace.
Occupations in Senegal are also generally stratified
along gender lines as illustrated by this statement as earlier
reported: “Rather a man than a woman, rather an adult
than a young person.” This was a statement in a newspaper
headline in Senegal which clearly reflects the attitudes
of society towards the youth especially the female youth
seeking employment. In South Africa some of the youth
talked about racial discrimination as a real obstacle to
securing employment. Opportunities are more limited for
Black South Africans as a result.
Another major obstacle especially for those whose
ideal job is related to starting their own business or
company is the lack of capital. In addition the youth also
lack business know-how and mentorship which could add
significant value to their entrepreneurial ambitions. There
are some initiatives both by government and private sector
in providing mentorship and business support to youth
though these are generally limited and therefore do not
cater for significant proportions of the youth populations.
To some extent youth also appear not to actively seek
employment and business opportunities not only due to
a lack of awareness and knowledge to seize meaningful
opportunities as raised by some Key Informants but also
because they lack the personal initiative and drive to do
so. Instead some of them become complacent based on
assumptions that they definitely cannot compete on a level
ground with others and succeed so why attempt in the
first place? They also without questioning, tend to believe
falsehoods peddled in the community about accessibility
of certain job opportunities which in reality they might
have been able to benefit from. In addition, youth
generally do not seem to latch on to the idea of seeking
internship and volunteerism opportunities as a way of
gaining experience hence be able to meet the experience
requirement that employers demand in order to grant
applicants the positions advertised. However there is
also evidence of employers failing to create an enabling
and sustainable environment for youth who are keen to
volunteer or intern.
Youth also have poor access to job market
information which also adds to the reasons why many
are unable to attain the jobs they desire. The main source
of job advertisements for instance is the mass media
particularly newspapers yet there is limited access to the
same especially for youth in rural areas where distribution
is negligible; few people in rural areas can afford to buy
a newspaper daily anyway. The disconnect and limited
collaboration between educational institutions and the
employers also adds to the youth not having sufficient
information about the job market. Most people have access
to and listen to radio but unfortunately this is not a channel
that most employers use to advertise opportunities. The
Internet which would be a good source of information is
also not accessible to a large extent for the majority.
Carrying the troubles of the world on their shoulders? Not really but quite disillusioned by how impossible it may be for them to attain their dream jobs so...they idle all day.
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The Kwale Youth Business Centre consists of a block
of offices that was built by the Ministry of Labour
for the youth in Kwale. It is rent free and hosts several
businesses including a bakery, a hardware shop (that
seemed to be always closed), a multi-level marketing
franchise shop (Tiens), among others. It is interesting
that there is no electricity in the place yet many of the
businesses there seem to be the kind that would require
the use of electricity and / or electric gadgets every now
and then. We arrive at the business centre at about
9:00am expecting to find the Tiens shop open as they
are our hosts for the day. However it is still closed so we
decide to talk to the youth at the business
next door. Next to the Tiens business is
a group of youth who do artwork and
occasionally sell it at the tourist hotels.
Two youth are available on the day and
they take some time to show us samples
of their work. They tell us that they will
be departing shortly to go and paint
signposts in the national park. One of
them says that he is a natural artist. He
came to the Coast Province about 10
years ago after completing secondary
school and that’s when he started using
his artistic talent. There is evidence of
his talent in terms of various drawings
on most of the walls at the block of offices. Some of his
paintings are on the walls of the buildings and more are in
the shop; they are mostly pictures of people and animals.
Some of the artworks are also inspirational or motivational
quotes or statements painted in an artistic way like ‘Yes we
Can’ and ‘Anayekuambia ujikinge anajali afya yako. Mjali
pia, jikinge kila mara’, which is Swahili for ‘He who tells you
to protect yourself cares about your health. Care about him
as well and protect yourself all the time’. This message is
quite likely related to safe sex campaigns implying that this
is a concern in the Kwale community i.e. the need to protect
one self and to encourage and support one another. The
Getting diagnosed using the acupuncture machine
Outside view of the Tiens Shop
Business as Usual at a Tiens Shop at Kwale Youth Business Centre, Kwale, Kenya
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa72
young man also mentions to us that he runs a gymn in
collaboration with an NGO near a cultural center called
Kwale Arts. He goes there to train people in the morning
and in the evening.
There is a small make-shift wooden room next to
one of the workshops which we later realize is a nursery
school when we see some children in class with a
teacher. It is rather strange that most of the shops at the
youth business centre remain closed most of the time
despite this being a week day.
Salim (32) and Moha (in his 20s) arrive at around
10:00 am. Salim is the owner of the shop and Moha is
his downline. They also work with two ladies who they
inform us are out in the field marketing. The origin of
the Tiens business is in China and it is a direct / multi-
level marketing business. Apparently it is quite popular
at the Coast and even in Kenya as a whole. Salim tells
us that he used to work in an upmarket hotel but
decided to quit when this business picked up. He does
not disclose how much he earns from his business but
reveals that his upline takes home at least KES 100,000
(EUR 1000) per month. He however intimates that he
is doing well enough since he is even able to employ
the two ladies.
At the Tiens shop Salim and his team deal mostly
in nutritional and health supplements. They also have
an electronic acupuncture machine which they use to
diagnose what their customers could be ailing from
after which they are able to prescribe the supplements.
They offer to give free diagnosis to one of us which
they do seemingly with quite some skill and accuracy.
The machine seems quite accurate given that most of
the ailments described are actually true and known to
our researcher. They go ahead to give a diagnosis and
prescription of the herbal remedies that she should
use. They tell us that very many people have been
healed even of terminal illnesses such as cancer just by
use of the herbal medication available at Tiens.
The two young men appear to be very highly
motivated and enthusiastic about their business.
Although it appears to be a slow day given that we
do not encounter any client who comes to the shop
throughout this day, they show as a filled up notebook
full of client names. They say that they also spend a lot
of their time outside the office marketing the products
hence sometimes the clients do not need to come to
them at the shop. They charge KES 500 (EUR 5) for the
acupuncture diagnosis and most of the supplements
range from KES 1000 (EUR 10) onwards. According to
them, their strong belief in their products helps to sell
them.
Basic facilities available in the gym that Salim runs
Other offices on the same block as the Tiens Shop
Kwale Youth Business Centre: A view of the workshops at the centre – the furniture shop
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All in a day’s work at the Sub-Saharan Africa Researchand Training Institute, Addis Ababa
SART is a private research agency that is based in the Bole
region of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Most of the employees are
aged between 15-25 years, majority of who are permanent
employees. A few, especially some data entry staff are
employed on contractual basis. Having various projects that
they work on, on behalf of their clients, each of them seems
to know quite well what they should be doing and at what
time.
On this particular day there are about 10 of them
in the office. Initially there are 2 ladies who are printing
questionairres and 2 gentlemen working on some transcripts.
The transcribers, who also do a number of other duties in
the agency, are listening to voice recordings and keying in
information. There are about 5 desktops and a number of
laptops in the office. Knowledge and use of computers is visibly
good as all the staff are using them for different functions
ranging from Ms Word, SPSS, use of search engines, and
sending and receiving e-mail. One thing that is quite evident is
the team work. Much as they speak in Amharic one can detect
team work and synergy in the work place. At a point or two the
printer that the ladies are using is not printing so well and the
gentlemen take turns to check out the printer and sort it out so
that the ladies can continue preparing their research tools. On
speaking to one of the data entry staff (girl of about 18 years)
on where they learnt computer skills, she says that much as she
had computer classes at the university, she still had to attend
extra computer training classes at a local college so as to get
better knowledge and experience on the computer and also
to better her typing skills. Most universities do have computer
classes but considering the population ratio of students to the
facilities available, they do not get satisfactory computer skills
as a result.
A team meeting is held to discuss findings from a
quantitative market research survey that had been done. One
of them is clearly the team leader and he leads his team of
about 8 in discussing the general findings. The data is later to
be entered into the computer using data processing packages,
but the meeting is meant to establish the general experience
the enumerators had in the field and what they think about the
findings. Each of them has a chance to speak, some referring
to documents they have on the table. There emerges a serious
discussion on an issue and the team members get a bit louder
as they seemingly try to iron out the issue. Apparently there
is a strange difference in data collected in one region as
compared to the other regions. The survey was on preference
of soft drinks, and it seems that distributors of the same drinks
in one region have almost contrasting figures on preffered
drinks in comparison to the rest of the regions. The team leader
is keen to establish the cause and reason for this kind of finding,
considering that they had been doing the study periodically
for a couple of months and the trend seemed to have taken
a sharp turn in this particular wave of the study. Soon even
the girls who had been working on their computers join in
the discussion. The Executive Director of the company who is
in his early 30s is also in the room but is not really moved by
the happenings at the meeting. He barely interrupts to give
his opinion, and later explains this by saying that he is quite
confident in his team leader and staff as a whole and hence
need not micro-manage them on their duties. He only listens to
them as he continues his work and later on says a word or two.
On asking him why his staff are mostly youth, he says that youth
are always energetic, diligent in their work and ambitious. They
are, he said, keen to learn and to do ‘quality’ work as they know
that this way they will climb up the professional ladder. Older
people on the other hand are not as enthusiastic.
At lunch hour, most of the team go to lunch with the
Executive Director. They are quite friendly and comfortable
with each other, and joke about their social lives now and then.
One particular employee (the soft drink survey leader) is lightly
criticized to be ‘married’ to his job and that he must be ‘afraid’
of girls. He is said to work continually and does not stop until
a task is complete. As is in the Ethiopian culture, food is served
in one big tray and everyone washes their hands and together
they eat from the same tray. One cannot easily tell who is boss
over who as they all discuss freely and comfortably like one big
family.
Some of the employees also do other part time jobs
whenever they got a chance to increase both their experience
and income, and they seem to have perfected the art of juggling
as their director does not have a problem with the extra work
they do on the side. Some are school teachers and others have
some research related contracts here and there.
All in all these youth generally leave one with a good
impression; they actually are hard working and ambitious as
their director says. They take on whatever opportunities they
come by and work hard at them.
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Chapter Four | Lifestyle
It is well known that the youth are in a state of
rapid physical and psychological change. Because of
their curiosity, enthusiasm and urge to try and see new
phenomenon, a considerable number of youth have
become addicted to alcohol, khat, dangerous medical drugs
and narcotics drugs all of which are detrimental to their
health. These and many similar health hazards challenge
the youth’s proper physical, mental and psychological
development. As a result, the youth are being exposed to
unwanted pregnancy, unsafe abortion, various venereal
diseases and most of all, to the HIV/AIDS pandemic.
The harsh economic conditions resulting in
joblessness expose the youth to social evils. With the high
cost of education majority of youth are not able to access
it, and have therefore turned to not only petty crime but
armed robberies. They are also exposed to drug abuse
which due to the cost implications leads them to crime to
enable them secure money to buy the drugs.
In Ethiopia, a large number of youth have, because
of economic and social problems, been exposed to
juvenile delinquency, addiction to dangerous narcotics,
prostitution, beggary, street life and to similar other social
evils. On one hand, this condition exposes them to health
problems (HIV/AIDS, STD etc.) while on the other, pushes
them into engaging in criminal acts. Some 143,169 juvenile
delinquents were registered between July 2000 and June
2001 alone. There are more sex workers who are aged 15-
24 years and so are the street youth below 30 years. All this
indicates that a great number of youth spend their most
active years not in engagements that are useful for their
human development but in activities that expose them to
health problems and criminal offences.
Gang rape has become a youth-cult in South Africa.
Every year, 380,000 women are raped in South Africa and
this is one of the reasons why HIV-AIDS is at such a high
level in the country, with some 6 million people now
infected. Rape is also a form of initiation among the men.
New inmates in male prisons are inevitably raped upon
arrival by all members of any given cell.
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Youth Categories
Young people do have their own way of classifying
or categorising themselves with specific names for the
categories and vivid descriptions of those who belong to
these groupings. In most places the key distinguishing factor
both in urban and rural seems to be wealth / money. Other
distinguishing factors are those related to lifestyle such as
how they dress, speak, act, things they own, places they hang
out, hobbies / interests, beliefs and values some of which still
have some kind of relation to the wealth factor. In Senegal it
is more about lifestyle factors as opposed to wealth or money.
In some places some of the youth interviewed could not
give specific names to the categories of youth that exist but
could only describe the different types of youth using these
distinguishing factors of dress, wealth, behaviour, speech,
etc. Generally, youth categories as defined and described by
the youth appear to be more elaborate in urban than rural
settings. This may be because of a more communal way of
life in rural areas where everyone is perceived to be more or
less of a similar status and there is more cohesiveness and
interedepence. For example though there are quite likely
differences in financial capability from one family to the next,
there is not necessarily an intentional and outward display
of the same; instead people tend to extend support to one
another which is cemented by communal values and norms.
Another example of a youth culture among one
tribe in Kenya include a phenomenon called ‘Disco
Matanga’ (Disco Funeral) whereby community members,
including adolescents, congregate at the home of a
deceased person for several days, accompanied by music
and dancing. Disco funerals are an important place for
young people to hang out and the events increase the
opportunities for youth to meet and engage in (risky)
sexual activities. Many adolescents have casual sex on
these occasions, sometimes with multiple partners, and
mostly without condoms. Girls are forced into sex, and
some instances, gang rape occurs. Sex is also exchanged
for money. Drugs and alcohol facilitate unprotected,
multiple-partner, coerced, and transactional sex (Njue et
al., 2009). In addition, organized crimes are committed
by very young people especially carjacking, household
theft, political violence, among others.
Findings from the main study on various issues
related to youth lifestyle are presented below. These
include what categories of youth exist (as defined by
the youth) and what the distinguishing characteristics of
these are, why if at all dressing is important to the youth
and how they like to dress, pastime activities, fun and
entertainment, traveling, dreams and aspirations, and
how the youth perceive themselves vis a vis the society’s
perception of them.
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The following categories were described:
Table 13: African youth categories
1. Those belonging to the middle to upper socio-economic classes:
Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Ballers, Mababi / Masonko / Masource,
Mababi Extreme
Rappers, Stylish (female)
Bourgeoisie, Hiphoppers
Upper Mwambas or Chinondo
Le Jeune Extravagant Butty, Tush, Omodaddy, Omomummy
Summary description:
� Dress expensive; genuine designer labels; newly purchased
� Fashionistas
� Have a lot of disposable income mostly from parents
� Own various expensive gadgets such as phones (N Series, E Series, Blackberry), ipods, laptops, home theatres, playstations
� Flashy and seek a lot of attention
� Hang outs: latest, trendiest clubs, malls, restaurants
� Relatively well educated and eloquent
• Mostly speak the official languages as opposed to slang and mother tongue
� Use private transport as opposed to public – dropped and picked, drive themselves or cab it
� Not considered as very ambitious in life – don’t work as hard in school, likely to inherit their parents wealth or get into
the family business
� Have an almost guaranteed path to success due to their family connections
� Highly influenced by western culture – music, dress, language
• Rock, Hiphop
� Love music and nightlife
� Perceived to be snobbish, keep to their own kind
� Sometimes admire the freedom that comes with an ordinary lifestyle of other youth (Kenya, Zambia)
� Sports – tendency towards more ‘elite’ sports like basketball, tennis, swimming, etc
� Some have distinct demeanour – walking style e.g. bounce, swagger, sagging trousers, bling
� Society considers them spoilt, disrespectful, but on the other hand sometimes also expect financial help from them
“They have a lot of time tospend on the Internet, they wear expensive
clothing… they don’t need to work for money. Their role models would be R&B artists or Hip Hop
ones… They are influenced by international things which they see from the media…”
Kwale, Kenya.
“The rappers always focus on their dressing styles and throwing parties. But the addicted ones are always trying to get money”
Male 14-17, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
“The bourgeoisie are so brand conscious they can even take a sprite label and stick it on their jeans”
Key Informant, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Summary description:
� Perceived to be streetsmart and survivors
• Hustle to make extra money to support their lifestyle – some do very well as a result
� Flashy or want to be – love the spotlight and style
� Dress fairly well – can source smart and trendy items from second hand markets or sometimes save and spend on new
items if they really desire them
� Influenced by western culture – dress, music, language
• Baggy pants, fancy hairdos, make-up, earrings for boys, some bling
� Media savvy, sassy
� Some have special talents especially in the arts
2. Those belonging to the middle to lower socio-economic classes:
Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Wanati Rastafarians
Summary description:
� Enjoy reggae music
� Some fully embrace Rastafarian lifestyle – dreadlocks, rasta colours, smoking marijuana
� Consider themselves peace loving, wise and non-confrontational people; are free spirited
� Like to hang out at places with reggae music or else simply at designated street spots in their neighbourhoods
� Speak more of local slang than official languages
� Often not as well educated and eloquent as the ‘richer’ youth
� Not flashy though may still dress fairly well – can source smart and trendy items from second hand markets
� Perceived to be streetsmart and survivors
� Society considers them druggies, thugs or good for nothing though this is sometimes a big misconception
Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Hustlers, Wannabes Plastics Yobalis Les HipocriteYahoo Boys, Big Boys & Girls, Swagger Boys &
Girls, Ashanti Girls, Area Boys & Girls
“The Wanati are from low income areas, they carry tiny rugsacks on their backs and are generally free spirits… they are often envied for that…”
Female 18-21, Nairobi, Kenya
“There are some categories in Senegal such as those whowant to study but have no means and are even forced to drop out of
their studies. There are those who would like to study and work to help their families and those who study because their families have nurtured
them and made them comfortable by giving them a good means oftransport and good clothes and finally there are those who fight for
themselves just like me. I work and pay school fees for myself.”
Female 22-25, Mbour Senegal
“They are too snobbish, and like attention…they live and breathe media”
Female 18-21, Johannesburg, South
“Get rich or die trying is the Area Boys Motto.” (As said by the rap artist 50 cents)
Lagos, Nigeria
“They have big dreadlocks…they don’t eat meat…they dress in their own colours”
Female 14-17, Limpopo, South Africa
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Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Mateja, Wanati Extreme, Masmata
Susegnas / Druggies, Gangstas
Pantsulas Niggers, Thugz Les Rebels Niggers
Summary description:
� Are drug addicts and layabouts
� Are constantly broke
• Desparate for money – can sell any of their personal items
� Some are actual thugs and are violent
• Sell stolen items for income – cars, phones, anything they can lay their hands on
� Have a harsh demeanour
� Many have a poor education background
� Tend to speak local slang as opposed to proper or standard official language
� Don’t care much for being well dressed / groomed
“The mateja are lazy even in theirmannerisms, they have no purpose in life”
Male 18-21, Kwale, Kenya
“They are high (drunk) most of the timeand cannot follow conversations well. Ni watu wamechoka na life (they are people who are fed up with life)…”
Male 18-21, Kwale, Kenya
“Many of them (pantsula) getelectrocuted on railway lines as they try
to show off tricks on moving trains”
Male 14-17 Johannesburg, South Africa
“They may have dreams and aspirationsbut are overwhelmed with frequent
imprisonment and feelings of desperation and so forth (gangstas)”
Male 18-21, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
“They (mapantsula) love being in a group. Its unusual to find them
walking alone”
Female 14-17, Limpopo, South Africa
3. Based on general lifestyle and / or lifestyle passions:
Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Chanukaad Stylish Les Intellos (The Intelligent) Tush
Summary description:
� Quick, focused and progressive
� Confident, eloquent, can express themselves well
� Good command of official languages
� Have fairly good education background
� Quite studious and intelligent
� Well dressed and classy; have a good dress sense and are fashion conscious
� Ladies wear make-up
� Generally knowledgeable about their surroundings and current issues
� Technologically savvy
� Up to date with the latest – trends, entertainment, hang outs, etc
“A chic who is Chanukaad will not wear blonde braids yet she is dark skinned. Blonde braids may be in but they don’t look good on dark people…”
Male 22-25, Nairobi, Kenya
“Les Intellos are too serious with littleamusement and often very stressed, they are not men of sports, they go to exposi-
tions and they say very little..”
Dakar, Senegal
“They (the stylish) are most of the time influenced by thewestern culture. They are always under peer pressure”
Female 22-25, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
“The stylish wear very fashionable cloths like jeans, sketchers”
Female 22-25, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Washamba Geja / Uncivilised Makiba, Magagasa
Le Jeune Analphabetes (The Illiterates) / Le Jeune
Inconscient (The Unconscious)
Rude Boys & Girls (Street)
Summary description:
� Somewhat poorly educated
� Poor fashion or dress sense
� Lack social knowledge
� Own simple, cheap items e.g. low cost phones
� Tend to be traditional in their ways – e.g. even in dressing
� Poor in expressing themselves
� Have no stand in life
� Can be easily influenced or misled
Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Devoted Christians, Volunteers, Meklit
Christians, Decent
Religious SU (Christian), Innocent
Summary description:
� Dress decently and neatly (do not expose themselves)
� Are conservative (even though may be from rich families)
� Keep a low profile, are not flashy or showy
� Actively involved in church activities (e.g. choir)
� Virtuous, obedient, conform to societal norms
� Society has a positive perception of them
• Some people may consider them backward or unprogressive since they are not necessarily concerned with the latest trends
• Other ‘non-religious’ youth tend to avoid them because of their eagerness to transform others
� Own simple gadgets e.g. low cost phones
� Hardworking and generally have good academic performance
� Service oriented (to society)
� Friendships, social life as a whole and activities mainly centred around the church or mosque
“They (magagasa) like to singcultural music and dress in traditional gear”
Female 14-17, Limpopo, South Africa
“The Geja youth do notunderstand things well”
Female 22-25, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
“Their culture (makiba) ischaracteristised by song and dance”
Male 22-25, Limpopo, South Africa
“For instance, taking the religious groups, helping other youths to follow the track they assume is right
could be taken as their life goal”
Female 18-21, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
“Volunteers expect mental satisfaction for what they do. They might not get that much significant
monetary rewards but are satisfied mentally”
Male 18-21, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Ballers, Mababi / Masonko / Masource, Mababi Extreme
Rappers, Stylish (female)
Bourgeoisie, Hiphoppers
Upper Mwambas or Chinondo
Le Jeune Extravagant
Butty, Tush, Omodaddy, Omomummy
Mateja, Wanati Extreme, Masmata
Susegnas / Druggies, Gangstas
Pantsulas
Niggers, Thugz
Les Rebels
Niggers
Hustlers, Wannabes
Plastics
Yobalis
Les Hipocrite
Yahoo Boys, Big Boys & Girls, Swagger Boys & Girls, Ashanti Girls, Area Boys
& Girls
Wanati
Rastafarians
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Chanukaad
Stylish
Les Intellos (The Intelligent)
Tush
Washamba
Geja / Uncivilised
Makiba, Magagasa
Le Jeune Analphabetes (The Illiterates) / Le Jeune Inconscient (The Unconscious
Rude Boys & Girls (Street))
Wasanii
Young Life
Yobalis
Devoted Christians, Volunteers, Meklit
Christians, Decent
Religious
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They put on leggings and short skirts (makwaito)”
Male 18-21, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Makwaito Influence Le Jeune Extravagant
Summary description:
� Easily succumb to peer pressure
� Fashionable, reckless and self-indulgent (alcohol, drugs, clothes)
� Love music and entertainment (some singing)
� Some are school dropouts
� Some are bullies
Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Wasanii Young Life Yobalis
Summary description:
� Aspiring artists – tend to be talented in various performing arts
� Some Western influence
Kenya Ethiopia South Africa Zambia Senegal Nigeria
Punks, Emos, Goths
Summary description:
� Perceived by the rest of society to be strange or weird
� Display antisocial and rebellious behaviour
� Some are emotionally unstable – even said to be suicidal
� Have body piercings, steel jewellery, and tattoos
� Wear black clothing and make-up
� Are mostly White youth though other youth slowly beginning to join this lifestyle
“They gather weekly on Saturdays to discuss howthey spent and how they should spend their time”
Female 18-21 Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
“Society thinks they are strange… they are attention seekers (punks)”
Female 22-25, Johannesburg, South Africa
Some insight into the groups and way of grouping…
Kenya
It appears that many Kenyan youth are to a good
extent aping and embracing western culture or at least
borrowing certain aspects of it and localizing it. This is what
is seen to be cool and progressive and is evident in terms
of such things as dress, language and music; this seems to
cut across most of the youth categories as defined by the
youth. Quite likely globalization has a role to play in this
because it has brought about exchange of ideas through
the advancement of technology. This therefore has had an
effect on culture for example the way of dressing, dialect/
communication, thereby creating a possibility and even
the likelihood of global culture.
Ethiopia
Youth categories in Ethiopia are based mostly on the
activities that they engage in during their free time. It is
quite noticeable that unlike the categories pointed out by
youth in other countries, the main factor that differentiates
one youth category from another are the activities the
youth are involved in as opposed to socio-economic class.
Perhaps this can be explained by the tradition of most
people in the country, whereby much as there is economic
difference amongst the people, there is also general unity
and acceptance amongst people regardless of economic
class or status. It was also found that youth categories were
more pronounced and defined in Addis Ababa (urban)
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than in Debre Zeit (rural). This is the case because the gap
between the socio-economic classes is not too wide in the
rural areas.
South Africa
Youth categories in South Africa are many and
distinct and appear to be based on dress, appearance, skin
color, wealth, socialization, behavior and values. Profiling
themselves seems to be an easy and natural process for
youth mainly and gives way to distinct youth categories.
This can be attributed to their history of apartheid that
created discriminative mindsets which are still evident to
date. This experience also instilled in them a psyche of pride
and nationalism and a pride of associating and staying true
to one’s identity hence the very distinct groupings. It is
this sense of belonging that united them in their liberation
struggle.
Zambia
In Zambia it appears that the gap between the upper
class and the low and middle class is quite wide hence most
youth tend to group themselves along these lines. There is
also strong religious influence on many youth particularly
in terms of dressing style where one is perceived as either
decently dressed or indecently dressed hence this forms
another way of categorizing.
Senegal
Amongst the youth, the categorization experience
in Senegal sharply contrasts that in other countries for
example SA. The categories are certainly fewer with subtle
distinguishing features. In fact, they are based more on
priorities and past times (as in Ethiopia) as well as level of
disposable income. This can be attributed to the fact that
Islamic culture of brotherhood encourages social cohesion
where differences in material wealth and financial prosperity
are perceived as collective success rather than individual
efforts. A similar picture can be seen in Kwale (rural) Kenya
which is predominantly Islamic hence categories are not
as distinct as in Nairobi. Therefore although Senegalese
economy is fundamentally capitalistic, at the micro level,
resource allocation / sharing is a very communal affair. This
is not to say that wealth distribution is equitable. Rather
than size each other up, Islamic teaching encourages
integration rather than segregation, humility rather than
conspicuousness, the success of the community rather
than that of the individual.
Nigeria
The economic situation in Nigeria has meant that
many youth cannot get formal employment and so they
have to find alternative means of earning a living. These
“street youth” are referred to by different terms depending
on occupation, e.g. Yahoo boys are so called because of their
internet scams. There seem to be many youth categories
developed around hustling or trying to make some money
in one eway or another. For example other than the Yahoo
boys, there are the Ashanti girls who are perceived by
some to be prostitutes, and that is how they make their
money. Another term that has become popular is ‘swagger’
with many youth now wanting to consider themselves as
swagger youth. It is more about how you do something,
rather than what you do. It is used on youth who are lavish
in their style and are proud but it also has a connotation
of self-confidence, innovativeness and streetsmarts. Thus
it is not confined to one particular special group. In some
discussions the ginger boys and girls were also referred to
as the swagger youth.
“…people with similar personality form a group. But groups are not
that distinct. There is an interaction point all over and no animosity among people…. when you think about the
future there is no me. It is us. You think of your friendship as long
lasting. We always set our future goals all around each others future goals”
Female 14-17 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Pastime, fun and entertainment
Fun and entertainment is a big part of lifestyles of
youth in Africa and even reflects as one of the main items
they spend their money on as discussed under youth and
money in the chapter on livelihoods. Generally socializing
and listening to music are the main pastimes that cut across
or appear to be universal amongst all youth as demonstrated
by the different youth age sets studied as well as rural and
urban youth in the various countries of study. There are
different ways and means of socializing that vary among
different types of youth and also depends on what they can
access. For instance many rural youth may not have access
to the internet through PC or phone hence would have to
meet physically with their friends in order to socialize while
in urban areas Facebook is on an addictive all high – this
is how youth keep in touch with their friends. In South
Africa MXit, an sms and internet based social networking
platform is also big amongst the youth. Watching TV and
movies is also major though access may sometimes be a
challenge especially in some rural areas; some youth in
rural areas and low income urban settlements settle for
pay-to-view halls in their neighbourhoods. Youth are also
interested and actively participating in sports with football
being the major one across all the countries. In Senegal for
example football is the only sport. Most activities that can
be done either individually or as a group often also serve
as boredom busters. The table below shows the various
activities mentioned as pastime activities by the youth
interviewed in the different countries of study.
Table 14: Pastime activities for youth in Africa
KEN ETH SA ZAM SEN NIG
Pastime Activities U R U R U R U R U R U R
Listening to music
Dancing
Watching TV
Watching movies
Reading
Playing sport
Socialising with friends
Drinking
Partying
Having Tea / Coffee
Taking walks
Exercising / keeping fit
Playing video / computer games
Playing mobile games
Going to church / mosque
Concerts
Internet surfing
Chewing khat
Cooking
Doing household chores
Sleeping
Climbing trees
Swimming
Picnicing or picnic parties
Performing arts (comedy, drama, dance, song, poetry)
Spending time with family
Studying
Shopping
U – Urban R – Rural
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E ast Corniche (Corniche Ouest in French) is an up
market area east of Dakar. It is a beautiful area
that overlooks the Atlantic Ocean with fine walks
punctuated by palm trees-an area that resembles
and feels like the posh Palm Springs in the America.
Corniche is home to Senegal’s expatriate community.
It is also strategically close to Cheikh Anta Diop
(UCAD)-the country’s national university. Together
these populations converge on the beaches of
Corniche for the one activity that unites and has come
to define part Senegal’s lifestyle: sports, fitness and
general wellness.
There are different beaches ranging from the
exclusive Plage des Enfants and the more crowded
Anse Bernard. From about 4pm every evening, it is a
ritual for the urbanites in Dakar (mainly the youth) to
break sweat on these beaches. Some jog, others prefer
low-intensity options of brisk walks, and also in action
were the hardcore bunch that pumped weights. Then
there is the group that sticks to the good old football.
Only a few endured a dip in the cold Atlantic waters.
The remaining are either involved in muscle stretches
and toning exercises. In total, there were about 300-
400 people with 60% being students from UCAD.
These groups are organized in fitness circuits
each having self-appointed circuit leaders that basically
gave instruction to ensure uniform movements for
participants. The leader typically gives verbal instruction
to the ‘faithful masses’ and they basically follow. So when
he shouts ‘deplacer a la gauche!’ the crowd jogs in the left
direction and when he shouts ’vers a la droite’ they move
in the opposite direction. The pace of movement also
varies depending on what the instructor says. At some
point, another instructor may take over the session until
it gets dark and the crowds disperse.
On the beach parking, there are several coconut
vendors at the crowded car park selling coco – coconut
fruit with refreshing and nutritious coconut water to
rejuvenate weary and thirsty clients. The beverage is sold
for CFA 200 (EUR 0.3) and is in fact a lucrative business
that enjoys a steady (sometimes overwhelming) supply
of clients.
For about 30 minutes, I watch this Corniche Sweat
Factory in action before I decide to engage some of the
patrons in small talk… I approach one volunteer football
coach responsible for soccer. After brief and pleasant
introductions, I ask Mamadou… “Why are the Senegalese
so committed to working out? What really are the main
motivations for this?”
“There is a health crisis in Senegal that is not spoken
about…Diabetes…As we all know, it is a terminal disease
that is best managed through lifestyle changes…” says a
friendly Mamadou.
Keeping Fit at the Cornichian ‘Sweat Factory’ Corniche Beach, Dakar Senegal
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa88
Probing further on how the diabetes crisis came to
be in Senegal, she says that the Senegalese consumption
of sugar is very high…and clearly hazardous…
Senegalese traditional tea (Bissap) is taken very sweet
(which is primarily why I had difficulty taking it when it
was offered to me). Compounded by the fact that Dakar
is pastry heaven that feeds the ‘sweet tooth’ of the people
of Senegal. In addition to this, Ceebujen (fried rice and
fish) their national food is typically cooked with a lot of
oil. I move along to engage two Southern belles from
Casamance area in Senegal who are taking a short recess.
On the same subject one of them admits that her key
motivation to exercise is to stay in shape and enhance
her libido and sexual performance. Her friendly quickly
concurs.
This immersion provided a lens into a positive
aspect of health and lifestyle in Senegal. Sports and
exercise is highly encouraged and practiced amongst
their youth which certainly explains why the Senegalese
(men) look so much fitter and younger than they really
are. It is probably also the reason why the Senegalese
generally take pride (rather than shy away) from the
issue of sex.
The ‘Cornichian factory’ would not happen in the
absence of a safe and relatively crime-free environment
that is in Senegal. This setting has made it a remarkably
impressive country of trust and respect for other people’s
property-which is certainly a far cry from most African
cities.
Sacre Coeur neighbourhood, Dakar:
Getting physical… A group of young ladies
gather here at 5pm every evening to work out
The Cornichian sweat factory is also a social networking opportunity for the youth
More drills
Youngsters gather at the beach every evening to work out
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Oz is a club in a residential area in the heart of
Soweto. At around 8 PM on a Thursday night
there are two young people at the entrance. Both are
black and dressed in jeans and T-shirts. They seem to
be employees of the club. From prior information, on
this particular night, youth are required to be dressed in
smart casual wear failure to which there will be no entry
to the club. Security at the club seems on point. The
specification of the dress code is part of the security
measures taken by the club to ensure that only serious
clubbers gain access to the club.
The club is somewhat empty on arrival. There
is a bar from which drinks are sold, some tables, chairs
and a dance floor. The room is dimly lit with disco lights
all over. House music is playing and it is interesting
that this is the only music that is played the entire
night. House music is electronic dance music that
is strongly influenced by elements of soul and funk-
infused varieties of disco. It generally mimics disco’s
percussion, especially in the use of the base drum on
every beat. It has its origin in Chicago, Illinois and USA
in the 1980s. This type of music seems quite popular
and accepted by the youth in Soweto.
There is a smaller room with a glass wall on
the side that faces the dance floor and the rest of the
club. There are 2 girls already in the room who are
accompanying us as part of the observation. They are
quite cheerful, easy to get along with and free to talk about
youth and clubbing in Soweto and Joburg generally. One
of them is dressed in a knee length dress, a small sweater
and doll shoes. The other has capri pants and a T-shirt.
They are both in their early twenties. Discussions with
them reveal that young people in Soweto party almost
every day of the week though the best days are Thursday
through to Sunday because of restrictions from parents,
lack of money and school or work schedules which mean
that even if one has to party on a weekday it can’t be all
night. They say that generally people dress smart casual
but recently there has been a trend where on Friday
people come dressed sportily especially in football gear
due to excitement about the World Cup which will be
in June this year. Asked what else they like to do for fun
other than going out clubbing they say that this is pretty
much what everyone enjoys and mainly it is for the good
music and the company. One girl says that young people
also like going to the parks i.e. having parties in the parks
so they take their food, drink and music and go have a
party at the park. She says this is becoming more and
more common especially since now there is more security
provided at the parks. Policemen have been provided so
that young people can go and have their fun without fear
of being attacked.
Its happy hour at club OZ and youth make the best of it. Buy one get one free! It is only
wise to first get your supply of drinks for the evening before doing anything else.
A Night out Partying at OZ Club in Soweto
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Two young people walk in, buy
their drinks and proceed to sit next to a
TV screen to watch football as they sip
their drinks in silence. Two more come
in and get their drinks as well and sit
at a table. Once in a while individuals
get up and dance at their table or just
make slight dance movements while
seated. The dance floor is not at any
point occupied.
It is happy hour and therefore
a ‘buy one get one free drink’ time.
Two young men come to join the girls.
They are also accompanying us for this
immersion. Much as they had not met
the girls before they hit it off quite well
and talk like they have always been
friends. They also go to get their drinks so as to capitalize
on the happy hour. Drinks are served in small metallic
buckets filled with ice. Most people like their drinks
chilled, hence the buckets of ice. There are so many youth
in the club in about an hour’s time. They all go to get
the drinks to take advantage of the hapy hour offer, and
hence have many ice buckets with drinks on their tables.
Noticeably, most females take canned drinks while most
males have bottled drinks.
While still in the room a group of many girls comes
in and they sit on one of the couches. One of them seems
to use her phone more than the rest. From her type of
phone, dress and the command of the group of friends,
one can tell she either has more money or is more
exposed than the rest or both. Her friends sit quietly
most of the time while she makes phone calls and types
something on her phone. Some men who appear to be
part of the group finally walk in with buckets of drinks.
Since there is not enough room for all of them they all
walk out perhaps to find another spot within the club.
At some point one of the girls accompanying us
gets her phone from her purse and we ask her what
she wants to do with it at that particular time. She says
she wants to check mail, incase anyone has mailed her
something of importance. She ends up not checking her
mail anyway but instead joins the rest.
There is a staircase that leads downstairs where
there is more space and big couches all around the room.
This room also has a bar and a DJ playing house music.
The large group of youth that had just left the other
room upstairs is already at one corner of the room and
they chat as they enjoy their drinks. One young man is
constantly on his phone, possibly browsing the internet
and only looks up every once in a while when a friend
in the group interrupts to ask or tell him something.
The dance floor here is also not occupied, but the youth
that are seated all around the room dance next to their
tables whenever they want to. All the people in the club
are noticeably black, and most likely in their 20s to 30s.
They just talk as they have their drinks. The lady from the
large group that had earlier been using her phone still
uses her phone to take pictures of the group. At some
Now that we have our drinks, let’s catch up as we listen to music. Youngsters enjoy each other’s company at the club.
A night club in Soweto. A bouncer waits at the entrance to ensure that only genuine clubbers get in. OZ is a great attraction for the youth from the hood.
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point two young ladies are on the dance floor and they
are joined by two men. Two men walk into the club. They
looked gay from the way one of them is dressed and from
their general behavior. The one that has rather feminine
behavior sits and chats up another man while his friend
goes to get the drinks. When the drinks come they go to
a couch and sit closely together.
More discussion with the two young men who are
accompanying us reveals that other than partying the
other thing that young people tend to enjoy is going to
the movies or else just meeting up with their friends and
talking about their partying activities – what happened
where and when and what is coming up. Those who
love football are also really looking forward to the 2010
World Cup and have even purchased one or two tickets
in readiness. With the guys security does not seem to be
an issue as they say if they are partying within Soweto i.e.
not too far from their residential areas they will normally
just walk to the venue and walk home afterwards no
matter what time it is but if they have to go to a far off
place then they will try and find a friend who has a car to
go with or take a cab together and split the cost.
The rest of the evening is pretty much the same
with youth gathered in small groups, drinking and
chatting with minimal dance by their tables. In the ladies
room there are a number of ladies, seemingly doing their
make up. They all leave the room shortly at the same time.
There is also a lot of activity going on right outside the
club. There are food selling points where some people
get something to bite, and many youth just hanging out
outside. Some just sit in cars and have a good time while
others stand in groups. The cars of course have booming
music that the youth enjoy. A grocery shop just next to
the club is still open, possibly so as to serve the people
who are still hanging out outside. Although all seems well
in terms of security, the the grocery shop has been heavily
fitted with steel bars and grills seemingly to keep thieves
out implying that the place may not be as safe as it seems.
A group of ladies walks towards the club dressed in very
short dresses and skirts and high heeled shoes, probably
in preparation for the fun and entertainment that is in
store for them for the night.
We depart shortly afterwards at around 1:00 am
although for many, the night is still young just as they are.
“For me clothes are so important,the reason I want to become a politician
is so that I can make a lot of money, and buy clothes! I’m not creative at all, but i’m soobsessed to clothes of all types. I want to
present myself in different ways. I have split personalities, it depends how I feel and who i’m gonna be chilling with. I would not go around
in thetownship full of guys and wearsomething extremely Fourways or
extremely Sandton.”
Female 18-21, Johannesburg, South Africa
Dressing
Is dress important to the youth?
The answer to this is a resounding yes. Youth
are particularly conscious about how they dress mainly
because they want to look good and impress but this can
also mean different things for different youth.
The main difference in dressing and its importance
is in terms of rural versus urban youth as well as in terms
of religious practices or tendencies, in terms of age and
occasion, family background or upbringing and overall the
category of youth that one belongs to. Dressing is actually
one of the key distinguishing factors that youth use to tell
any given youth category apart from another.
“You wont’ find a person wearing Rastafarian clothes unless they are one. If you wear the Pantula style
then you live as a Pantsula.”
Male 14-17, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Ethiopia: Who will be left behind in dressing to look cool enough to walk in style? Not me.
Decency is the name of the game. Women in Kwale, Kenya often wrap themselves in lesos over their ordinary clothes. Okada driver and female customer both in
native attire or ‘ankara’ as the Nigerians call it. Oh oh, they have no helmets!
Simplicity and decency in clothes and hairstyles is evident in conformity with Zambia’s rural setting.
Yes, dress is important to the youth and shop for it they will. A lady shops at a mall in Johannesburg
Youthful attire - Caps, sunglasses, jeans and t-shirts
Kenya: Clothing stalls at the market place. Being well dressed is an important aspect of youth life and a good income earner for the very same youth.
Lay buys accepted? You have a deal! This store in Maponya mall in Soweto most likely targets the youth. A deposit and installments are all you need to look cool if you don’t have enough cash. Notice the Dickies brand that is commonly associated with the Pantsula and the Nigger youth categories.
Zambia: A second hand clothes market in Lusaka
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“There is this saying ‘Possession isnine tenths of the law’ and the other thing which
is taken from this is ‘appearance is nine tenths of the law’ because how you appear to people is how they see you and they connect with you and
clothing is a big part of that…. So clothing isan important factor in our social acceptance.
If you dress up differently off the conventional style, you will be an outcast.”
Female, 14-17, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
In some instances there appears to be an underlying
importance attached to personality and character as
compared to dressing. This is quite evident in both rural and
urban Ethiopia, Senegal and South Africa. In other countries
however dressing is deemed to be very important because
that is what the youth use to show who they are or what
they are aspiring to be. It is also important because if one is
well dressed then this helps them exude confidence.
Respondents were asked to describe what a cool / hot
guy or chick would wear and this is what they had to say:
For religious youth, dressing well or looking good
is likely to mean that they should take care not to expose
themselves; in essence dress decently. For example the
Muslim women should cover themselves up with buibuis
and hijabs or niquabs, and bubus or kaftans for men. In
Kwale, Kenya which is predominantly Muslim, the youth
also said that people are generally expected to be well
covered – shorts for instance are generally forbidden even
for men; if they have to wear them, then they should be
long, below the knees. Rural youth on the other hand tend
to prefer ‘simple’ as well as decent dressing where they do
not wear anything that would be considered showy or too
fancy for example women will not wear make-up or have
fancy hair dos. Urban areas are relatively more liberal as
compared to the rural although many youth still conform
to societal norms of decency. Youth may therefore dress
more decently in regular day to day activities and on other
ocassions such as partying and clubbing, will tend to be
more liberal and wear such things as mini-skirts, halter
tops, plunging necklines, muscle shirts, tube tops, skinny
jeans, hot pants, sagging pants with exposed boxers,
etc. In some countries like Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Senegal
traditional dress is also important especially for specific
ocassions such as church / mosque, or weddings.
Table 15: Youth descriptions of cool guys and hot chicks
Cool Guy Hot Chick
Baggy jeans, blingbling, one earring, airforce sneakers and a cap facing sideways
Anything that looks good on them
Like PDiddy, JZ or Kanye West
T-shirt and jeans are ideal. T-shirts should not be too loud with too much design; simple is cool and classy.
Short hair and sneakers
What he is comfortable with, suitable for the prevailing weather and fits his personality
High heels, flats or sneakers depending on the occasion
Mini skirt (not too short – knee length,
One way top (with one sleeve only)
Handbag
Hipsters, mini skirts, tyra shorts (hot pants), Capri pants, dress tops,
Like Beyonce
Smart instead of crazy; clothes that are well suited to her body size and shape
What she is comfortable with, suitable for the prevailing weather and fits her personality
Jeans
Nice t-shirt
Flat shoes (sneakers)
Big pants
Neck chains (bling)
Formal attire (suits and ties)
Skinny jeans
Flats
High heels (some)
Long decent skirt and top (rural)
Traditional Ethiopian dress (rural)
KEN
YAET
HIO
PIA
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Cool Guy Hot Chick
Skinny jeans (some)
Golf shirts
Printed t-shirts
Nike or Addidas sneakers
Formal attire like suits (some)
Good haircut (well-shaven called ‘chiskop’)
Bright and colourful clothes
Trousers with a belt with formal shoes
Skinny jeans
High heels
Designer / expensive clothing
Knee high summer skirts
Sunglasses
Formal attire like suits (some)
Designer wear
Big t-shirts
Sagging jeans (some)
Timberland shoes
Neck chains
Sunglasses
Cap worn front side back
Formal attire (rural)
Mini skirts
Spaghetti tops or barebacks
High heels
Hot pants, hipsters and peddle pushers
Boy cut weave or hair extensions
Make-up and articificial eyebrows
Long earrings
Jeans and pretty dress tops
Long skirts and tops (rural)
Smart casual Italian wear
Well-shaven
Jeans and t-shirts
Long trousers
Tall, neat, clean and well-dressed
Good shoes (Italian)
Italian labels such as Louis Vutton
Is slim
Short skirts
Has hair that is well done
COOL: Smart
Native wear
Well-ironed clothes
HOT: Sagged jeans
Dirty boxers
Latest footwear
Fly collar
Earrings
Fancy haircut
COOL: Skirts
Jeans
Polo
Native wear (with traditional / African fabric)
Corporate look / suits
Smart and simple
HOT: Treated hair
Micro-mini
See-through clothes
Halter necks
Clothes that show off the body
Tattoo on the lower back
SOU
TH A
FRIC
AZA
MBI
ASE
NEG
AL
NIG
ERIA
*
* NB. Cool and hot have somewhat different connotations hence are defined separately
“A neat look is cool regardless of what
one wears.”
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
“Like wearing very bigtrousers like someone has already said, those things are meant for prisoners so
that they couldn’t escape.... (Laughter).... When they are trying to escape, so for me
some things I do avoid, really in life, for example sagging...”
Male 14-17, Lusaka, Zambia
“That is so overrated (cool). What is cool to me is what
makes me happy. I like people that are different, they are
cool. If you can rock your own thing even if it is not the latest thing it can be cool. You have
to be an individual.”
Female 18-21, Johannesburg,
South Africa
“If one dresses with suit and a tie one would be seen as an important person, but if one dresses madly by wear-ing dreadlocks, wearing two
earrings as a man [that]would make others think one is not
responsible.”
18-21 Ikorodu, Nigeria
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Traveling
The youth are very interested in
traveling be it simply as a pastime or to satisfy
other needs related to knowledge acquisition
and exposure as well as livelihoods. Some
just have a spirit of adventure and wish to
satisfy their curiosity about other destinations.
There is also a general perception that living
standards and the quality of education and
employment abroad is much better than that
in their own countries. Interestingly, many
youth do not necessarily want to relocate
altogether to other countries despite the
perceived better life; instead they just want
to gain exposure and borrow ideas which
they can bring back home and develop their
own. Some of the desired travel destinations
mentioned are as a result of increased media
exposure and in some instances are as a
result of influence from friends and family
who have traveled to these destinations or
currently live there. Apparently travel to other
African countries is also quite desirable to
some African youth. There were significant
mentions by youth in Kenya, Ethiopia and
Zambia who wish to travel to other African
countries. In some countries like Ethiopia and
Kenya, youth were also quite keen to travel
within their own countries. A good number
of South African youth were however not
interested in traveling altogether.
Destinations that were mentioned and the reasons thereof are as
follows:
Kenyan youth would like to travel to…
� Nairobi – from what they have heard and the pictures they have
seen, Nairobi seems very grand and life in general seems very good
there; they would like to experience it for themselves and also bring
home to Kwale the good things in Nairobi so that Kwale can be just
as good.
� Anywhere within Kenya – this is home and they wish to see the
different places and learn more about them, the people, the life,
interact with people from different ethnicities and backgrounds
and overall gain more exposure.
� Zanzibar – Just to tour and alsvo buy their lesos to sell in Kenya.
Apparently this is good business.
� Tanzania – To experience the lifestyle and just satisfy their curiosity.
Similarly the Phillipines
� Nigeria – To socialize with the Nollywood actors. Its also has the
highest population in Africa and this is quite interesting to see and
experience
� Kenyan Coast – It’s the perfect place to relax and have a good time.
“No. I come from a verydisadvantaged community
(Giyani), and when I grow up I want to give something back to
them and not forsake them”
Male 14-17, Johannesburg, South Africa
“Travelling is not my thing. I want to be alawyer when I grow up, so travelling isn’t a
priority for me” Male 14-17, Johannesburg, South Africa.
“Hmmmm if I could travel I would go toNairobi, and I would take that Nairobi, put it in my
pocket and bring it back here…(Laughter)…”
Female 22-25, Kwale, Kenya
“When it comes to traveling I am a goer. It’s only that I don’t have enough money but ifI did I would galavant all over this world. I am
originally from Embu but moved to Kirinyaga when I was in primary up to class 4 then I went to
Chuka. For my high school I went to Mombasa and col-lege I went to Meru and Kisii. Then I worked in Mwea for some time and now I am in Nairobi. I have a new job which I am starting in Suba District next month if
you know where that is! I have also been to Garissa…”
Female 22-25, Nairobi, Kenya
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� Africa – to see the geographical sites and the nature
then once they have been all over Africa, Asia would
be next on the list
� Egypt – have heard from friends who visited that it is
an interesting place and there are cute guys there and
nice gifts and mementos that you can buy to bring
back to your friends
� Mauritius – different and exotic experience; heard of
this from family members who have been there
� South Africa – to attend the 2010 world cup, meet
Mandela, visit Robbin Island, meet Jacob Zuma
� Countries abroad in general – to seek greener
pastures and to have some time away from family and
familiarity. They believe living abroad would present
better opportunities i.e. even janitorial jobs pay better
than they do in Kenya, and freedom to explore their
potential. Some youth are not concerned about
which country in specific; they are open to exploring
whatever any country has to offer.
� USA and UK – they think that the economy there
is better than in Kenya, they wish to go and see for
themselves and just compare whether life is better
there than it is in Kenya. If it is better there, then they
want to bring home some good ideas to help make
Kenya a better place. Some want to go live and work
there since they feel there are better opportunities
there and there is no corruption like in Kenya which
makes earning a living difficult
� Standford Bridge in the UK – because he supports
Chelsea in the English League; another would like to
go to England to see Rooney.
� Hollywood – Love of acting and aspirations to be a
great actor some day.
� London – to see River Thames and the cars that are
manufactured there and the motor industry in general
and reconcile with past and present in terms of what
Kenya’s former colonial masters benefited in the long
run from colonizing Kenya in the first place – are the
benefits still evident?
� Germany – the motor industry and also because learnt
some German in school so would like to interact with
the people and speak the language more. Also to
further their studies
� Haiti – Have heard that it is the poorest country in the
world and are quite intrigued and curious about this
seeing as they think they are already struggling so
much in Kenya therefore how much harder can it be
for the people of Haiti?
� UAE – to play women’s football and become a role
model for other talented young Kenyans
� Jamaica – to see Elephant Man. Have also heard that
bhang and cigarettes are readily available and would
like to see how true this is
� Brazil – It is less populous country as compared to
Kenya and so should be a good place to stay. Also
meet the international footballers and the beautiful
women
� China – to learn more about engineering and generally
gain more technical knowledge
� Japan – for the cultural experience
� Dubai – those who have some business aspirations
and their friends and relatives who have been there
speak very positively about it in terms of business.
Many Kenyans go to Dubai to bring in various types of
merchandise to sell in Kenya.
Ethiopian youth would like to travel to…
� Lalibela – because they have learnt about it in History
and it has rock hewn churches which they would love
to see; this is unique to Ethiopia and a heritage to be
proud of.
� Axum – because they have learnt about it in History;
it has the giant obelisk which are regarded as some of
the finest examples architecture in the world.
� Hawasa / Awasa – because the scenery is green and
beautiful. This is the southern part of the Great Rift
Valley.
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� Gondar – this was a religious city and they are proud to be
associated with its history
� Gurage – the people there are marginalized; would like to
learn more about how they live
� Bahir dar – it is a naturally green area in the southern part
� London – it is a multicultural city whereby immigrants
actually own their own homes. Also due to architectural
and art heritage which they would like to see
� Dubai – so as to see and learn more about unique
architectural designs
� USA – to see the Lincoln memorial having read about it
and watched it on TV. Also perceived as a fun place to be
� Israel – for pilgrimage reasons; to experience and
associate with the birth and life of Jesus. Another was
interested because of their strong military.
� Arab countries and African countries – where there exist
conflict and war just to understand the social problems
that are causing this.
South African youth would like to travel to…
� Port Elizabeth – there is not much talked or shown about
this place hence would like to see it for themselves
� London – a lot of people have gone there and would like
to know how they live
� New York – would like to one day be a producer and has
heard that it has a lot in common with the townships in
SA like crimes and gangsters
� USA – Most people seem educated and they like
education, for its beauty especially New York
� Cape Town – Low crime rate
� Cape Town and Durban – loves water
� England – looks fascinating and beautiful
� Switzerland – people look calm and collected; it must be
so much fun and welcoming
� Paris – Love, passion and those good looking men
� Brazil – they are mad about football
� Nigeria – they have pastors with healing powers like
Pastor Chris
� Jamaica – their accent! I love their accent
� Barbados – It is beautiful, has beautiful people and
Ronaldo was born there
� Botswana – Has family there, the government is
well grounded, free education and security
Zambian youth would like to travel to…
� River Kafue (Zambia)
� USA – because of the good life as they see in the
movies, for live performances e.g. 50 cents, people
mind their own business
� Sweden – to learn their development strategy
� England – the education system is good, to see
Wayne Rooney.
� Mexico – looks attractive on TV, to learn the
language
“The States, because life is goodthere. Everyone minds their own
business and you can do whateveryou want to do. They believe in
expressing themselves, each andevery one of them, like I for once I don’t
enjoy the traditional stuff like inmarriage where you have to startrespecting your husband or what.
I believe am not for that. I have hanged out with couples from the states and just the way they carry out themselves, hang out and play, it’s just like they are dating
and so when they get married it keeps the spark going.”
Female 18-21, Lusaka, Zambia
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� Jamaica – because of the music and the people
� Italy – to see the tradition, the historical ruins and
churches
� Dubai – advanced technology
� South Africa – advanced technology, high employment
rate, to eat apples, see monuments, to see the motor
vehicle company in Cape Town
� Tanzania – to import clothes and foodstuffs for business
� Kenya – to see if people are as rich as she has heard
they are; to see the wild animals in the game parks
� Egypt – to see the pyramids
� Zimbabwe – to visit relatives, to see whether people
are indeed dying of hunger
� Nigeria – to meet the Nollywood actors
Senegalese youth would like to travel to…
� Spain – because of the sports (soccer) and for
livelihoods
� USA – good quality education that is also arts based,
perceive the people to be straightforward hence
business is good and transparent, nice lifestyle,
dancing and singing, Obama is their idol
� Mecca – For Al Haj (pilgrimage)
� Italy – Because apparently a lot of their friends have
gone there and made it, it is pastry heaven
� Japan – they have a strong sense of culture although
they also have high suicidal rate
� Canada – it is a peaceful country and good education
system, employees are well paid and there are
numerous informal employment opportunities
� England – to learn English and good pronunciation
� Egypt – because of the history and Egyptian movies
and beautiful Egyptian girls
� France – the technology is advanced, for the fashion
� Belgium – employment after study is almost
guaranteed
� Hawaii
Nigerian youth would like to travel to…
� Kano – to see animals which are rare in the western
part of the country
� Calabar – it is beautiful and there is less corruption
� Akwa Ibom – because it is a neat state and there is less
corruption. You can also make soup for only Naira 100
(EUR 0.5)
� Ghana – to pursue business opportunities
� South Africa – for the numerous job opportunities
� Turkey and UAE – because they produce oil
� China – to gain technology exposure and ideas
� Paris – heard that it is beautiful
� USA – have good technology, low corruption and
good security
� Canada – heard of job opportunities there and for
general experience
� Spain – to see Ronaldo, children are not beaten, to
learn how to build night clubs
� UK – to visit relatives, people there are better behaved
and mature, for further education, to play football for
the English clubs
� India – just love the people
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Dreams and aspirations
Based on the discussions with youth during the
study it appears that their dreams are more often than not
related to succeeding in life so that they and their families
can have good livelihoods and live comfortable lives. Be
it a dream or desire to travel, to attain a certain education,
or to utilize their personal talents, all this often relates
back to the need to earn good money and hence lead a
comfortable life. The youth want to be able to satisfy all
their basic needs such as food, good shelter, clothing and
education and then have something left over to spend on
wants. Generally the younger youth have very specific and
numerous dreams and life goals but as they get older and
come face to face with certain life realities, they begin to
lower their expectations and goals in line with this. For
instance those youth who have had to drop out of school
hence cannot compete on the same level as those who have
been fortunate enough to attain a high level of education,
tend to lower their livelihood goals to ‘realistic’ targets. For
example such youth may only aspire to get some casual
work that will earn them their daily bread; they are content
with whatever is enough to get by on a day to day basis.
They no longer aspire to growth and development beyond
their immediate communities; they simply aspire to get
married, have children and find ways of supporting their
families.
Kenya
Ethiopia
South Africa
Zambia
“My dream is that I don’t reach 28 years without a car”
Male 22-25, Nairobi, Kenya
“Whenever your government is not able to provide a job, it gives you an opportunity to get
into entrepreneurship.”
Male 18-21, Youth Scout, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
“A permanent job, and being able to give back to the community.It must also be the kind of job where I can transfer my skills
to the next person so that if I retiresomeone can carry on with my duties.”
Male 14-17, Johannesburg, South Africa
“I think that this subject Technical Drawing is not very common in many schools like
the school I go to. I really wanted to do it because I had these dreams of my future… I wanted to be an engineer and my parents told me that then I needed to take TD, but
now the school I go to its not there so I tried book keeping but you see I had no interest in
the subject.”
Male 14-17, Lusaka, Zambia
“Because I have split personalities I would like a job where I can be involved in opera-tions during the day and be like a theatrical
godess by night.”
Female 18-21, Johannesburg, South Africa
“I could have been a pilot but myparents were unable to educate me,
I don’t blame them though. Even if I only got to class three at least I managed to get rid of some illiteracy and ignorance – At least I can read and
I can also count some money so I am grateful for that. Now I can do some odd jobs and earn
some money.”
Female 22-25, Kwale, Kenya
“Just work hard at what you want. That is my motto. I usually say I will be a
sonko (rich person)…. I just want to finish college this year, I build myself and start
helping my family.”
Male 22-25, Nairobi, Kenya
“My dream is that 2 years afterI complete school, I want to be part of the
Kenya National Team 15s (Rugby)”
Male 22-25, Nairobi, Kenya
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa100
Senegal
Nigeria
In line with their dreams and aspirations, the
definition of success is also related to wealth accumulation
and higher education. Most of the youth however do not
have very elaborate plans of how they are working towards
achieving this success. For most it is simply about working
hard and ensuring they complete their education in order
to succeed in life. Also, there is the aspect of ‘connections’
which a significant number of youth feel would be
necessary for them to succeed particularly in getting jobs.
Similarly some kind of sponsorship for education
is deemed necessary. In some countries like Ethiopia
and Zambia, furthering education appears to be quite
popular amongst the youth at all levels; aspiring to achieve
more than they currently have. In terms of other sets of
skills required for success, some youth talk about specific
additional professional courses in line with their study
discipline, while others recognize the importance of soft
skills and personal characteristics and virtues such as good
interpersonal skills, dressing and presentation, confidence,
honesty, language fluency, among others. Due to their
religious dispositions, there are also other youth who
believe that God plays a big role in their success.
What about fastracking their way to success?
Do the youth think it is necessary?
Many youth would be happy to fastrack their way
to success though many concede that this is generally not
possible hence they simply have to go it the long way. The
pressures of life particularly for the low income and rural
youth seem to push them more towards the desire to fastrack
as compared to middle and upper income youth whose
immediate and family needs are already well taken care of.
One of the possible ways of fastracking as mentioned by
the youth is through having the right ‘connections’ in order
to get ahead. Also, having the resources at one’s disposal to
bribe or pay their way through in order to get there faster
or conceding sexual favours. Some youth also get involved
in the ‘unconventional’ ways of earning a living such as
drug peddling, prostitution, internet scams, and robbery
since these are also deemed to be ways of earning quick
and easy money.
“Yes there are many successful youth. Do you know the region of Luga?
There are youth who are working in Spain, the best example is those Senegalese from
Luga and Italy where one can succeed even as a youth.”
Male 18-2,1 Thies, Senegal
“I would like to be a doctor but it is too late! Because of my age they have said
that if you are more than 20 years old you are not allowed to do medicine at Univer-
sity of Cheikh Anta Diop.”
Male 18-21, Dakar, Senegal
“I’ve always wanted to be a hip hop artiste, but my parents never supported me,
but school has made me educated enough to write and compose lyrics and the environment
has boosted my ability to sing.”
Male 18-21, Ikorodu, Nigeria
“Corruption. If it can fade out then people can get jobs in a normal manner without using the other way that if you don’t have relatives even if you have the papers you can’t get anywhere. So if you don’t know anyone you will not even
be able to get a job in bank, you can even become a cashier yet you have a degree in ac-
countancy.”
Female 18-21, Lusaka Zambia
“We start saving in secondary schoolso that when we finish, we have enough
money to pay bribes so as to get jobs.For example at Kenya Ports one has to pay
KES 20 to the watchman at the gatejust so that he can let you in to go
and ask for a job…”
Male 18-21, Kwale, Kenya
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There are a few youth on the other hand who do not
want to fastrack their way to success. According to them,
there is value in going through the motions and processes to
eventually succeed in life. This they feel is more sustainable
because of the experience that one gains along the way.
Some also prefer to avoid fastracking through bribery and
connections as this would place a burden on them in terms
of always owing someone a favour.
Asked about role models, many youth across the
countries of study have positive things to say about family
members who they look up to. Mothers in particular
receive a lot of mention due to their hardwork and sacrifice
in order to provide for their children. They also say that
their mothers are strong women who have succeeded in
one way or another even in certain difficult circumstances
e.g. single mothers. Mothers are also said to be supportive,
caring, and nurturing and overall a great inspiration to their
children. In some places like South Africa, grandmothers
also receive the same accolades many of them having
brought up these youth in the absence of their parents.
Other family and relatives are also mentioned as role
models such as fathers, uncles, aunts and older siblings.
Various reasons are attached to this such as integrity,
financial success and stature in the community, family
support, among others. Nigeria is generally an exception
in that there is little mention of family members as role
models. Instead they tend to talk about internationally
recognized personalities as their role models. Other
types of role models across the different countries include
teachers, religious leaders, actors, musicians, political
leaders, athletes and other sports personalities, business
magnates and activists of various causes.
There are also some youth who have no role models.
For some this is as a result of disillusionment having found
out certain negative characteristics of people they once
looked up to as role models while others prefer to select or
learn from specific positive aspects of given personalities
as opposed to taking the whole as their role model. This
is evident even for a few youth who do mention specific
people as their role models but qualify this in terms of the
specific aspects for which they consider these persons
as role models. As such a young person can end up with
several role models based on different aspects of their life
which they consider important.
“Some guy managed to hack intothe system of a varsity and had
himself registered as a proper student and according to the ‘system’ paid his fees. The only mistake he made was to make it look like the varsity also owed him money. But instead
of having him arrested some huge IT company offered him a job because he
was that good.”
Female 18-21, Johannesburg, South Africa
“I think there are a few times thatyou need to move fast. Like my friend,we were in the same class in Grade 9
but I don’t know what happened, whenwe wrote Grade 9, right now he is doingEngineering but me I am still in Grade 12,so I really don’t know what happened or
what he did to get there…. He is in college doing engineering. So I asked him but he
told me that… connections.. that he wrote,something like that… So I mean theparents are already rich and they arepushing him to get that education so
he is doing his last year now… So there are times you can feel you want to do things fast but because of connections
(lack of) you can’t get there.”Female 18-21, Johannesburg, South Africa “For my spiritual aspect and moral
standards I take from my mum. She is a level minded person. She is a person I
relate to everyday in whatevercircumstances. She is the one who will
tell you to shut up, wait for things to calm down before you take any step. Financially maybe Oprah Winfrey. She has just taken an aspect of just talking in the media and then she has been able to make so much
from it. When it comes to developing other people and taking care of the people
around me I would think of NelsonMandela; 27 years in prison and then you come out and think about everybody be-fore yourself. I don’t know them person-
ally so I take aspects of them that I know.”Female 22-25, Nairobi, Kenya
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa102
There are also those youth who generally prefer to
believe only in themselves and live their lives in accordance
to personal values without emulating anyone.
Specific role models mentioned in the different
countries are as follows:
Kenya
z President Moi (former) – brought about unity; ability
to mobilize people towards a given cause; encouraged
people not to be individualistic but nowadays all this
is gone. (“One day, God willing if I become President, I
will be like Moi”.) Nyayo milk for school kids. Not always
strict but gave and reached out to the young ones –
approachable.
z Oprah Winfrey – Financial success
z Nelson Mandela – Developing other people and taking
care of those around him; selflessness
z Michelle Obama – She is a strong woman
z Bill Gates – He is rich and also loves comps but mainly
coz he is rich. Its all about the money
z TI (musician) – He is real; he is himself; doesn’t pretend
to be what he is not
z Wangari Maathai – for her role in environmental
conservation
z Elephant Man (reggae / raga musician) – His style
z Christiano Ronaldo – likes how he plays football and
how to handle rough players
z Susumila (local musician) – His music has a message, he
is laid back, dresses decently and keeps good company.
“You cannot just have one role model be-cause there are many different role models,
social, sports, professional, etc. In social terms my mother is my role model, in sports
Drogba is my model, in religion Touba(religious teachers) is my model.”
Male 18-21, Dakar, Senegal
Susumila is a Kenyan artist based
in Mombasa. He has managed
to produce two albums namely
Ngangari Kinoma and Haki Iko
Wapi. He was rated as one of Coast’s
hottest entertainers in 2009. His
music is a fusion of dancehall and
hip hop and apparently he has
positioned himself as a controversial
artiste which has worked very well
for him. He speaks out on certain
political issues in some of his music.
Sheila Mwanyigha whose
stage name is Nikki is a Kenyan
musician and radio presenter.
She first appeared on the music
scene in 1997. Since then she has
written various pieces of music,
sang back up for other celebrated
Kenyan musicians or collaborated
with them as well as featured
on 2 Kenyan compilation CDs / albums with other artistes.
Nikki has received national music awards such as the Kisima
awards and been nominated on the international scene
for the Channel O music awards. She once dated another
Kenyan musician known as CMB Prezzo and this received
mixed reactions from her fans some of who were altogether
not pleased.
Chris Kirubi is in the list of Kenya’s
richest. He is a businessman
and entrepreneur owning or
having large shares in various
large companies in Kenya and
properties. These include
International Life House in
Nairobi, Capital FM, DHL Kenya,
Haco Industries, Uchumi
Supermarkets, among others. He was also recently referred
Photo: www.facebook.com/pages/SUSUMILA/150748817921
Photo: www.mziki.com
Photo: www.mziki.com
z Sheila Mwanyigha – Has a don’t care attitude; remains
strong no matter what people say about her
z Chris Kirubi – Great business acumen so would like to
be like him; own companies and employ people.
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The late Ashina Kibibi is
one of Kenya’s reknowned
actresses and script writers.
Kibibi was well known
for her popular television
series Lea Mwana, which
was aired by KBC and
Asali, which was aired by
KTN. She had Bachelors
and Masters degrees from the University of Nairobi,
which she joined in October 1989. She was one of 12
winners from across the globe selected for the 2004-
05 University of Maryland Humphrey Fellowship at the
Philip Merrill College of Journalism. Around 2001, she
launched her own production company BNZ. Asali had
its trial debut on KTN in early 2001. Kibibi came into
the national limelight when she appeared as Nina in
Zingatia and went on to captivate TV audiences in the
soap Tausi. She also wrote and directed Kasheshe in
which she appeared as Malkia. Kibibi won a British
Comedy Writers’ Association movie script writing
competition in December 2003. Her script My Wife
scooped first prize. She also emerged tops in a class
of 13 scriptwriters from across Africa who attended a
three-week course in Zimbabwe. Kibibi exported her
soaps to Tanzania, where her first appearance had
police intervening to keep off thousands of fans who
mobbed her upon learning she was in the country.
Ms Ashina Kibibi, committed suicide on the afternoon
of Mar. 30, 2005 by hanging herself. Family sources
revealed that she had been unwell.
John Adoli is the founder and
director of the Kibera Hamlets,
a youth lead community
organisation in Kibera which
he started after completing his
secondary school in Mbale in
2002. He is also a member of
the Sports Council at Carolina
for Kibera. He is 22 years old and
living in Gatwekera, Kibera. He
holds a diploma in community
development and social work from Flopeze International
College. He is pursuing a degree of the same. He has a passion
for working with disadvantaged communities and touching
lives of his fellow youth and children.
Photo: www.kenyanlist.com
z Ashina Kibibi – Her talent in acting.
z John Adoli – Chairperson of Kibera Hamlets; admire
how he teachers dance and other theatrical stuff
and helps others; he is understanding. Aspires to
also start own similar group when older and go out
and teach others.
to as DJ CK on the media scene i.e. Capital FM where he
got to do his thing. In certain one on one interviews,
Chris Kirubi shares more on his interests – public work;
more or less trying to become an activist, and get the
Government to change or improve policies, in order
to create a conducive business environment. He feels
that Kenyans need more training on business and
entrepreneurship.
Ethiopia
z Lionel Messi – has worked very hard to achieve his dreams
z Ronaldo – has worked very hard to achieve his dreams
z Barack Obama – has worked very hard to achieve his
dreams
z Haile Selassie – has worked very hard to achieve his dreams
z Oprah Winfrey – she is a good communicator and is
successful in the media
z Malcolm X – He struggled for equality and peace for young
people in America though he did not see the fruits of his
struggle
z Mahatma Gandhi – able to change things about his society
without violence
z Martin Luther King – able to change things about his
society without violence
z Nelson Mandela – able to change things about his society
without violence
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa104
Tom Wright is the architect and
designer of the Burj Al Arab
(tower of the Arabs) in Dubai,
a self proclaimed 7 star hotel.
It stands on an artificial island
and is the second tallest hotel
in the world.
Mohammed Al Amoudi is
Ethiopia’s richest person and
is ranked as one of the world’s
richest persons by Forbes. He
is mixed Ethiopin and Yemeni
but he immigrated to Saudi
Arabia in 1965 and became a
Saudi citizen. He has recently
been named as one of the
Clinton Foundation Donors and has also made several
donations to hospitals, NGOs and other causes in Ethiopia.
Dr. Belay Abegaz, is an Ethiopian
Pediatric Cardiologist. He has
studied Medicine and specialized
in Pediatric Cardiology, was
certified and licensed by eligible
authorities both in Ethiopia and
the United States of America.
Dr. Belay Abegaz, is permanently
settled in Addis Ababa as a Consultant in the field of Pediatric
Cardiology, owning and directing a flourishing medical
practice-”Brook Medical Services PLC” and as a distinguished
philanthropist with his ‘’CHILDREN’S HEART FUND OF
ETHIOPIA”, where he is striving to promote a Cardiac Center
setup in Ethiopia.
She is the founder of the Jane
Goodall institute and has worked
extensively on conservation and
animal welfare issues. She is best
known for her 45 year study of
social and family interactions
of wild chimpanzees in Gombe
Stream National Park in Tanzania.
She is therefore considered to be
the world’s foremost expert in
chimpanzees.
z Tom Wright – He comes up with very architectural
designs from what he observes. I learn from him
persistence and patience
z Jane Goodall – Would like to be an environmental
activist like her because has great respect to nature
and the environment
z Sheikh Mohammed Al Amoudi – He is the ‘wealthiest’
person in Ethiopia. He helps people in his country and
more so the needy.
z Dr. Belay Abegas – He is a cardiologist. He has done
great for his country. He is patient and persistent.
“These days it seems so hardespecially in Africa to bring
about change without violence. People have become violent.
I admire these people for being peaceful and not hurting people
in their effort to changeand preserve their rights.”
Female 14-17, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Photo: http://www.tomwrightdesign.com/web/burj_al_arab.php
Photo: http://nazret.com/blog/index
Photo: http://www.chfe.org.et/boardmembers.html
Photo: http://en.wikipidea.org/wiki/jane_Goodall
South Africa
z Oprah Winfrey – the way she dresses; very classy and
elegant
z Beyonce – loves her music
z Nelson Mandela – Managed to fight for the country and
causes like HIV, his contribution to the black struggle
z Teko Modise – A Bafana Bafana player. Loves the way
he plays soccer.
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Cheikh Anta Diop (1923-
1986) was a historian,
anthropologist, physicist,
and politician who studied
the human race’s origins
and pre-colonial African
culture. He is regarded
a modern champion of
African identity and an
important figure in the
development of the Afro-centric viewpoint, in particular
for his controversial theory that the Ancient Egyptians were
Black Africans. He believed that only by re-examining Africa’s
distorted, maligned and obscured place in world history
could the physical and psychological shackles of colonialism
be lifted from the Motherland and Africans in diaspora.
Cheikh Anta Diop University, in Dakar, Senegal is named
after him. He is widely recognized as one of the greatest
influencers of African thought in the 20th century.
Yékini is the nickname of Yakhya
Diop, a popular champion of the
sport and for two decades now,
has emerged the most successful
professional wrestler since. His
appearances are major news in
his home country. His 2006 fight
against and defeat of Mouhamed
Ndao, alias Tyson, was billed in
Senegal as “the fight of the century”,
cementing the two as the best known exponents of the
sport. As of March 2010, Yékini remains undefeated in fifteen
years of professional bouts. Senegalese wrestling (La lutte
sénégalaise) is a type of folk wrestling traditional to Senegal
and parts of the Gambia and is part of the larger West African
traditional wrestling. Transcending ethnic groups, the sport
enjoys the status of national support. Today it is very popular
as an indication of male athletic strength and ability. Today it
is organized by business promoters who offer prizes for the
winners.
Modise was born in
Meadows, Soweto
and was raised by his
mother in Diepkloof.
He was recently
appointed ambassador
by global company Mc
Donald’s for the 2010
FIFA World Cup and
also the ambassador
for Coca-Cola, Nike,
Telkom and Samsung.
z Yekini – Wrestler
z Shahiri – A famous Senegalese journalist who has a
good mastery of the Senegal society and its challenges
and knows how to articulate it
Photo: www.nerrati.net
Photo: www.espace-martial.com/album/data/media/122/yekini6.JPG
Photo: www.dispatch.co.za/2007/11/23/Sport/aalead.html
Zambia
z Nelson Mandela – For his determination and politics
z Tupac Shakur – He spoke the truth
z President Kenneth Kaunda (former) – He fought for
Zambia and his HIV work
z Oprah Winfrey – Helps people and children
z President Rupiah Banda (RB) – The way he flies in his
plane, his command and his power.
z Pastor Angala – For the way he preaches and his comic
nature. He is a local pastor in Lusaka in the SDA church.
z Pastor John Carson – Would like to preach like him.
Senegal
z Didier Drogba – He is a talented football player
z Michael Jordan – He is a self made man; he started by
himself and has become somebody
z President Barack Obama – Charisma and personality
z Michael Jackson – just like that
z Akon – He is a superstar who is a Senegalese
z Zinadine Zidan – He is a talented football player
z Cheikh Anta Diop – He loved Africa very much and
wanted it to flourish
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa106
Nigeria
z Martin Luther King – He imparted a lot on humanity
z David Beckam – His football skills
z Ronaldo – His football skills
z Bill Gates – The fact that he dropped out inspires one
that they can drop out and still make it in life
z Didier Drogba – His football skills
z Ben Carson – His skill as a neurosurgeon and how he
has helped many
z Tupac Shakur – His inspiring music, his hard life
z Triple 8 – He is a boxer; his boxing style is admirable
z Femi Kuti – Took over his father’s legend and was able
to sustain it
He is the son of the legendary
Fela Kuti, a Nigerian Afrobeat
singer. He is considered a role
model for having taken over his
father’s legacy and managing
to successfully build on it. He
is a twice Grammy nominated
musician who also is committed
to social and political causes in
his country.
Jim Iyke, is considered a role
model for his acting skills. He
has a degree in philosophy and
after trying to find a job for a long
time landed in acting. Apart from
Nigerian movies, he has done
some international movies. He
also has a foundation that helps
children with special needs.
Yinka Quadri is a Nigerian actor,
director and producer of great
repute.
Genevieve Nnaji, 31 is an
actress, model and singer in
Nigeria. She has won many
awards in her acting career and
is one of Nollywood’s best paid
actors. She also started her own
clothing label ‘St.Genevieve’
in 2005. She was considered a
role model because she acts well and speaks fluently. She is
also considered to have a unique dressing style.
Funke Akindele 34, is a
Nigerian actress. She has
also written and directed
some Yoruba films. She was
considered a role model
because she takes on roles
that ‘make sense’.
Wole Soyinka is
perhaps Nigeria’s best
known author, poet
and playwright. He
was the first African to
be awarded the Nobel
Prize for literature
in 1986. He is also a
UNESCO Goodwill ambassador. He is considered a role model
because of his life story and his style of writing.
Photo: passionweis.com
Photo: ghananation.com
Photo: izognmovies.com
Photo: izognmovies.com
Photo: odili.netPhoto: hornbillunleashed.wordpress.com
z Wole Soyinka – Love the way he writes and the story
of his life
z Jim Iyke – The way he acts
z Yinka Quadri – an actor and producer
z Genevieve – The highest paid local actress
z Funke Akindele – actress
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Omotola Jalade- Ekiende
is a famous Nigerian
actress and singer. She is
married with four children
and is involved in charity
work. Apart from her
acting skills, she was also
considered a role model
for her dressing style and
the way that she sings and
dances
Joke Silva has been acting for
the last three decades. She has
acted on stage, television, radio
and film in Nigeria, England
and south of France. She is
also involved in advocating for
women’s and children’s issues.
She was considered a role model
because of her acting skill and also for the way that she
expresses herself.
Aliko Dangote – For impacting
a lot by providing jobs
Alhaj Aliko Dangote was
chosen as a role model for the
way he has created jobs for
many people. He is the CEO/
president of the Dangote
Group which is the largest industrial company in Nigeria
with interests in sugar, cement, salt, pasta, poly products,
oil, gas, real estate, beverages and telecommunications. He
is reputed to be the third richest person of African descent
in the world.
Photo: nairaland.com
Photo: sunnewsonline.com
Photo: thenewafricantimes.com
z Omutola Jolade – She is an actress
z Joke Silva – actress
z Aliko Dangote – For impacting a lot by providing jobs
The youth interviewed were asked to describe any
young people they know in their community or country
that have made a difference in one way or another. Most
youth across the countries struggled to find relevant local
examples that they could share; the mentions were either
of people who do not qualify as ‘young’, of international
personalities far removed from the realities of life on the
local scene, or of people who have accrued some personal
financial success but not necessarily done anything to
inspire or support the community. This implies that young
people in Africa could be lacking relevant local role models
that they can relate to. The few examples of young people
making a difference on the local scene were as follows:
Cynthia Kanema Zambia Super Model
An 18-21 year old Lusaka
female said that Cynthia had
achieved a lot as a model and
was also helping up coming
models. According to her
website profile, Cynthia was
Miss Zambia 2003 to 2005.
In 2004 she was Miss Africa
International. Presently she is
the Executive Producer of the
popular reality show, Cynthia
Kanema’s Search for Zambia’s
Super Model. She is also the
executive Director of True Ebony Achievements and the CEO
of True Ebony productions. She is also a spokeswoman for
Cervical Cancer in Zambia Programme.
(http://www.cynthiakanema.com)
Esther Phiri 23, female light weight boxer
A 22-25 year
old Lusaka male
mentioned Esther
because she has
managed to get
i n t e r n a t i o n a l
belts. Recently in
the news, Esther
defeated brazilian
Duda Yankovich to
get her sixth title; WIBA welter weight world title. She also
has held other world and intercontinental titles in the welter
weight and feather weight categories.
Former president Levi Mwanawasa once praised her for
succeeding regardless of obstacles and challenges that
Photo: http://www.women.sanook.com
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Perceptions
In order to establish what youth think of themselves
and by extension how society perceives the youth, the
respondents were asked to discuss some of the things
they like and dislike about their age. Generally across the
different age sets, youth seem to acknowledge that they
have a lot of energy, and that they are at the point in their
lives where they have a lot of potential to explore, develop
and prove themselves at whatever opportunities exist.
Since they are young, there is also room to make mistakes,
learn from them and / or take corrective measures.
The youth also like that by virtue of their youthful
nature, this is an age where they can have a lot of fun –
partying, traveling, exploring other hobbies and talents
such as sports, without the limitations of the later years
of life e.g. children and spouses, which come with certain
responsibilities. In Kenya for example some rural female
youth (22-25) acknowledged that they had been forced to
grow up too fast as a result of having had children at an early
age and therefore could not express similar enthusiasm for
their youthfulness as could the single and childless youth.
Independence and certain freedoms associated with
attaining legal status is also quite appreciated by many
youth. They said that they like being able to make their own
decisions on a day to day basis e.g. those who are already
living on their own, either studying or working. There is
said to be less parental interference and control especially
for those living on their own. The younger youth 14-17 and
also some of the 18-21 females however complain of too
much parental control though they also acknowledge that
it is because their parents are afraid and don’t want them
to make costly mistakes. Some of the ways in which their
parents impose restrictions is through things like curfews,
demanding to know where they are going, with whom and
for what purpose; also being forbidden to have boyfriends
/ girlfriends at certain ages. Despite the youth being happy
about the freedom and independence that come with age,
Emmanuel Mbola 16 year old footballer Totenham Hotspurs FC England
A 22-25 yr old Lusaka
male said that
Emmanuel had set
an example to the
Zambian youth and
given hope that they
could also make it in
football. Born in 1993
in Kabwe, Emmanuel
began playing with the
Mining Rangers in 2007
and moved to Zanaco
FC the next where he
played for a year. From
2009 to early this year
he played in Armenia for Pyunic Yerevun. In February 2010 he
joined Totenham Hotspur FC as a leftback in a million pound
deal. He also plays for the national team and is considered
one of Africa’s most promising talents.
(http://www.daylife.com/topic/Emmanuel_Mbola)
were in her way. Esther’s father died when she was a young
child forcing the family into hard times. She lived with her
grandmother in a low income area in Lusaka helping her to
sell groceries and second hand clothes. She dropped of school
at grade six and became a mother at the age of sixteen. She
got involved in a youth centred HIV awareness project started
by an NGO that was combining health education with sport.
Despite being mocked she got into boxing where her talent
was soon revealed. She was soon training with a professional
boxer.
Due to her success, she, her daughter and grandmother now
live in a middle income house and she is now finishing her
education. She is now a household name and she encourages
women to join the sport.
(http://www.wban.org/biog/ephiri.htm)
Photo: http://www.women.sanook.com
Photo: http://www.ukzambians.co.uk
“There is a young man who usedto work as a coach for a junior soccer
team until he lost his job. Even when thismeant that he also lost his livelihood
it didn’t discourage him as he returned tocoach the boys again without a salary.
Some of his boys now representthe country at the under 17s level.”
Male 14-17, Johannesburg South Africa
“I like it because I can still decidewhat I want to be as opposed to anolder
person who is already say a teacher. I can still decide that I want to be
a Psychologist in 5 years time, you canstill be whatever you want to be…”
Male 14-17, Johannesburg South Africa
Nokia Research Center
109
some of them, particularly the older ones are also conscious
of the responsibilities that come with this and express fear
of making wrong decisions that could easily have a great
impact on their future. They therefore somewhat dislike
attaining age of legal status as a result.
Youth in the older age sets also like being recognized
as mature enough to be consulted and give their opinion
on important family issues as compared to the younger
ones who are not required to actively participate in such
issues. Some however feel that they are still not being
given enough room to contribute and are instead often
seen as too young and too inexperienced hence would
not add much value in any given situation. Others also feel
that certain things are kept from them as they are deemed
not to be mature enough to handle difficult situations;
the parents tend to want to shelter them. Some youth are
happy about the fact that they are still young enough to
benefit from parental care where all their needs are taken
care of as compared to the older youth (22-25) who are at
a stage where they basically have to fend for themselves
Other dislikes of being young particularly for the
younger age set 14-17 is peer pressure and difficulty in
“I think we are exposed to too muchthings and we end up making
bad choices. Right now we need to beworking hard to secure our futuresinstead of just being exited about
weekends, and being promiscuous.”
Female 22-25, Johannesburg, South Africa
“As for me I am 14 years. I like that because life is too short.Yes it is good to be 23 years and
have more freedom but there are also challenges. You will have to face your
problems alone without theassistance of your parents.
This is where life becomes hard. For that reason I would like to remain a child of 14 to 16 years so that my
parents can care for me and provide me with whatever I want.”
Male 14-17 Saly, Senegal
coping or interacting with the opposite sex. They are afraid
of teenage pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, drugs
and alcohol abuse. Some of them also express difficulty
in coping with physiological changes associated with
adolescence and puberty. A few girls in Kwale, Kenya were
however excited at the prospect of these changes as they
signify a move from childhood to womanhood. Similarly
in Senegal these changes were received very positively
as it made the youth feel more physically attractive to the
opposite sex.
Society has both positive and negative perceptions
of the youth. In terms of positives, there are places in
Africa where the older generation generally depend on
the youth in terms of livelihood and also as the hope for
a better future hence tend to lay a lot of emphasis on the
importance of the youth in getting an education. There are
therefore various initiatives and efforts that have come up
in the recent years by governments, other development
organizations and communities related to education and
livelihoods so as to help and uplift the youth. It appears
however that these initiatives are yet to have the desired
impact on the youth as a whole given that the reach is
limited hence not all the youth have equitable access. Also
much as the youth appreciate the efforts being directed
towards them in terms of education and livelihoods, they
sometimes feel stressed and overwhelmed due to the high
expectations and demands for them to do well. In Zambia
for example some youth were reported to be constantly
‘angry’ at their parents who keep on pushing them for
high academic performance; they sometimes feel that it’s
the parents who have more to gain from it than they do
hence why they push them so hard. There is generally a
contradiction or irony of sorts in terms of what the society
expects of the youth and the hope that they have vested
in the youth for the future versus the current status quo
where the older generation keeps holding on to livelihood
opportunities rather than make room for the youth as
discussed in the chapter on livelihoods. In addition older
adults are also said on many ocassions to dismiss the youth
as too young and inexperienced hence never really giving
them a chance to make any important contributions. Many
youth feel that they are hardly given a chance to participate
in any meaningful development and decision making at
various levels. However some Key Informants also pointed
out that youth are not always proactive in seeking the
opportunities to participate or contribute.
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa110
Based on discussions with both the youth
respondents and Key Informants, it is apparent that society
is also not sustainably preparing the youth for future life
in a holistic manner. There is much more focus on getting
the youth educated and employed so as to earn a good
living and uplift the whole society out of poverty than
there is on other things of significant importance to the
personal development and growth of the youth. The youth
are therefore still lacking in other ‘softer’ aspects of their
personal growth and development such as sexual and
reproductive health issues, general platforms for open, free
communication and self-expression, development and
nurturing of creative skills and talents, assertiveness, among
others. Some initiatives exist or are coming up but they are
few and far between and many are still on a macro level;
they fail to address the young individual needs at a more
local level. For example some young people complain that
their parents are unable to discuss sex and reproductive
health issues with them hence they have to find other
ways of getting this information often through the media
which is not always sufficient, consistent or relevant to their
situations. Advertisements on HIV/AIDs prevention are
sometimes confusing and contradictory in the eyes of the
youth. There are those championing abstinence, others
promoting safe sex through use of condoms while on the
other hand there are various TV and Radio programs which
explicitly or by implication promote irresponsible sexual
behaviour. What should they follow? The life skills and
orientation programmes recently introduced in schools
are also yet to have the desired effectiveness and impact
in terms of the topics covered, the methods of delivery, and
the instructors who most youth are unable to relate to.
There are also those youth who because of early
parenthood and marriage are expected by society to
conduct themselves in a certain way and not conform to
youthful practices or indulge in youth activities. These
youth especially girls are therefore expected to grow up
very fast, rather than at their own pace; many feel burdened
by these expectations and are forced to miss out on ‘youth’
life.
Youth and Health
Young people today face many health-related
challenges. Some of the health problems youth face are
teenage pregnancies, abortion, STIs and HIV/AIDS, teenage
marriage, Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), lack of family
planning services, lack of reproductive health services
and education among others. Persistent behavioral risks,
poor basic sanitation, and new and emerging diseases are
contributing to a deadly mix that is changing the classic
picture of a healthy youth. Particularly, adolescents in the Sub-
Saharan region have low family planning utilization rates and
limited knowledge about RH and services, and they account
for a higher proportion of the region’s new HIV infections,
maternal mortality ratios, and unmet need for RH information
and services (Population Reference Bureau, 2000). These
circumstances can be attributed to a number of social, cultural,
economic, and gender-related factors, many of which are
avoidable problems. The youth population is burgeoning in
some countries, and in these areas and elsewhere adolescents
are confronting new situations and threats to their present
health, moving towards a future in which their health status is
likely to be compromised.
The needs of young people are not homogenous
or universal. Young people are mothers, students and sex
workers. They are injection drug users and prison inmates.
Young people have varying sexualities, lifestyles and
definitions of the family. Young people living with HIV are
studying, working, having sex and planning families. This
“The current youth in Zambiaare very passive and that also makes it
harder for adults to create space because we don’t demand and ask why are we left out in things like community development, so other people just think that the youth
have no business in such.” Key Informant, Lusaka, Zambia
“There are both positive andnegative perceptions but the negative
perceptions outshine the positive ones. Like they don’t think that youth need information, youth need to take care of themselves. They
just simply send them to school and that’s all. But they have specific needs that require much attention in order to produce a fruitful genera-tion. So people don’t think that they need to be treated properly, they think that sending them to school is enough, no other things.”
Key Informant, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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therefore calls for a need to design policies and programs
that are most relevant and effective at addressing their
varying needs.
Country by country summaries of youth
reproductive health statistics in the countries of study are
as follows:
Kenya
According to Kenya’s National Youth Policy
(2006), the youth face a myriad of health related
problems, including widespread malaria, malnutrition,
HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs),
drug and substance abuse as well as poor access to
health services. The HIV/AIDS pandemic, among other
diseases, has continued to negatively impact on the
health of the youth. More than 75% of people infected
with AIDS are aged 20 to 45 years. About 33% of all
AIDS cases reported are of those aged 15-30. According
to Kenya AIDS Indicators Survey 2007, women aged
15-24 years are 4 times more likely than their male
counterparts to be infected with HIV (6.1% compared
to 1.5%). A higher proportion of Kenyans aged 30-34
years are currently infected with HIV than in any other
age category. According to Kenya Demographic Health
Survey 2003, almost half of young women have sex by
the time they turn 18. And more than one in ten (13%)
have sex by the time they are 15. Young women start
having sex at an earlier age. Sixty% have sex by age
18, and a quarter has sex by age 15. However, these
statistics show that young people are waiting longer to
start having sex than they did five years ago.
Almost a quarter of young Kenyan women
(age 15-19) are either pregnant with their first child
or already mothers. Teenage motherhood has risen
in recent years (Figure 7). Among young women aged
20-24, 4% are married by age 15, while 25% do so by
age 18. Almost half are married by age 20. Men get
married at a later age than women; among men aged
20-24, less than 3% are married by age 18 and only 6%
are married by age 20. Most young women do not use
any method of contraception. Only 17 percent of 20-
24 year olds use a modern method of family planning.
Young married women are less likely to use a method
of contraception than their unmarried, sexually active
peers. Less than 2% of young women use male
condoms.
Figure 7: Adolescent births per 1000 women in Kenya
Ethiopia
Youth aged 10 to 24 comprise about 35 percent of
Ethiopia’s population (Population Reference Bureau, 2008).
Ensuring their health and future is vital to the nation. Ethiopia
has made progress in improving youth’s health. However, young
women still suffer high rates of maternal injury and death due
to childbirth without skilled assistance and unsafe abortion.
Persistent gender inequalities and traditional harmful practices,
including FGM and child marriage, contribute to these significant
health challenges.
In 2006, an Ethiopian Ministry of Health AIDS report
estimated that AIDS accounts for 34% of all the deaths of young
people aged 15-49 years. A community based verbal autopsy
conducted at the BRHP in 2000 attributed 8.5% of all deaths in
the highlands, 4.8% in the lowlands and 11.3% of all deaths in
the urban areas to AIDS (Lulu et al., 2005). There is however a
significant decline in HIV prevalence amongst youth under the
age of 20 years. In this group the HIV prevalence was estimated
at 13.7% in 2006 in comparison to 15.9% in 2005. HIV prevalence
in the 20-24 year age-group in 2006 (28%) had also decreased in
comparison to 2005 (30.6%). A decline in prevalence in the age
group 15–24 years is suggestive of a decline in the incidence
(new infections). These statistics suggest a sustained change
in behavior among young people including engaging in safer
sexual practices such as being in mutually faithful relationships
(UNGASS, 2007).
The health status of youth is similar to that of the rest of the
society. And it is described in relation to the country’s economic,
social and cultural situation. The health coverage, which was
30% in the past decade, has now reached 61%. It would however
be difficult to say that the youth health services coverage has
increased at the desired type, quantity and standard, as is the
(Source: World development indicators database 2009 athttp://go.worldbank.org/KGT2YR91F0)
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa112
case with rest of the population. In particular, the failure to
bring about attitudinal and behavioral changes in society
regarding personal hygiene and environmental sanitation
has remained to be a major challenge. The figure below
presents the adolescents births per 1000 women since 2000
to 2007.
Figure 8: Adolescent births per 1000 women in Ethiopia
Limited reproductive health services and information
and education dissemination services are being rendered
through governmental organizations and Non Government
Organizations (NGOs). It is however impossible to assume
that adequate services are being rendered. Moreover, the
services do not specifically focus on youth. Nor are they
easily accessible in terms of time and place.
Adolescents may also experience resistance or
even hostility and bad attitudes from adults when they
attempt to obtain the RH information and services they
need. They therefore may be at increased risk of sexually
transmitted infections (STIs), HIV, unintended pregnancy,
and other health consequences. For women aged 15 to
19, complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and unsafe
abortion are the major causes of death. Young people aged
15 to 24 have the highest rates of sexually transmitted
infections (STIs), including HIV and AIDS.
South Africa
About ten percent (10.2%) of all young people aged
15-24 years are infected with HIV in South Africa. Although
there is significant use of condoms among the youth, there
is lack of consistency which exposes them to the risk of
HIV infection. Women have roughly 3 times the prevalence
of HIV compared to their male counterparts. Nearly 1 in 4
women aged 20-24 years in South Africa is infected with HIV
compared to roughly 1 in 14 males of the same age. Among
the 10% of South African youth who are HIV positive, 77% are
women (RHRU, 2009). Pregnancy is not uncommon among
sexually experienced young women with 33% of 15-19 year
old and 59% of 20- 24 year old sexually experienced women
reporting ever having been pregnant. However, the rate
seems to decrease since 2000 as shown in Figure 9 below:
Figure 9: Adolescents births per 1000 women in S. Africa
The youth have become more open about their
sexuality, and although contraceptive use is generally high
among teenagers, the use is inconsistent (RHRU, 2009).
Overall, the contraceptive prevalence was 60% in 2004 as
indicated below. The youth continue to be faced with lack
of information especially on matters such as pregnancy,
STDs, sexual intercourse and relationships.
Figure 10: Contraceptive use in South Africa
(Source: World development indicators database 2009 at http://go.worldbank.org/KGT2YR91F0)
(Source: World development indicators database 2009 at http://go.worldbank.org/KGT2YR91F0)
(Source: World development indicators database 2009 at http://go.worldbank.org/KGT2YR91F0)
Nokia Research Center
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Zambia
Most young people in Zambia have been affected
by the HIV pandemic. This is because a lot of young people
have lost bread winners as a result of HIV/AIDS while others
are infected. In 2002, 7.7% of young people aged 15-24
years were living with HIV. In 2005, there was decrease in
condom use among young people with females accounting
38% from 40% in 2003 while for the males it decreased
from 35% in 2003 to 26% in 2005. 43.5% of young men and
women aged 15-24 years could correctly identify ways of
preventing HIV and reject major misconceptions about the
transmission (Zambia UNGASS, 2005).
The figure below shows that youth aged 15-19 years
are becoming mothers at a higher rate. Although the rate
has been coming down since 2000, the rates are still high.
Figure 11: Adolescent births per 1000 women in Zambia
Senegal
Senegal is often regarded as a model in HIV prevention.
Experts claim that HIV prevalence remains under 1% in
adults partially due to the country’s early legalization of sex
work, advocacy on HIV prevention from religious leaders
and universal male circumcision. However, concentrated
rates of infection amongst marginalized populations such as
sex workers (30% prevalence), women (1.7%), and men who
have sex with men (MSM) (21.5%) continue to rise. Many of
these people are Senegal’s youth. 55.6% of Senegal’s total
population is under the age of 20 (Senegal UNGASS, 2008)
Accurate knowledge of HIV transmission is very low
among Senegalese young people, at 22.7%, far from the
UNGASS target of 90% by 2005 and 95% by 2010. This is
largely due to the extremely low rates of secondary school
attendance by young people, primarily due to unaffordable
school fees. In Senegal, young people are still barely visible
in programming and policy making, either as beneficiaries
of services, or as active contributors. In addition, strides
to promote safe sex among sex workers have failed to
recognize the prevalence of illegal underage sex workers,
whose covert lifestyles bar them from accessing sexual and
reproductive health services and information. Moreover,
condom promotion in Senegal does not take into account
the socioeconomic and cultural reality of gender inequality.
In the 2005 Senegal DHS, only about 5% of young women
between the ages of 15 to 24 indicated that they used a
condom with a regular partner, compared to approximately
50% of young men in the same age group.
Young people in Senegal have a mixed level of
understanding of HIV transmission. Data show that 88%
of the young people understand that being faithful to
one partner who is HIV negative can reduce the risk of HIV
transmission, and 71.1% of them think that the condoms
are an appropriate alternative. Statistics shows that young
people ages 15-19 are less likely to use a condom than 20-
24 year olds. However, there are still false beliefs among
young people. Indeed, 62.8% of young people believe
that mosquito bites can transmit the HIV virus. Out of all
Senegalese, young men (41.7%) and young women (37.4%)
are most likely to have misinformation about HIV. 4% of
Senegalese youth believe that witchcraft or supernatural
means are the root cause of HIV infection. The HIV testing
rates are low since 0.7% of Senegalese 15-19 year old have
undergone an HIV test while 0.8% of 20-24 year olds, and
1.4% of 25- 49 year olds have gone for a test. 80% of those
tested received their results (UNGASS, 2008).
(Source: World development indicators database 2009 at http://go.worldbank.org/KGT2YR91F0)
“Yes they have adequate access but there areissues of youth friendliness…There is this aspect
of service providers. For instance if a young person walks into a health facility suspecting they have
an STI they want to be screened, you know the first thing the nurse will say to them is ‘you are naughty, why do you want to be treated? So you have been
having sex?’ So you see just that judgementalattitude from the service providers makes the
young people to shun the health facilities.Others think that traditional healers are better at the service because they know they will not be
judged there. So I think that is the onlymajor issue that the country needs to address.”
Key Informant, Lusaka, Zambia
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa114
Nigeria
With a rate of 112 births per 1,000 females aged 15
to 19 in 2009, Nigerian adolescents have one of the highest
levels of fertility in the world. About 12 per cent of teenagers
have their first baby before the age of 15 and almost half
become mothers before they reach 20. The total fertility
rate is 5.8 with only 8 per cent of married women aged
15–49 practicing family planning (Population Reference
Bureau, 2009). 19 per cent of all girls have been subjected
to female genital mutilation while the population living
with HIV/AIDS (aged 15–49) is 3.9 per cent (UNDP Human
Development Report 2007/2008)
Between 43% and 53% of youths are sexually active,
most lacking adequate information and services to promote
and protect their reproductive health. There is also the rapid
rate of increase of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), HIV
and AIDS. Youths are the most vulnerable to infection and
to inadequate care and treatment. Although the number of
births per 1000 women among the adolescents has been
decreasing, the numbers are still high. Figure 12 below
presents this:
Figure 12: Adolescents births per 1000 women in Nigeria
Table 16: Health statistics of Senegal
Total Population 12,400,000
Population of young people (10-24yrs) 4.1 million
Prevalence of HIV (15-24yrs) 0.7% male, 0.9% female
Prevalence of HIV (15-49yrs) 0.7%
Physicians per 100,000 people 6
(Source: Population Reference Bureau, 2007)
“The health structure is too expensivein Senegal. Those in the formal sector are deducted some amount of money in case they fall sick they can go to hospital but
these are very few. There are only 20% of the Senegalese population so what about
the rest who have to take care ofthemselves having in mind that they
have no monthly salary?”
Key Informant, Dakar, Senegal
“People talk too much of AIDS, diabetesand other diseases. But the disease
that kills the majority of Sengalese peopleis Malaria. That is how it is in Senegal.When the child’s body feels excessivelywarm or hot parents say it is because of
our normal hot climate. So they delay and will find out when the malaria is in advancedstages. This is when they rush the child
to the hospital. Because of that we find thatthey reach there when the child is very tired
and most of the time the child dies”
Key Informant, Dakar, Senegal
“Media is doing quite well whenit comes to adverts on AIDS.
The government is trying but they are not doing enough because the drugs and condoms should be available and cheap. I don’t think it is that cheap.”
Key Informant, Lagos Nigeria
(Source: World development indicators database 2009
at http://go.worldbank.org/KGT2YR91F0)
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Background
The Mobile Clinic is an outreach activity held by
the Likoni Youth Community Centre (LYCC) which is a
program that runs under the LICODEP (Likoni Community
Development Programme). LICODEP began as an umbrella
organization of youth groups in Likoni with the objective
of reducing poverty and enhancing access to basic human
needs and respect for human rights envisioning “a poverty
free society enjoying basic human rights”
LYCC is supported by USAID under the Aphia II Coast
Program. Their mission is to increase the access of sexual
reproductive health information and VCT services to the
youth.
Services Offered
LYCC is led by a vibrant team of young, qualified
volunteers and staff capable of conducting youth-friendly
strategies to optimally serve the youth. It enjoys the support of
development partners, the local administration and the entire
Likoni community. LYCC offers peer counseling, provides free
library services, VCT services, community and magnet theatre
drama outreach, youth festivals, recreational activities and
picnics. It also offers psycho-social support and care for HIV
positive youth to teach them how to live comfortably and as a
way of fighting stigma and discrimination in the community.
As a matter of principle, LYCC advocates
for abstinence from sex and encourages positive
(responsible) behaviour change amongst the youth as
a way of addressing HIV/AIDS and drug abuse. These
innovative approaches have restored confidence and
encouraged the youth to go for voluntary testing and
interact with others regardless of tribal and socio-
econimic differences.
The Mobile Clinic (Tuyazungumze)
LYCC has since inception had a positive impact
on young adults through “TUYAZUNGUMZE” (a Swahili
word for let’s talk about it) which is a mobilization
campaign targeting unemployed youth or school
droupouts. Its main objective is to empower the youth
with sufficient information on sexual/reproductive
health, life skills, guidance and counseling so as to
transform them into responsible global citizens.
Mobile Clinic is ‘magnet theatre’ conducted
regularly in Kisauni and Likoni areas so to sensitize
and reach out to the youth (10-25yrs) and the general
community on health issues. This is an interactive
drama where audience is invited to participate and
add to the dialogue. The goal is to encourage people
to participate in voluntary testing of HIV and/or bring
their children for malaria vaccination. The vaccines are
Volunteers finish setting up one of the mobile clinic tents for free VCT services
Reaching out to the Youth with Mobile Clinic Heath Services through the Arts in Kisauni, Kenya
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa116
offered at a heavily subsidized price. It seems therefore that
indeed Malaria, HIV and drug abuse are the major health
challenges facing the youth in the area as shared by Key
Informants and youth respondents interviewed in the
study.
We meet with part of the team (in a UN van) at the
Likoni ferry at around 2:30 pm. There is a regional office
near there where the youth volunteers are waiting for the
van. They one by one come carrying the equipment for
the day which includes speakers, tents, a PA system, music,
medical supplies and gifts. Each of them seems to know
their role and they work as a team. The youth volunteers
male and female are 18-25 years old. They are paid an
allowance for these outreache exercises and this helps
them to meet their needs. Kate who is the secretary of one
of the youth CBOs and also a youth representative in the
community aids committee tells us that she has studied
business management but meanwhile volunteers, hoping
to build her CV in the process. By their dressing they seem
to belong to the ‘Chanukaad’ group since although the
area residents are wearing lessos over their dresses, the girl
volunteers are mostly dressed in jeans and t-shirts. One girl
is even wearing her jeans with a hijab. As soon as everything
is in the van all the volunteers get in and we drive to the
venue. By 3:00pm we are at Kisauni. The houses in the area
are middle to low income some constructed with cement
blocks while others from mud and stone. The selected site
is in the middle of a small junction where several paths
meet. As soon as we get there each of the youth volunteers
get into their role. As some of them fix tents others work
on the PA system, some put up the banners as the nurses
(who are hired for the day) get their medical facility ready.
Only little children quickly run to the place immediately
we arrive but soon older people stream in one by one,
especially when the music is turned on and the MCs
start to make announcements. The event officially kicks
off at around 3.30 pm in the heart of Kisauni area with
2 MCs, DJs and other staff from the LICODEP program.
The show if done in the morning is scheduled for around
9:00 am because by 11:30 am the women will have to
go home to cook. In the afternoon the show is at 3:00
pm and ends by 5:30 pm for the same reason. There is
a group of young men who are playing a game of chess
around a bench nearby. For a while they seem unmoved
by the hullabaloo but as the activities get intense they
too start participating. There are also young men who
are busy hawking merchandise on wheelbarrows in the
neighborhood. The girls and women appear to be more
than the men in the crowd although the girls (probably
in their teenage to 20s) try to hide themselves in the
crowd as much as possible while still trying to get the jist
of the event. The MCs keep talking about the main goal
of the event which is to provide medical services. Every
so often they remind the crowd about the medical tents
and try to convince the people to visit them. The youth
volunteers have various talents in arts and drama and are
acquiring skills in community mobilization. They worked
as a team, some emceeing, others going out along the
paths distributing pamphlets and others manning the
tents. There are two tents for those who require medical
assistance. One is for those who wish to be tested for HIV
while the other is for dispensing dewormer medication
at KES 20 (EUR 0.2). The VCT is free. Other consultation
charges are KES 100 (EUR 1) for adults and KES 50 (EUR
0.5) for children. Towards the end of the event the
consultation costs are lowered, perhaps to encourage
more people to take advantage of the medical services
before closing.
Mobile Health Clinic: Truly well-rehearsed and synchronized; not a step or a beat out of place.
Mobile Health Clinic: Children from the neighbourhood crowd around to watch the action
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and medical care can do so discreetly. This works quite well
because although the exact numbers of turnout are not
yet released by close of day, we are told that overall a good
number of people have made use of the VCT services. There
is even an incident of one teenager (who had earlier been in
the crowd) taking a test and another girl tries to peep into
the tent but is told off by the nurse. Past statistics of those
who made use of the medical facilities are however availed
and they are as follows:
Likoni outreach:
No. of Clients Attended = 28 (Male 13, Female 15)
No. of Youth 10-24yrs = 18 (Male 8, Female 10)
Kisauni outreach:
No. of Clients Attended = 14 (Male 6, Female 8)
No. of youth 10-24yrs = 9 (Male 4, Female 5)
VCT Clients Tested (19-29yrs) = 21 (Male 6, Female 15)
No. tested Positive = 1 (Male 1, Female 0)
Tuyazungumze emerges as a launching pad for young
aspiring artists (wasanii) who use every available opportunity
to showcase their talent, ready to be criticized or cheered by a
free audience. The crowds are on the whole fairly controlled
and civil. In typical Coastal hospitality, the hosts offer us
front row (VIP) seating which the crowds respect. Pushing
and shoving is minimal and children sit in one area. There are
no incidents of theft, pickpocketing, bullying or hooliganism
typically experienced in similar events in Nairobi. Overall,
this drive is quite an effective and creative way of assembling
the youth, communicating and tackling pertinent social and
health issues affecting them. It also turns out to be a forum
for youth expression.
The DJ and MCs run the show with dancing
competitions, talent search, dance routines as well as
performances from the crowds. The competitions range
from chakacha (Swahili dance), to bongo (Tanzanian
music genre) and hiphop perfomances among others.
The crowds throng by the hour with approximately 200-
300 people in attendance of mixed ages and gender.
Throughout majority of the audience is female. This
is probably because most of them are idle – many are
housewives or altogether unemployed. Many of them
are also accompanied by children, an indication of the
high rate of early marriage, motherhood or teenage
pregnancies at the Coast.
The show nurtures local young talent as evidenced
by the dance competition and displays. The audience
determines who wins (a soda). There are separate
competitions for the boys and girls. One can tell that
the girls are quite shy as it takes a lot of convincing and
pushing for them to go up and dance. The women are
called upon to display their dance and chakacha talent
but they seem content to just watch by the side lines.
One young woman keeps coming on to the arena and
shying off due to the boos by the multitude. Clearly she
wants to dance but something is holding her back. The
younger girls have no such inhibitions however. The
younger the girls therefore, the less shy they are and
the more accepted they are by the audience as dancers.
At some point the woman who wants to dance joins a
group of younger girls in the competition and the boys/
men seated behind us take serious offence. “Anajipa
huyu” they say, meaning the young woman is throwing
herself at the men. They keep shouting at her to leave
the dance floor. They seemingly interpret her behavior
as that of a loose woman. This is because culturally,
Swahili/Islam’s partriarchal tendencies condemn
females and therefore restrict them from public self-
expression. In stark contrast, her female counterparts
cheer her on with admiration as they long to do the
same but are not brave enough. Eventually she is forced
to shyly run away from the dance floor.
When invited to participate, the boys are more
outgoing than the girls. The boys have their own CD
and they every so often tell the DJ which track they
want played. The idea behind all the entertainment
is to keep the crowd occupied so that whoever wants
to secretly sneak into one of the tents for HIV testing
Mobile Health Clinic: Magnetic theatre at its best
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Chapter Five | Media and Communication
ICTs include a range of technologies and facilitate
communication, processing and transmission of
information by electronic means. Both traditional
ICTs, such as conventional radio, landline telephones,
newspapers, TV and libraries, and modern or new,
ICTs such as mobile phones, computers, internet and
fax, have defined the youth life of today where they
continue to access variety of information. As ICTs
are by definition a means of communication and
information sourcing and manipulation, it is important
to include traditional information source institutions,
such as libraries and post offices, in areas where the
general level of access to ICT is still growing. Libraries
are often well placed and accessible for members of
the community, forming logical deployment points for
ICT facilities.
The use of information and communication
technologies (ICT) is skyrocketing. Notwithstanding
the immense diversity in living environments, an
unprecedented and unifying global media culture
has developed that challenges and often surpasses such
traditional forms of socialization as family and school. This
complex cultural situation has been called the informational
age, while others prefer the term techno-culture or techno-
capitalism, global media culture, or simply globalization. The
idea behind all these terms is that across the globe, ICTs are
playing a central role in young people’s lives and in society
at large (Beck, 2002). The assumptions that underlie the role
of ICT is that one, the proliferation of these technologies is
causing rapid transformations in all areas of life and two, ICT
function to unify and standardize culture. It is on the basis of
these assumptions that the term “media culture”, incorporating
the phenomena of globalization came into play.
In the world of young people, the media are saturated
by popular culture and penetrate politics, the economy, leisure
time and education. Media culture is pervasive; its messages
are an important part of the everyday lives of young people,
and their daily activities are structured around media use.
The stories and images in the media become important tools
for identity construction (Willis, 2000). A pop star provides a
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model for clothing and other style choices, and language
used by a cartoon character becomes a key factor in the
street credibility of young people. Under the present
circumstances, there are few places left in the world where
one might escape the messages and meanings embedded
in the televised media culture. The emergence of digitalized
communication and the commoditization of culture have
significantly altered the conditions under which life and
culture are experienced. Although conversing with one
another through face-to-face is still a favorite of many
especially those who live in a close-knit local environment,
digital communication is gradually undermining this
traditional approach. Mobile phones, TV, radio, film,
magazines, music, commercial dance, style, fashion, and
commercial leisure venues are the major realignments.
World media landscape for children and youth
immediately presents two opposing themes: opportunities
and risks. For example, globalization of media brings
opportunities to broaden children’s outlooks and provide
more equal access to information, but it also threatens
cultural identification and values. Technological advances
bring the promise of new skills and greater youth
participation in society, but also increase the risk of child
exploitation and informational divides.
Mobile Phones
Mobile phones introduce a range of new possibilities
for social networking and communication, media use and
production, political activism, as well as education. Young
people in South Africa have adopted a range of innovative
communicative practices, notably those which exploit
low-cost mobile applications, as well as a growing host
of rich-media and Internet-based applications. Mobile
phones have long surpassed traditional landlines as the
most common voice communication technology. This
is particularly due to the marked growth in new mobile
phone users in most developing countries (Feldmann,
2003). In South Africa, a country still trying to escape its
legacy of dramatic racial inequalities, mobiles have enjoyed
spectacular growth over the past decade, with more than
60% of all South Africans above the age of 16 already
owning a phone themselves (RIA, 2009). Mobile phones
provide access to personal communication to millions who
were previously marginalized especially in the rural areas.
The high usage patterns and expenditures on
conventional telephony are particularly surprising
given the low income levels that prevail in these areas.
Interpersonal communication is the most common use of
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phones, with most people making calls or sending SMS
messages on a typical day. Despite the near-universal use
of cell phones a significant minority do not own personal
handset. However, there is no significant difference in
phone usage patterns among this group who borrow
other peoples’ phones to communicate. The youth can
now access the Internet via their phones. The popularity
of Web access, instant messaging, Facebook, Twitter and
other web applications indicate the changes of traditional
media among the youth. In 2008 Kenya had more than
15.0 million mobile subscribers, with a mobile penetration
rate of 39%. The subscriber base is expected to rise to
29.28 million, or 66.7% penetration, by year-end 2013 (ICT
Newslog, 2009).
Mobile phone ownership and access
Majority of youth interviewed either had their own
mobile phone or access to one that belongs to a family
member such as parents, older siblings or other relatives
that they live with. In both rural and urban areas of study
almost all the youth in the older age sets owned a mobile
phone i.e. 18-21 and 22-25. Some of the younger ones in
some countries also had their own phones especially where
mobile phones are permitted in schools e.g. Senegal, South
Africa and Ethiopia. In Kenya mobile phones are strictly
prohibited in majority of schools hence even those who
own them can only use them outside of school. There
were also a few youth in Kwale, Kenya who were married
and were sharing a mobile phone with their spouses; more
often than not the husband would have the phone during
the day and the wives would access in the evening when
the husbands get home from work.
Youth acquire their phones in different ways.
Some are purchased for them as gifts from their parents.
Sometimes when older siblings or parents decide to
upgrade i.e. buy a new / better mobile phone the youth
also benefit as the older phones tend to be handed down
to them. Other youth on the other hand especially the
older ones 18-21 and 22-25, save over time or purposely do
some business or casual work so as to get enough money
to buy a mobile phone. Those who have regular forms
of employment are also able to afford their own mobile
phones. Generally owning a mobile phone is considered
to be quite important amongst the youth hence regardless
of socio-economic status, they all desire and strive to own
one. Owning a mobile phone means that they are able to
be constantly in touch with their social networks and are
simply able to ‘fit in’.
Most youth especially low to mid income youth
tend to own low end phones with limited features mainly
because they cannot afford to buy the more expensive
phones with more capabilities. A good number of youth
who own ‘high end’ phones admit that they are not genuine
hence why they were able to afford them. A few youth
said that they simply prefer to buy a cheap phone because
phone loss and theft is very common hence no point in
investing in a high end phone. It is close to impossible
to recover a lost mobile phone; there are limited tracking
possibilities hence the most one can do is to block the
phone using the IMEI so as to render it useless to whoever
has stolen it. Overall most youth who participated in the
study had Nokia handsets and expressed preference for the
same due to durability, simplicity and / or ease of use.
Mobile phone usage
In order to understand phone usage amongst the
youth, the respondents were asked to fill in a questionnaire
on the different features they have on their phones, which
ones they use or do not use, how often, which ones
they hardly use but would still like to keep and reasons
thereof, and features they would like to have in future.
Also incorporated were questions on unique or creative
ways that they have devised of using their phones as
well as anything they would particularly like to be able to
personalize on their phones. The following features were
discussed:
“Like there was this time that I wouldgo out with my friends and there is no
money, the clothes are almost worn out and I have no phone. So when you go out you
feel like the friends are looking down on you. As life went on, things got better
and I even saw their approach changed. The respect was back and they even
informed me everyday on the updates but when I had no phone I just had to look for
them wherever they would be.”
Male 22-25, Lusaka Zambia
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| Some say it is cheaper than voice calls
Other suggestions:
| See the person sending you the SMS
| Receive 3D messages
Some do not use it due to literacy challenges and
language (Amharic alphabet)
| Also limited use for those sharing phones or
borrowing from family member
Many youth have resorted to acquiring various SIM
cards from various operators so as to benefit from lower
tarrifs within certain networks and during certain times
of day. As such many youth desire to own mobile phones
with multi-SIM capabilities to avoid the hassle of changing
sims every time the need arises or having to acquire extra
handsets.
Internet:
Limited access – many young people’s phones do not
have the capability
| Many however desire to have this feature and use
it – get news and information from around the
world, and can send and receive mail.
Those with enabled phones (mainly urban for most
countries) use it daily or several times a day
| Mainly social usage – facebook and other social
networking sites and applications e.g. Mxit (very
popular in SA and recently launched in Kenya),
twitter,
| Young people spend a significant amount of time
on the internet – some can go to extremes of all
day (in cases where they are on school holidays)
or all night and forfeit their sleep.
| Also for content – downloading music and
ringtones. Some also for movies and video clips.
| Many prefer mobile internet as opposed to PC
internet – more accessible and convenient, not
as conscious about the cost as perhaps at a cyber
cafe or home internet solutions.
Voice Calls:
All have access
Many use it daily or several times a day
| Some say it is cheaper than SMS due to recently
reduced call charges; especially for very short
messages
| Main option for some due to language constraint
that is not enabling for SMS (Ethiopia – Amharic
alphabet)
Some use it less often due to cost and general
preference for SMS
| Some increased usage at night due to lower tariffs
| More use related to ‘important’ or more formal
calls as opposed to social calls
| Have devised creative ways of saving on credit
e.g. a tailor made morse code of sorts through
‘flashing’ or beeping
| Limited use for those sharing phones or
borrowing from family member
SMS:
All have access
Many use it daily or several times a day
| Very popular amongst youth especially amongst
their peers and social circles
| Have devised their own text messaging language
– helps save credit by cutting down on number
of characters e.g. Tuonane (Kiswahili for See you
later) would be written as 2O8 i.e. 2 (Tu) O (o) 8
(nane); 8 is nane in Kiswahili, Great would be GR8,
and G9T is goodnight. Other than saving on
credit it is also quite cool to use this language and
it enables faster texting.
“My friends and I have devised a way of communicating
without necessarily using our credit. If I get to campus I flash her once and then if she is there she will flash me back twice that way I know that she is also on campus and I seek her out…”
Female, Youth Insights Pre-Study, Kenya
“I would like to receive my text messages in 3D format”
18-21 Thies, Senegal
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| Some also desire mobile WiFi connections in
future – enjoy ‘free’ access where possible; some
operator connections are sometimes poor
| Those using family members’ phones are limited
to what they can use – usually limited to quick
voice calls and SMS to save on credit and time
spent with the phone. This also limits possibility
of learning how to use it.
Radio:
Most have access
| Many of those who don’t have the feature desire
to have it in future
Most listen daily or for long durations at particular
times of the day
| Commuting, doing chores, relaxing after school
or work, during breaks at school or work, or
throughout the night (even when asleep)
| Mainly for music, though some also listen to
news and shows with interactive discussions on
relationships integrated with music
| Some youth have attempted to participate in
interactive radio but are often disappointed since
the lines are too busy hence never get through;
SMS is an option though not guaranteed that the
radio host will acknowledge it and read it.
| Some prefer mobile radio to home radio sets as
this accords them a level of privacy and ability to
exercise choice of what they want to listen to and
when.
Audio recorder:
Few have this feature
Some desired to have it in future though it would most
likely be a feature that they thought they would use
less often
| For recording sounds and music
| For recording certain conversations that they
want to save and listen to in future
| To record certain situations for security reasons or
evidence
| To record languages of interest and playback so
as to learn
Video recorder:
Few have this feature
| Most use it occassionaly for special moments
A few desire to have it in future
| Handy for recording or capturing special
moments
| To record classes and lectures
| To record certain situations for security reasons or
evidence
Others seemed neutral or altogether felt that it is not
necessary for them at the moment
Camera:
Significant number have the feature and a significant
other do not
Those who have cameras claim to use them quite
often – daily or weekly
| Capture images of anything or anyone that
strikes them as that which they would like to save
and remember
Many desire to have the camera feature in future
Other suggestions – ability to personalize your photos
once taken e.g. like photoshop
Games:
Most have a few basic games on their phones
| Some claim not to have a single game on their
phones
| Some want better games with better graphics;
the ones they have are said to be boring
“I use my video recorder less often because of limited memory space on my phone”
Female 18-21 Nairobi, Kenya
“I would want a video recorder torecord all my modeling events in future”
Female 18-21 Lusaka Zambia
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With the exception of Ethiopia majority of youth in the
other countries are not enthusiastic about games on
their phones hence play them less often
| Don’t have time for games or simply not
interested
| Considered to be rather juvenile
TV:
None currently have TV on their phones
Majority greatly desire to have this feature in future
| Easy and convenient access to favourite
programs and shows at whatever time and place
– commuting, long distance traveling,
| Mobile TV as compared to home TV sets would
enable a level of privacy and ability to exercise
choice of what they want to watch and when
| For when there is no electricity as power outages
are quite a big problem in many African countries
Media player:
Few have this on their phones
Many desire to have this in future
| As an alternative to radio – play select music
| Other suggestions – one that can play music in
any format
Bluetooth:
Many do not have this feature
Some desire to have it in future
| Mainly for transferring and sharing music files
and video clips
| Some creative usage – writing notes and sharing
them via BT as opposed to SMS
| A few also mentioned Infrared for the same
reasons
Voicemail:
All have access
Majority do not use it
| Some think it is unneccessary and would be
happy to do without it in future
| Some have difficulty in retrieving messages –
long process
Memory card:
Few have this on their phones
Many desire to have it in future
| Increased storage for music, videos and other
content
Video calls:
None have access currently
Some desire to have this in future:
| Ability to see who is calling and where they are
| Others also wish for video conferencing so as to
have visible mobile conversations with groups of
people
Drawing and graphics applications:
None have such features currently
A few desire this for future phones
| Nurturing their drawing talents
Security lock:
Few are aware of this feature in most of the countries
Significant mention in Senegal – desire to have this
feature
| To increase privacy of data and content on their
mobile phones
| Other suggestion – ability to lock specific aspects
such as gallery and SMS that one wants to keep
completely private.
“I don’t like them… They bore me!”
Female 14-17 Limpopo South Africa
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There are various initiatives by African governments and
other development partners trying to address ICT access and certain
infrastructural challenges. For example in South Africa there are
multi-purpose community centres (MPCC), telecentres, cyber labs,
personal information terminals (PITs), department of communication
web internet laboratories (DoCWILs), citizens’ post offices and public
digital libraries all of which are quite useful in providing the youth
with access and necessary skills and experience of ICT usage since
they serve as access points for the community on a part-time and/
or full-time basis. In Senegal the government has also encouraged
the establishment of community telecentres or tele boutiques that
provide public telephones, fax services, computers and internet
access since individual access can be quite costly. There are also some
initiatives underway in the other countries of study as well as plans
supported by ICT policies which are now in place though the current
situation is still dire.
Internet access and usage
The table below reveals that internet penetration in Africa is
poor (6.8%). However, South Africa is at 9.4% followed by Kenya (8.6%)
with Nigeria and Senegal accounting for 7.4%. Nigeria accounts for
16.3% of total users in Africa.
Table 17: Internet usage in Africa
Computers
Ownership and access
There is generally limited ownership
of computers amongst the young people
interviewed both rural and urban. Cost is still
quite prohibitive hence majority of those who
use computers (mainly urban youth) often access
them at cyber cafes, educational institutions
or work places. For instance in Lusaka Zambia
second hand laptops go for about EUR 240 while
new ones can cost up to EUR 560 which is too
expensive for majority of the youth. In addition
original software purchases and updates are
quite expensive hence even those who own
computers copy from their friends.
As discussed earlier under the education
section, access to computers is quite limited
– most public schools and educational
institutions as a whole have limited number of
computers that cannot satisfy the entire student
populations. As such, many students graduate
from the various schools without having the
benefit of IT literacy. It is largely a learn-by-self
system for majority of the youth who have used
computers through cyber cafes or the few who
have access from a family member or neighbour.
The desire to learn and use computers is
however very strong amongst the youth; they
are eager to utilize any possible opportunities
for this. Many are aware that ICT literacy is very
relevant for them as young people in what is
commonly referred to as a technological age.
They need to acquire the necessary skills which
they can utilize to satisfy certain educational
needs and requirements, for livelihoods and for
purposes of keeping abreast with information
on a global level and social exchange. Some of
the uses specifically mentioned by the youth
for computers were: playing music, watching
movies, sending and receiving e-mail, accessing
social networking sites such as facebook, typing
school assignments and term papers, research
for educational purposes or personal interests,
playing games, downloading music and other
content of interest.
“I have a problem with the chat rooms. I think we chat a lot. I log in only once a week. As the youth we tend to forget that there are other things that we need to be doing with our time that are a lot more important than
spending hours in the chat rooms everyday.”
Female 22-25, Johannesburg, South Africa
Countries Population (2009 Est.)
Internet Users
Dec/2000
Internet UsersLatest Data (June 2009)
Penetration(% Population)
User Growth(2000-2009)
% Usersin Africa
Ethiopia 85,237,338 10,000 360,000 0.4 % 3,500.0 % 0.5 %
Kenya 39,002,772 200,000 3,359,600 8.6 % 1,579.8 % 5.0 %
Nigeria 149,229,090 200,000 11,000,000 7.4 % 5,400.0 % 16.3 %
Senegal 13,711,597 40,000 1,020,000 7.4 % 2,450.0 % 1.5 %
S. Africa 49,052,489 2,400,000 4,590,000 9.4 % 91.3 % 6.8 %
Zambia 11,862,740 20,000 700,000 5.9 % 3,400.0 % 1.0 %
TOTAL AFRICA 991,002,342 4,514,400 67,371,700 6.8 % 1,392.4 % 100.0 %
(Source: www.internetworldstats.com/stats1.htm)
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In 2006, 3.65 million people in South Africa had access
to the internet in comparison to year 2003, which recorded
13.6% of households who could access computers and on
average only 9.1% of all households had access to the internet.
The price of PCs remains a barrier to private access to this type
of ICT for the majority of the population and affordability is
the main issue for those who are still not connected to the
internet.
Most of the young people interviewed who had access
to internet were able to gain access through cybercafés which
charge from as low as EUR 0.3 to 0.6 per hour in Kenya, EUR 0.8
per hour in Nigeria, EUR 4.8 per hour in Zambia, EUR 0.4 to 1.1
per hour in Ethiopia, and EUR 1.5 to 2 per hour in Senegal. A
few university students who have their own laptops were also
able to access free limitless internet within their campuses
through wireless connections. This is often however catered
for within the tuition fee to enable the universities offer it as
such. A few youth who were formally employed also gained
free access to the internet at work. With the exception of
Senegal, many rural youth in the other countries had never
used the internet but had a fairly good idea of what they
might be able to do with it based on what they had heard from
others. They knew that they would be able to get information
from different places in the world and be able to communicate
with other people in far off places through some kind of mail.
In some places there is also belief that the internet is the
preserve of the highly educated hence this holds back some
youth from taking up the opportunity; nonetheless access is
quite limited hence even opportunities for use are quite few.
Some young girls in Zambia (14-17) were however skeptical
about the internet and strongly believed that its usage would
bring about a lot of social ills such as pornography. Similarly
in Ethiopia some youth are not allowed to use the internet
on their own; even for educational purposes, it must be done
under parental supervision. This was also the case amongst
some girls (14-17) in Senegal.
Most youth did not have any information that they
sought on the internet and were unable to find.
Overall, many youth preferred mobile internet to PC
internet due to convenience, speed and ease of access and in
some instances cost. Many said that they would only resort
to PC use when they have to download large files or print
documents. For music and radio, mobile phones were also
preferred due to portability. The main concern for some was
having to use ear phones to listen to radio and wished to be
able to play it out loud using the speakers especially since
they may sometimes want to listen with their friends as a
social activity.
Mass Media
Arguably, the proliferation and globalization of
media are among the key factors that have shaped and
defined the current generation of young people. In
many countries, youth have access to a greater number
of multi-media choices than ever before for example,
conventional, satellite and cable TV channels; radio
stations; newspapers and magazines; the internet and
computer and video games. In addition, many are
exposed to the same programs, the same characters
and the same marketed spin-off products. Today there is
greater availability of foreign programming and media,
and less official censorship and control in many parts of
the world. Information, email and images flow around
the world faster and more freely than ever. Indeed, mass
media are making the world smaller, and culture and
media are increasingly inextricable, especially for young
people.
The main broadcasting ICT media utilized in
most African countries are television and radio. In South
Africa there are now over 3000 radio stations, with
over 100 community radio stations, broadcasting in
many different languages. Their scope and reach varies
enormously - from the half-a-million Joburgers who make
up the audience of Jozi FM to, for example, the mere one
thousand people who listen to Ilitha Community Radio in
the Eastern Cape town of Maclear. Community radio is a
crucial part of the South African broadcasting landscape,
providing diversity for listeners and much-needed skills
for the commercial radio sector. In Kenya, there are youth
community radio stations for the youth. These stations are
started and run by youth for the youth. Good examples
are Koch FM which targets youth in slums and Pamoja
FM in Kibera which was one of the sites for a workplace
immersion during fieldwork.
TV viewership
Watching TV is a favourite pastime for many youth.
Most watch TV daily at home in the evenings after school
especially those who are day scholars. Other youth
especially in the rural areas and low income informal
settlements who do not have TV sets at home usually
access TV at pay to view halls for specific programmes
and movies that have large following. Youth in boarding
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa128
schools also have less opportunity to watch TV, they
are most likely to view on weekends if the school policy
allows. Overall there is more time spent watching TV over
the weekends and during school holidays. Most youth
enjoy watching TV with friends and family though they
sometimes also do it solo depending on the time and
situation.
Some of the popular programmes that youth watch
on TV are music shows, sports, soap operas and movies.
Some youth especially the older ones (22-25) also actively
seek information through news broadcasts. Most youth
tend to watch a higher proportion of western programmes
(American, British, South American) as compared to
African and local content though appreciation for the
latter is also growing at a considerable rate for example
Nollywood productions. In South Africa the youth actually
seem to prefer more of local productions (South African)
as compared to others. In some countries interactive TV
is in place and viewers have the opportunity to call in or
send text messages with requests, questions or comments
and get some kind of feedback; there are some programs
specifically targeting the youth which have interactive
aspects. There is however hardly any mention by the youth
respondents about having ever participated in interactive
TV.
As much as the youth enjoy watching TV, there is a
growing preference for DVDs i.e. movies and TV programs
especially the series kind. There is increased availability
of these (mostly pirated) hence youth prefer to watch on
DVD also because they can exercise more choice and do
not have to wait to watch their favourite series week after
week.
Radio listenershipAs discussed earlier under mobile phone features,
majority of youth listen to radio. The variety of radio
stations is large and ever growing and many can access
radio at whatever time of day through their mobile phones.
Radio is also listened to at home with friends and family.
Newspaper readership is somewhat low amongst
youth in rural Kenya, Zambia, Senegal, and Ethiopia. The
main problem is limited distribution in rural areas, low
literacy rates and affordability. In urban areas though, there
is more readership some places much higher than others
e.g. in Nigeria where there is a wide variety of newspapers
available. In Kenya and Zambia there are specific pullouts
available in the newspapers on certain days of the week
which are quite attractive to the youth hence readership
is much higher on these days. Most youth however do not
buy the papers for themselves; they often access a family
copy if any or at school, work place or other social place
such as hairsalon or local shop.
With the exception of South Africa, Nigeria and
Ethiopia, most youth in the other countries rarely read
magazines. Magazines and topics of interest are mostly
entertainment, sports, fashion, horoscopes, and some
politics. Magazines are actually more popular than
newspapers because of the content which also tends to
retain relevance longer than the information in newspapers
and some newspapers e.g. in Senegal are mostly tabloids
that many youth find too sensational and focus too much
on scandal. The deterrent to increased readership of
magazines is mainly access – most youth cannot afford to
buy their own magazines; they often settle for older copies
wherever they can access them. In some countries local
content and local magazines are limited yet the youth are
eager for information and stories that are relevant to them.
Social Networks
Social media tools like wikis, weblogs, Facebook,
Flickr, YouTube, Twitter, and “mashups” are increasingly
being used to organize and share information among the
youth. The youths have become very active playing the
roles of “citizen journalists,” reporting the on goings of
where they live and express their thoughts online. Social
media provides an opportunity for citizen participation in
any discussion online. Most Kenyans do not have access to
social media (Makinen and Kuira, 2008). This is because only
3.2% of the population has Internet access, and cyber cafés
are available mainly in urban areas. The world of citizens’
media is familiar to the educated and wealthy population
in the same way as in other societies. Therefore, a majority
have limited possibilities for participating in Web-based
discussions. However the growing awareness of the new
media has enabled public discussions and information
sharing.
Social media have a strong expatriate influence.
Many sites and weblogs are managed by citizens living
overseas and by foreigners residing in a given country. Until
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There are also other benefits attached to social
networks such as career development and progression
and young people are aware of this and appreciate these
networks for the value they can add.
The social groups that the youth form and join give
them some kind of identity or character formation. The
groups are more or less formed along common values and
interests, hence the youth feel that they belong or fit in
to a particular group as opposed to another. Most often,
there is a natural genesis to the formation of these groups
without any one person making a conscious effort to pick
out one or the other but instead finding oneself naturally
fitting in with certain persons. Regular interactions with
friends with whom one shares certain values, beliefs and
interests, also helps to keep them in check from wandering
off the ‘boundaries’ of what is acceptable to oneself and his
/ her friends. There are thus unwritten rules that govern the
groups and everyone generally knows what is expected
of them. Amongst friends there is the expectation that
everyone must respect one another and maintain a level of
confidentiality within the group. Many youth said that no
one necessarily gets expelled from a social group and that
more often than not, this will also happen naturally when
someone opts out when he or she no longer subscribes to
the group’s way of thinking and doing things or altogether
have done something completely unacceptable to the
group. Alternatively the group members may also ostracize
a given individual until they realize that they have to opt
out.
There are also other groups which are somewhat
formal that young people belong to and these are
specifically formed for a particular purpose for example
special clubs or interest groups such as music, theatre, or
merry go rounds (self-help). The structure is more formal
in these groups with certain rules that the members need
to adhere to failure of which they are likely to be expelled
from the group. For example attendance of meetings,
contributions if any, punctuality, respect for other people’s
opinions and ideas and overall adherence to specific rules
and resolutions passed by the group or its leaders.
recently, most African Web content was designed to cater
to the needs of foreigners, visitors, and investors, and the
elites. Locally relevant Web sites are few (Chivhanga 2005).
Although the influence of contributions from outside is
still noticeable, today, social media, such as weblogs, show
more local contributions. In addition, mobile phones which
can access internet are being used as social media tools.
Some of the highly used Kenyan weblogs include
Mashada, Kwani, ThinkersRoom, AfroMusing, and AllAfrica.
In all countries, the social networking sites are accessed
by youths as they continue to become popular with time.
Across Africa, Nigeria is placed fourth among top countries
with Facebook users. Nigeria comes behind Morocco which
is the third and South Africa being the first and seconded
by Egypt. More males (577,580) access it compared to
females (313,560). Facebook usage is wildly popular in
South Africa with more than half (50.4%) of Internet Users
in South Africa represented on Facebook. Tunisia has 45%
of its Internet Users registered with Facebook, Ghana 29%,
Egypt 17%, Kenya 15.2%, Morocco 10.2%, and Nigeria 8.2%
(Web Trends, 2009).
In Ethiopia, AddisEthio.com is a social network where
one can connect with friends, get songs, news or chat. In
addition, Ethiomeet.com provides social networking site
where Ethiopians hang out to communicate, network, form
relationships and for entertainment.
There are different types of networks and
interactions that youth form and maintain. Some are
with family, teachers at school, older generation (so as to
learn from their experience), young children (to teach or
impart some knowledge to them), peers, girlfriends and
boyfriends, colleagues, among others. Friends or peers
are particularly important to the youth as compared to
the other interactions, sometimes even more important
than family. Young people benefit significantly from moral
support and understanding and in some cases financial
support from their friends.
“Friends help in being famous or being known, friends are needed in life because
when one is down, one can find comfort in a friend or in them during such moments…
Because there are things I cannot tell my sisters, my mother and father so at least
when I have a problem he is there(boyfriend) to talk to.”
Female 14-17, Dakar, Senegal
“I have to work hard on my social interaction because I know what I want to become requires it very
much. (Journalist).”
Female 14-17, Dakar, Senegal
Young Africa | Development and Empowerment of Young People in Africa130
Other reasons why young people like to join social
networks over and above moral support, financial support
or other include:
Opportunity to keep on sharing and learning new
things and ideas
Business opportunities arise – there is possibility of
advertising and selling to the people in your network
and also connecting to other people in your friends’
network (friends of friends)
Good way to spend their pastimes having fun with
their friends or doing an activity of interest together
– listening to music, watching movies, partying, etc.
Many youth have an inherent fear of missing out
(FOMO) hence are constantly seeking ways of keeping
in touch with their friends. Facebook for instance is
therefore an integral part of many young people’s lives
today as it has given them the possibility of being in
the know all the time.
Exposure to other cultures, beliefs and values and
hence gaining a better understanding of the same
Group dynamics – enhanced ability to communicate
and share more as a group as opposed to two
individuals who may not feel close enough to talk
freely when left to interact one on one yet there is
Interactions are quite regular particularly the social
ones with friends and peers in general. They meet daily
face to face especially at school or with those who live in
the same neighbourhood. Interactions with family and
other individuals such as teachers and colleagues are also
quite regular and face to face at home and at school.
Other modes and means of communication with
social networks include phone calls, emails, text messages,
letters and through social networking sites such as
facebook. Some youth in Senegal also said that they
communicate through telepathy! The youth generally said
that there are differences in people’s behaviour depending
on the mode of communication. For example when
speaking on phone, they often tend to be brief and to the
point because they are trying to save air time while if they
are face to face there is more opportunity to talk more and
share more detail and information which many youth like.
Also some youth said that communication options that
are not face to face e.g. phone, SMS or SNS enables them
to be more confident and brave to say certain things that
they would not ordinarily say face to face and they would
not feel too bad if someone else said something rude to
them for instance. Specifically on SNS youth said that their
friends seem to be quite different and take on personas
that are not what they know them to be in reality.
“I too have some links with some teachers who are both friends or rela-tives. We visit one another, call on the
phone or send messages becauseaccording to us we are one family.”
Male 18-21, Thies, Senegal
“If you are the one who has updated your status on Facebook, and people start
commenting on it, you have to stay with it to the very end… you cannot quit until all
has been said…”
18-21 Male, Nairobi, Kenya
“There are times like maybe I amstaying in the room and none of
my friends visit the whole day since we havedifferent times when we go to classes. I come back from class and I see noneof them or even hear from any of themover the phone. But then someone tells
you ‘I saw your friends go out’,I definitely feel bad.”
Female 18-21 Lusaka Zambia
“Most of my friends like in school, on facebook we can actually talk and
comment on each other but when you meet it is just hi or hello.”
Female 18-21 Lusaka Zambia
“I think we have grown so fond of our phones and it keeps us entertained.
So when my phone is off I wonder if people are trying to reach me and I am out of
coverage. So you switch it on hoping to get some missed calls but when you don’t you really get upset…I feel like no one cares…
I feel neglected.”
Female 18-21, Lusaka, Zambia
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plenty they could learn from each other. The presence
of other group members enables such persons to
share and talk to each other.
Security whereby young people feel safer operating in
groups as opposed to solo for example when going
out partying or for some other kind of activity it is
important for them to go and come as a group.
Some things that the youth dislike about social
networks and interactions are:
Peer pressure – fear of being influenced by the ‘wrong’
group of people; those who do not have constructive
conversation and activities
Judgemental persons within groups
Pretentious personalities – especially on platforms
such as the internet i.e. social networking sites where
people tend to take on personalities that are not
genuine or a true reflection of who they are. As such
people get deceived in one way or another or undergo
negative experiences as a result.
Group dynamics can sometimes bring about
confrontations, arguments and disagreements which
many young people fear and would like to avoid –
their desire is to have peaceful interactions but this is
not always the case.
Danger of loss of self identity and individuality. Some
youth tend to subscribe wholly to their group’s way of
thinking and acting and completely lose any reserve
for self.
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Chapter Six | Conclusions
We sought out to discover who the
African youth are as they constitute
the vanguard of Africa’s twined
demographic transformation. The study has given
us an understanding of youth in terms of emerging
social behaviours and lifestyles, ICT use, dreams and
aspirations, education and livelihood challenges. The
socio-economic and development challenges in Africa
which continue to be discussed in various fora at a
global level are also identified in this study. Though
there is often a ‘gloomy’ outlook as a result, this study
has found that the youth are facing the various day
to day challenges with determination, hope and
creativity. With very limited resources, youth are
trying to find workable and sustainable solutions to
the problems that they face. They are going to school
and getting an education albeit with its imperfections.
They are coming out into a saturated job market that
is struggling to accommodate them and they are
responding by exercising their creativity to come up
with entrepreneurial ventures to earn a living. African
youth are also exploring various avenues to nurture
and develop their personal skills and talents i.e the
creatives. They are embracing various forms of technology
and are quick to adapt and incorporate these into their day
to day activities. This has also provided the youth with more
opportunity to interact with global cultures. As a result it is
emerging that young Africans are now seeking to create their
own new identity – borrowing from the global knowledge,
experiences and values, and retaining some of their African
ones. The youth need to be empowered more and supported so
as to spread further the positive aspects that are coming to play
and which can quite likely drive socio-economic development
in Africa. There are various key players in this respect who all
need to be involved in one way or another. They include parents,
relevant role models and professionals (mentors) in various
fields, life coaches, employers, governments, private sector,
educational institutions / providers, publishers, curriculum
developers, the young people themselves, among others.
The following is a brief summary and conclusion of the
various challenges that African youth face in terms of education,
employment and entertainment (3 Es) in form of problem
statements and some of the issues to take into consideration
when coming up with possible solutions for the development
and empowerment of these youth.
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Education
1. Corruption - The legitimacy of education certificates
is an issue in some countries e.g. Nigeria. Youth
reported that education certificates are not trusted
from Nigerian educational institutions and prefer
to get accreditation from non-Nigerian universities.
Needs / issues:
False certificates
Leaked exams
2. Resources - Several of the governments/citizens
of the countries studied face various challenges in
having or securing sufficient resources to secure a
good education for their youth
Needs / issues:
Affording school fees is a problem for many families
Number of schools are too few for students
(especially in the higher education levels)
Schools are poorly equipped – classrooms, books,
technical equipment, science labs, boarding
schools (hostels have to be shared)
Education can be digitized to help solve this
Learning in shifts is a common practice in some
countries (morning/afternoon)
Easier ways of putting up private schools and self-
tutoring can be options
3. Teachers - The quality and quantity of teachers is an
issue of concern in all the countries
Needs / issues:
Serious shortage of qualified teachers
| Untrained teachers are common especially in
the rural schools
| Teachers are too few hence class sizes are very
large
Teachers don’t have sufficient skills to develop the
students’ inherent gifts and talents
Lack of recognition or appreciation of teachers as
role models
Youth don’t connect with ‘old’ teachers
Teachers are lowly paid and demotivated
How can the profession be given more prestige
and recognition?
4. Post school avenues - The youth find few opportunities
to pursue further development of various activities that
they were involved in after completing traditional high
school
Needs / issues:
There is not a wide variety of training alternatives
once a student has completed school. There are
few opportunities e.g. in sports and arts for youth
development.
Vocational institutions are few and poorly equipped
There is also stigma associated with attending vocational
institutions
Building connections and information channels to
employers for attachment, internships, etc
Readily availing job market information to the youth
5. School clubs - Some schools host student clubs to tap and
nurture student interests and extra-curricular activities
though the emphasis is more on academic achievement
Needs / issues:
Clubs are formed in schools around academic subjects
e.g. maths, science
Arts clubs are also a common feature e.g. drama and
music (choir) and some sports teams e.g. football or other
6. Personal development - Students need various individuals
and counsellors to aid them in career decisions and
planning
Needs / issues:
There is a lack of distinct career mentors and many
schools don’t have course counsellors or guides
Interaction with industry professionals is low
As a consequence many youth are not prepared to think
about their career planning until a very late stage
There is no gift/talent profiling to assess student strengths
whether at home or at school
Widespread emphasis on academics over extra-curricular
activities
How can role models and education ‘content owners’ be
used?
7. ICT use - ICTs have not yet been effectively integrated
into education systems. ICTs are still viewed as an end
rather than a means.
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Needs / issues:
ICT tools that are available are outdated – old
computers
The necessary infrastructure is not in place e.g.
electricity
Access to ICT tools is low, very few schools have any
computers and those that do don’t have enough to
cater for the large student population
The teacher literacy to train in ICT use is low
8. System relevance - Getting an education does
not translate into the empowerment or gainful
employment that it is supposed to bring
Needs / issues:
There are several school drop-outs along the way
due to the decreasing number of institutions as you
go higher. They end up with no alternatives/skills for
livelihoods
Students are not really educated in skill application
but cultured in memorization
Creative thinking is not developed, no room to think
outside the box or beyond exams
In some cases there are competing curricula within the
same country. Youth within the same country can have
two drastically different education experiences
Elimination of practical subjects from school
curriculums
The skills that students go with to the job market do
not match those that employers expect to get in their
new recruits
9. Language - The language of instruction is a key factor
in the delivery of education
Needs / issues:
Local languages are used in education delivery at the
lower levels in many countries but this leaves students
without good command of international languages
required for job placement
Development of the international languages (e.g.
English, French) is desirable
10. Life skills - There is a gap in the impartation of life-skills
to students
Needs / issues:
Lack of career guides
Entrepreneurship is not nurtured from an early age
There is an insufficient link/access to experts or
professionals in the field
There is little practical application of what is learned in
school; life skills are taught theoretically
Life skills are taught but are shallow and don’t
adequately address many of the current life needs of
the youth (e.g. sex education, HIV)
How can games or other fun and creative ways be
used to teach life skills?
11. Human factors
Needs / Issues:
The age/phase of development
Negative influences
Bullying and negative attitudes
Religion and superstitions
Late entry and delivery of some skills and information
Community
Cultural development
Sexual harassment
How can the super strong emphasis on academic
qualifications be balanced to look at other life areas
as well?
12. Community service - The culture of individualism is
being perpetuated through the education system
with students not willing to give to their communities
without getting anything back in return
Needs / issues:
There is a need to break the western culture and trends
of industrial evolution from a capitalistic, consumptive
culture to one of sustainable livelihoods
Encouraging youth to ‘give’ to their communities e.g.
the bright students can help the younger ones. Both
in terms of life skills and assisting in formal education/
tutoring
13. Poverty - Poverty is a general problem affecting
education in various dimensions
Needs / issues:
The low exposure to information and what one can be
or do in life
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Poverty as a mentality; thinking ‘small’
Shaping and building cultures; non-
productive cultures
A victim mentality of blame
Leads to a quick money mentality e.g. in
Senegal
14. School drop outs - High number of youth
dropping out of school early due to
poverty, disillusionment hence disinterest,
inaccessibility to schools, limited spaces
available
Needs / issues:
School dropouts due to boredom in class.
Make lessons more interactive w ICTs
Schools are located far from homes in rural
areas – bring lessons closer to the people
Secondary and university levels are especially
affected
Get the school drop outs back to official/
unofficial education
15. Networking – communication
Needs / issues:
Peer certification
Negative association with corruption
Breaking boundaries (access, international)
Visibility
Job market realities
Public-private partnerships
Social networks are key to progressing in
professional life
16. Negative role models
Needs / issues:
Drugs are available to students in schools
Negative influences lead to bad decisions
(from prostitution, beachboys, gangsters)
Some of these role models seem to have
‘made it’ without getting a formal education -
they seem to make more money and interact
with the young people and impact their daily
thinking and decisions
Bullying
Employment
1. Formal employment
Needs / issues:
Formal employment as a true indicator of success; it is ‘the it’
Fixation with employment in MNCs/Big companies
Limited opportunities
| Too much emphasis and benchmarking on formal
employment; should foster and build value in alternatives
and personal strengths
| Celebrate and give visibility to successful local start-ups
and the likes
Limited time and flexibility to nurture talent
Processes that stifle creativity & vibrance of youth in the work
place
Tools and techniques that empower the youth to be creative, to
express themselves and to be heard; older generations should
find a sense of security in the process and be RMs/mentors
2. Creative and unconventional businesses
Needs / issues:
Agriculture as a business and not just subsistence
| Economies of scale or vertical farming to build agriculture
as a business
| Global markets
Creative economies
| Redirect or legalize unconventional livelihood activities
that demonstrate skill, entrepreneurship and brilliance
| Build talents and crafts
3. Experience and exposure
Needs / issues:
Lack of
| Information on industrial attachments and opportunities
to apply oneself
Taking the initiative to find/create the opportunity to learn and
practice (it does not necessarily need to happen at some big
company)
| Methods to share newbie experiences and to model and
experience a typical day in a career of interest
Travelling to other regions and communities
| Exchange programmes, virtual tours, ‘bring your child to
work’, ‘career days at the companies’
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4. Community and family
Needs / issues:
Family expectations to meet certain responsibilities
and mentality of what you get is ours not yours
| Family ties that hold the subject captive
Societal norms that hinder creative and unconventional
micro-entrepreneurial opportunities
| Societal prejudices to non-white-collar jobs
Culture as a commodity for rural communities &
markets/avenues for this
5. Economies
Needs / issues:
Capacity
Nature of export/import ratio
Corruption
Government and other policy makers are key in
decision making, influencing and positive turn around
6. Information, access and Internet
Needs / issues:
Availability of information on all relevant areas like job
markets, entrepreneurship, etc
Access channels and devices to use media
Absent rural infrastructure and lack of know how e.g.
with internet
Internet syndrome
Marketing self and start-ups/micro-enterprises
Focusing blog content and value addition
7. Self-employment
Needs / issues:
Business mentorship from an early age
| How to start now, grow and sustain
Talent building and monetization of the same
How to start (information, resources, mentorship, etc)
Micro-business prejudices
| Creating esteem in micro-entrepreneurship
Global markets access
Cooperation/synergy amongst multiple micro-
entrepreneurs and in global markets
| Synergy and expansion avenues
8. Resources
Needs / issues:
Initial capital
Cost of information devices/channels
Provision of government subsidies e.g. seeds to start
farming
9. Employment opportunities
Needs / issues:
Limited and far between
Access to global markets
| Networking locally and internationally to access
knowledge and recommendation
Corruption, nepotism and the need to network
Racism
Structural employment (specialized education
without everyday application areas e.g. astronauts)
| Application of formal education
Fields not catered for formal education (no training or
degrees)
10. The self
Needs / issues:
Want to have it all and now
Dependency and lack of self esteem
Exposure to the market realities on desired careers
Luxurious lifestyle mentality and fixation on physical
wealth
Education effort not translating into the wealth
Self branding, networking and marketing
Fear of failure and not wanting to excel beyond level
of peers
Personal development and mentality change
Entertainment
1. Socialising and fun - Young people like to connect
with each other and share fun experiences together
Needs / issues:
Recording content from other media e.g. radio, TV,
computers to mobile
Creating ‘game-like’ experiences for phone use
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Building in competitive and fun aspects to mobile use
e.g. job search, browsing, communicating, etc
Gaming – new and improved games for youth even for
low cost devices
Improve social networking by building in contextual
information to profiles
Cost – Youth need to socialize and network at
minimum possible costs
Type of phone – Low end phones may not have the
necessary features that enable maximum socialization
like internet, camera
Network issues – This might have a lot to do with
infrastructure and mobile service providers but
options such as ‘the messenger’ may provide a solution
Youth categories – Most youth categories fail to
interact with each other yet they could actually create
synergy from socialization and also share ideas. There
needs to be a breakdown an increase of interaction of
such groups for the betterment of individual members
of these groups as they share ideas
2. Talent building and self-expression - There is a lot of
creative energy and potential in the young people.
They frequently lack adequate tools to express
themselves or to know what they are capable of. This
can also be a channel for livelihoods.
Needs / issues:
Music tools
Video: easy to use tools or videos that can be shared
Building book clubs, poetry clubs, and other similar
platforms for sharing
Collective creation:
| Art works e.g. contributing design to local artists’
work such as music and videos – adding own
touch
| Appreciation and recognition e.g. for good
business ideas and initiatives and providing a
platform for people to actually do this in a fun
and creative way
Build a gaming culture
3. Content creation - Provision of tools to allow young
people to express their creativity and knowledge
Needs / issues:
Access to relevant literature and books
| Dictionaries, thesauri or encyclopaedias
| Editing possibilities to incorpororate contextual
information to literature e.g. pictures, music,
video
| Archiving of oral literature/local culture and
knowledge
| Text to audio translation
| Ways of improving grammar, spelling,
pronunciation
Edutainment options e.g. theatre plays which often
have social messages
Games are currently too simple or basic. There need to
be more advanced, interactive games.
Users don’t have the right devices
4. Content sharing
Needs / issues:
Movies on memory card e.g. as done in India (content
sold on cards)
Pay-to-view options
Access to mobile TV and movies is limited to a certain
number of phones. It is currently costly
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