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The Importance of Maryland’s Forest:Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow

Robert L. Ehrlich, Jr., GovernorMichael S. Steele, Lt. Governor

C. Ronald Franks, SecretaryW. P. Jensen, Deputy Secretary

Steven W. Koehn, DirectorForest Service

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Dear Fellow Citizen,

Maryland is rich and diverse in its people, its built environment, its natural resources, and its great beauty.Moving from the Atlantic Coast to the hills and valleys of Western Maryland, we enjoy an almost endlessvariety of landscapes, unique communities, and layers of history...but there is one unchanging commondenominator stretching throughout our State - the great forest with its millions of pines, oaks, and poplars.

Over 40 percent of Maryland is forested and this vast storehouse of energy, shelter and oxygen is one of ourmost important sustainable assets. Marylanders have been protecting and managing this resource since 1906and we will continue to do so, efficiently and responsibly.

This publication, The Importance of Maryland’s Forests: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, is a primer on thehistory of our forest, its environmental and economic importance, its scientific management, and the challengesfacing our continued stewardship. It talks of the quality and quantity of our woodlands from many perspectives -the forester, the harvester, the hiker, the landowner, the sailor on the Chesapeake Bay, and even the animals thatmake the forest their home. It supports an intricate web of natural relationships and, not surprisingly, an equally intricate web of human demands andconcerns. The more we understand about this priceless asset, the better job we can do of protecting and managing its many benefits.

Let’s continue to work for the future of our forest.

Sincerely,

Robert L. Ehrlich, Jr.Governor

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Dear Friend of Maryland’s Forests —

Forests are an integral part of Maryland’s landscape, our environment and our economy. They are the single best land use for water qualityprotection and clean air, and provide wildlife habitat, aesthetic beauty and forest products – all important benefits too often taken for granted.

In an effort to help citizens better understand and appreciate the value of our trees and forests, the Maryland Department of Natural Resources andthe Maryland Forest Service are pleased to present The Importance of Maryland’s Forests: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow.

Forests once covered more than 95 percent of Maryland’s landscape; now less than half that, 41 percent, remains. Approximately 130,600 privatecitizens (less than 3 percent of the population) own 76 percent of the forests of Maryland. In a rapidly urbanizing state such as ours, it is essential that wecontinue managing our forests in an environmentally responsible manner, while retaining local natural resource based economies.

Increasing forest fragmentation, escalating vulnerability to fire in the wildland-urban interface, loss of economically viable working forests and urbantree canopy cover, and the need to restore streamside forests to control runoff are just some of the challenges facing Maryland’s foresters today.

Still, with good planning and thoughtful stewardship, sustainable forests that produce environmental and economic benefits are achievable. And weinvite you to join our circle of partners, stakeholders and volunteers as we work to revitalize public and private forest management, and more effectively usethe tools and programs available to us, linking people and forests from headwater streams to the Chesapeake Bay.

C. Ronald Franks Steven W. KoehnSecretary State Forester

The Maryland Forest Service has been serving the public and managing the forest resources of Maryland since1906. Our mission is to restore, manage, and protect Maryland’s trees, forests, and forested ecosystems to sustainour natural resources and connect people to the land.

“We must be more than careful stewards of the land; we must be constant catalysts for positive change.”Gifford Pinchot, the father of American Forestry

A Look Back

Maryland was once such a forest. Brokenonly by rivers, marshes, and mountain meadows,this primeval forest stretched from the wet soilsof the Atlantic coastal plain to the hills, plateaus,and valleys of the Appalachians. Theinhabitants, Native Americans who settledalong the Chesapeake Bay and its tribu-taries, were the first users of the forest,clearing and burning small areas forfarming and berry production. In largepart, the great forest of countless millionsof oak, tulip-poplar, eastern hemlock,beech, loblolly pine, white pine andAmerican chestnut was left to grow anddie and change with the rhythms of theland and sky.

In 1634, this picture began to change.A group of settlers arrived on an island inthe Potomac and brought with them anew set of values and aspirations regard-ing the land. They saw a wilderness that blockedagriculture, bred disease, and sheltered dangerousanimals. They also saw in the forest a rich sourceof lumber and fuel. In a few generations, to-bacco, corn, and wheat instead of oaks and pinescompeted for the sun’s energy. Industrious (and

successful) farmers cut, cleared, and burned tofeed a young economy based on cash crops. Asthe settlers spread westward, houses, fences,fuel, and crops demanded more and more forestand it fell before them. Left behind were someunanticipated results. The rivers and streams

threading through the treeless farms collected theunprotected soil as it ran off the fields and filledthe deep-water harbors of the Chesapeake Bayleaving a landscape of shifting shorelines and portcommunities without water. The impacts of earlysettlement unfolded over one hundred years andslowly collected into massive change; the next

THE FOREST IN TIME

alterations were faster and larger.While settlers acted individually and often in

isolation, industrialization moved forward with anefficient coordination of people and resources.The production of iron required more “input” thanthe production of tobacco or corn. It required

more raw materials, specialized skills, and acontrolled source of energy. Throughout muchof the 1700’s and 1800’s, the controllableenergy source was charcoal. The character ofthe forest changed from an obstacle to farmingto a vast reservoir of fuel. To encourage theindustry, the Maryland Assembly in 1719offered 100 acres of land to anyone who builtan iron furnace. A single operation, thePrincipio Furnace in Cecil County, consumed10,000 acres of woodland during its 100 yearsof production.

Iron led to steel, and steel and steam led tomobility. The huffing engines of the early1800’s changed the perception of the forestonce again and it became the major source of

raw materials for a variety of industries. Therailroads with their wooden ties not only allowedaccess to remote forests but they expanded themarket for Maryland wood products all the wayto St. Louis by 1857. The steam-powered circularsaw outstripped the old water-powered mills inproduction of saw timber for lumber. Pulpwood

Solid unbroken forest is all around me, stretching far beyond my vision, for hundreds of miles. It is one of the few such forests remaining in the world.The forest regulates the water flow from the frequent heavy rains. It prevents floods, providing steady runoff in to the trout-filled streams. It used tosupport salmon runs. Such a forest is also the diffuse lung tissue of the earth to which we are irrevocably bound. It is not our “environment.” It is us.

“The Trees In My Forest,” Bernd Heinrich, Cliff Street Books, 1997

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natural causes and sparks from steam engines,fire completed the job by raging over land madevulnerable by indiscriminate logging. The GreatDepression produced even more abandoned landas the cities and the West attracted desperatepeople. The forest now had new opportunitiesand moved in to fill the space.

The abandoned agricultural, cut-over, orburned lands were first covered by grasses andbrambles, then shrubs and small trees, andtoday’s forest was established. These forestsgrew in a relatively short time and are now even-aged forests between 70 and 120 years old. Thetree species found in these “new” forests aresimilar to those of the 1600’s, but the broadcomposition of the forest has changed dramati-cally. The original forests were primarily com-

for paper was shipped widely, and tanbark fromhemlocks and chestnut oaks supplied the chemi-cals needed for tanning leather in growingindustrial centers. The forest supplied the Indus-trial Revolution and helped build the great citiesthat would change its future once again.

Forest clearing reached its peak in the mid-1800’s. In the decades after the Civil War,thousands of acres of local farmland wereabandoned to better land in the Midwest andWest or a more secure occupation in the boomingcities. More land was released by better farmingtechniques that increased crop yields so thatfewer acres were needed to produce the sameamount. Still more land was made available byover 200 years of logging which had thinned theforest of its healthy and high quality trees. Set by

Fred Besley

posed of hardwoods;today, pine is moreabundant than itonce was due toplanting programs,natural succession,and scientific forestmanagement.

Scientific forestmanagement meantthat the forest, forthe first time, hadsome help when ittried to reestablish itself. By the late 1800’s, anational conservation movement led by suchnotables as Theodore Roosevelt, John Muir, andGifford Pinchot began to focus attention onwholesale timber harvesting and the lack ofregard for forest regeneration. The movementsaw the formation of the National Park andNational Forest systems, conservation organiza-tions, and many State forestry agencies. In theearly 1900’s, forestry schools were formedaround the nation and supported research on howforests could be managed to provide adequateregeneration and meet other land use objectives.As the schools developed, so did the science offorest management.

The Maryland State Board of Forestry wasorganized in 1906, primarily to control forest fires.Maryland’s first State Forester, Fred Besley,single-handedly inventoried every 5-acre woodlotin Maryland and produced the first forest inven-tory, printed in 1916. The first State forestnursery was established in 1914 to supply seed-lings for reforestation. In the 1940’s, the Mary-land Forest Division began to offer woodlandowners professional forestry assistance, as wellas seedlings, to ensure forest regeneration.

Chesapeake BayMaryland CountiesContiguous Forests Over 50 Acres

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Over the past 30 years, understanding of theforest’s functioning has grown in unexpectedways and unexpected places. In the late 1970’s,scientists began an extensive study of the Chesa-peake Bay to determine the specific reasons forits decline. Three major problems were identified:excess nutrients from wastewater, agriculturalland, and developed land; sediment runoff fromfarms, construction sites, and other lands; andelevated levels of toxic chemicals. We have sincelearned that nutrient pollution, much of it causedby human activity on the land bordering streamsand even hundreds of miles upstream in thewatershed, has driven a fundamental biological,chemical, and physical change in the Bay. Themain culprits behind the Bay’s poor water qualityand aquatic habitat loss are two nutrients –phosphorus and nitrogen. Both are naturalfertilizers found in animal waste, soil, and eventhe atmosphere. These nutrients have alwaysbeen found in the Bay; the problem lies in theamounts that now enter the Bay. When theChesapeake was surrounded by undisturbedforest, very little phosphorus and nitrogen ran off

the land into the water. Most of it was ab-sorbed or held in place by the natural forest.But when the forest was replaced by farmsand cities the amount of nutrients reaching theBay increased significantly.

These nutrients increase the growth ofalgae that block sunlight from reaching otherplants. When the algae die and decompose,they remove oxygen from the water. So muchoxygen is used by decomposing algae that fishand other animals must move to survive; thosethat cannot may die. Because forests contrib-ute lower amounts of nitrogen and phospho-rous to waterways than other land uses, theirmanagement has become an important part ofBay restoration.

The Maryland forest we see today echoeshuman migration, the needs of agriculture, thelumber industry, iron and charcoal, wildfires, thefirst attempts at management, and, ultimately, theresiliency of nature. We will continue to influencethe forest. Our charge is to do so responsibly andsustainably.

Today’s Forest

Maryland’s wide rangeof soils, topography, andclimate supports a naturaldiversity of plants, animals,insects, and reptiles muchbroader than most otherstates. The sandy, flatCoastal Plain Province ofsoutheast Maryland with itsmild climate and manywetlands marks the northern-most boundary for southern

*All figures are from the 1999 Forest Inventory andAnalysis by the USDA Forest Service

trees such as loblolly pine and baldcypress. Thebroad, undulating landscape of the PiedmontProvince of central Maryland with its ridges andlow knobs supports forests of red, white, andchestnut oak, yellow poplar, and ash with mix-tures of pine/oak throughout. The AppalachianProvince of Western Maryland includes the BlueRidge Mountains, the Greater AppalachianValley, and the Appalachian Plateau. Thesemountains and valleys contain an assortment ofoak forests and northern hardwoods, along with acolder climate. Forest cover varies from the two heavilyforested (about 73%) counties of westernMaryland to the less-forested (24 to 35%) urban,suburban, and agricultural counties of centralMaryland and the Eastern Shore. SouthernMaryland and the lower Eastern Shore also havea considerable amount of forest, 54 to 61% and37 to 51% respectively.* These percentagestranslate into a startling number – there are morethan 204 million tons of biomass in all live trees

Biomass

65%

19%

16%

Wood products Stumps & roots branches/foliage/damaged trees

% of Forest land per region

73

24

35

58

44

-5

5

15

25

35

45

55

65

75

85

W es tern M D CentralM D Upper Eas ternShore

Sou thern M D Lower Eas ternShore

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on forestland in Maryland. That is an average ofnearly 80 tons per acre. Sixty-five percent of theweight is suitable for wood products, 19% is instumps and roots, and the other 16% is distributedamong branches, foliage, and damaged or de-formed trees.

Maryland’s various plant communities arecategorized by the trees, shrubs, and herbs thatare frequently found growing together due tosimilar soil, moisture, climate, and terrain prefer-ences. These communities (or associations),including the animals living there, operate ashighly complex and interrelated units. Typically,the dominant species are used to name theassociations and they are determined by thenumber of individual plants of each species, howthey are distributed across the area, and the sizeof the plants. More than 150 native tree species

Loblolly/Shortleaf PineFound primarily on the Coastal Plain in Maryland on moistand poorly drained soils. At higher elevations on theCoastal Plain, it is found on drier soils and often onabandoned farmland. About 12% of Maryland’s forests areloblolly-shortleaf pine. The proportion of these two speciesvaries; however, loblolly pine usually dominates.Herbaceous plants are usually sparse because little lightreaches the forest floor.

Loblolly Pine/HardwoodFound on the Coastal Plain Province. It represents atransition from forests dominated by pines to forestsdominated by oaks and other hardwoods. Loblolly pine isa minor but important component, representing about 20%of the composition. Hardwood species reflect the amountof soil moisture on the site.

Oak/HickoryAbout 60% of Maryland’s forests are oak-hickory forestassociations and they are found across the State. Theproportions of each species vary greatly. Species makeup

depends on amounts of precipitation, and how waterdrains through soils.

Northern HardwoodsFound primarily in the western provinces of the State. Itoccurs on a variety of soil and moisture conditions.

Oak/Northern HardwoodsFound throughout the Appalachian Mountains inMaryland. It is commonly found on warmer, drier sites onsouth- and west-facing slopes in the Blue Ridge andAppalachian Plateau Provinces. The proportion of thesespecies varies greatly.

Virginia Pine/OakFound throughout Maryland but most commonly on thePiedmont Plateau and the Coastal Plain. Primarily, itoccurs on old fields and other well-drained sites. Itrepresents a transition from areas with almost pureVirginia pine to oaks and other hardwoods that tolerateshady conditions.

Atlantic/Appalachian HardwoodsFound on north- and east-facing slopes ofthe Appalachian Plateau Province in Maryland. Thisassociation occupies cooler moister sites. It is notcommonly found further east. However, some smallpockets occur in coves in western Montgomery County.

Hemlock/Northern HardwoodsFound throughout the Appalachian Plateau Province inwestern Maryland. It occupies cooler moister sites. Smallpockets of hemlock/northern hardwoods may be found incoves in western Montgomery County.

Atlantic/Oak/Gum/CypressFound along the Chesapeake Bay and the lower westernand eastern shore areas of the Coastal Plain. These forestsare characterized by wet soils. Often, these sites areflooded during most of the growing season.

White Pine/Northern HardwoodsFound throughout central and western Maryland.Generally, it is not found on the Coastal Plain. Theunderstory in this forest association is sparse.

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were used. These measure-ments are valuable todaybecause they can be com-pared with measurementstaken decades ago and allowus to focus on and understandthe many different aspects ofthe forest. Forestland is defined bythe U.S. Forest Service as anarea at least one acre in sizethat is at least 10% coveredwith trees of any size, or thatformerly had such tree coverand is not currently developed in a nonforest use.It includes timberland and noncommercial forest-land. The noncommercial forestland categoryincludes reserved forestlands and unproductiveforest. Harvesting for timber products on theselands is administratively restricted or economi-cally impractical. Examples include parks, wildlife

preserves, wetlands with poorgrowing conditions, and manyurbanizing areas. Most noncom-mercial forestland is owned bypublic agencies and has steadilyincreased in area from 23,000acres in 1950 to 193,900 acres in1999. Nearly all of this increase isdue to the administrative reclassifi-cation of timberland into forestland.

Timberland is an area produc-ing or capable of producing morethan 20 cubic feet of industrialwood per acre per year. Not allforestland is timberland, but alltimberland is forestland.

are found in Maryland and certain of them growin association with one another. Different meth-ods are used for characterizing forests butgenerally, if a forest has a high number of largered and black oak trees, and many smallerhickories, the forest association would be oak-hickory. Similarly, if there are about the samenumber of sugar maple, American beech, yellowbirch, and a few eastern hemlock, the forestassociation would be northern hardwoods.

It is important to understand forest communi-ties because each supports different plants andanimals, and provides different benefits. Threats toforest health, as well as effects of protectionmeasures vary from one forest community to thenext.

In addition to forest associations, there areseveral other important ways to categorize theforest for informational purposes. The growth offorest trees has traditionally been measured interms of wood products since that is how forests

Growing stock is all live trees suitable for useas industrial wood products. Trees are alsogrouped according to their size with measure-ments of diameter taken 4½ feet from the ground(referred to as “diameter at breast height” ordbh).

Sawtimber refers to trees at least nine inchesdbh for softwoods and eleven inches dbh forhardwoods.

Poletimber refers to trees at least five inchesdbh, but smaller than sawtimber. The seedling/sapling grouping includes stands where more thanhalf the trees are saplings (up to 4.9 inches dbh)and seedlings (less than 4½ feet tall). Data andstatistics for volume of growing stock andsawtimber, and for growth and removals arebased on timberland.

Forestland Area Continues to DeclineThe USDA Forest Service completed its

fifth Forest Inventory and Analysis for Marylandin 1999. Using both ground and aerial surveys,the Forest Service looked at 1,098 ground plotsacross the state to determine changes in forest-

Trends in Forestland Area

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

1950 1964 1976 1986 1999

Acr

es in

tho

usan

ds

Timberland

Noncommercial

Total Forestland

Estimated Total

Area of Timberland by Forest Type

0

250

500

750

1000

1250

1500

Whit

e/Red

Pine

Loblol

ly/Sho

rtlea

fOak

/Pine

Oak/H

ickor

y

Oak/G

um/C

ypres

s

Elm/A

sh/R

ed M

aple

Northe

rn H

ardwoo

ds

Other

thou

sand

s of

acr

es

1986

1999

9

land area, timberland area, volume of growingstock and sawtimber, and tree growth andremoval. According to this work, Marylandcontains 6.25 million acres of which 41% or 2.56million acres is forestland. Surprisingly, this newmeasurement compares favorably with estimatesfrom the early 1900’s when forests and old fieldscovered 46% of the state. But, it is also a de-crease of 3% or 79,500 acres since the previousinventory in 1986.

Timberland makes up the largest segment ofMaryland’s forestland. Ninety-two percent (2.37million acres) of forestland and 38% of all land istimberland.

This is an overall decrease from 1986, whentimberland totaled 2.52 million acres, or 95% ofthe forestland, and 40% of the land area.

The Composition of theForest is Changing

The majority of the timber inMaryland forests is yellowpoplar, oak, and red maple - themajor species in the oak-hickoryforest type. The oak-hickorytype covers 58% or 1.38 millionacres, followed by loblolly-shortleaf pine (12% or 282,600acres), oak-pine (10% or229,600 acres), and northernhardwood (9% or 209,100acres). Other types of forestcombine for 262,700 acres. Thedecrease in the proportion ofthe combined oak species has

been attributed to many factors, among them; thehigh mortality of oak species following gypsymoth infestations, deficits in oak reproduction dueto deer browsing, and a loss of periodic lowintensity fires which oak’s are more likely tosurvive than other species.

Yellow-Poplar Leads in VolumeThe 1999 inventory identified 94 tree species

in Maryland, though many of them are uncom-mon. The twelve most common species accountfor 88% of the total cubic foot volume. Yellow-poplar leads in volume followed closely by redmaple.

The Number of Trees per Acre is NotChanging

There are 1.44 billion live trees 1.0 inch orlarger in dbh on Maryland’s timberland, or 609trees per acre. Of these, 385 million (159 treesper acre) are at least 5.0 inches in dbh. Red

maple is the most common tree species bynumber in Maryland, accounting for 15% of allsaplings and 15% of the live trees five inches andlarger in dbh. Sweetgum is the second mostcommon tree species by number, with 10% of thesaplings and 9% of the trees at least five inchesin diameter. Loblolly pine rounds out the top threeoverall, with 8% of the saplings and 14% of thetrees five inches and larger in dbh. Since 1986,the average number of trees per acre that are5inches dbh has remained unchanged at 159, butthe average diameter has increased from 9.3inches to 9.6inches.

Forests are Maturing With Fewer Stands ofYoung Trees

Most of the State’s commercial forestlandregenerated after extensive harvesting and farmabandonments at the turn of the century. Today,sawtimber stands occupy 66% (1.57 millionacres) of timberland area. These large trees haveincreased in acreage since the last forest inven-tory and are vital to wildlife. Their understory ofherbaceous plants and shrubs provide food and

Number of Live Trees (1.0+" dbh)on Timberland, 1999

Total Hardwoods

87%

Total Softwoods

13%

Total Softwoods

Total Hardwoods

1,246,596,000

192,466,000

Change in Volume of Top Species

0

100200

300400

500

600700

800

Yellow

-Pop

larRed

Map

le

Other R

ed O

aks

Loblol

ly Pine

Select

Whit

e Oak

sSwee

tgum

Ash/W

alnut/

Cherry

Other W

hite O

aks

Select

Red O

aks

Hickor

yVirg

inia P

ineBlac

kgum

mil

lion

cu

bic

fee

t

1986

1999

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cover, their boles and bark provide nesting andfeeding sites, and the large dead trees, bothstanding and on the forest floor, provide additionalfood and cover. Since 1986, sawtimber standshave increased by 4% or 64,000 acres.

Poletimber stands cover 506,100 acres(21%). Trees in these stands are not sufficientlymature to produce large amounts of nuts andseeds, and often form dense overstories thatinhibit the growth of understory vegetation.Poletimber stands have decreased in area by31% since 1986.

Stands classified as sapling-seedling andnonstocked increased from 11% of timberland in1986 to 12% in 1999. These stands typicallycontain early successional, pioneer tree speciesas well as a variety of herbaceous and shrubplants that need full sunlight to survive. Thesestands provide unique nesting and feeding oppor-tunities for wildlife.

In a state that has seen tremendous popula-tion growth in recent years (the population hasdoubled since 1950), the fact that forests stillcover 41% of the land is remarkable. There arethree important reasons for this high percentage.

First, most of the population of Maryland hasconcentrated in and around Baltimore andWashington D.C. and a few other cities, leavingmuch of the state fairly rural. Second, there hasbeen a sizable decrease in the amount of landused for farming. Land in farms is now half ofwhat it was in 1950, a loss of 2.1 million acres.Although much of the lost farmland has beendeveloped, some of it has been abandoned andhas reverted to forestland through natural regen-eration and tree planting. These new forests haveoffset much of the loss in forestland due todevelopment. Third, Maryland forests have beenrestored, conserved and protected by a variety ofeffective forest management programs.

Life in the Forest

The ecosystem that we call the forest isfilled with thousands of nearly invisible relation-ships among the kingdoms of life – animals,plants, fungi, and bacteria. All species, from themitochondria bacteria and mycorrhizae fungi tooak trees and black bears are important compo-

nents of healthy, self-sustaining forest ecosys-tems. They have evolved over the millennia totake advantage of differences in their environ-ment, nearly infinite variations in soil moistureand acidity, sunlight, temperature, hydrology,and prey. For example, the cell of each leafcontains 50 to 100 chloroplasts, the micro-scopic green structures that are the tree’s solarenergy panels. Once, they were algal parasites,now they live together in a beneficial relation-ship. A fungus that began infecting tree rootseventually became an “association” calledmycorrhizae that is necessary for tree roots to

absorb nutrients from the soil. Squirrels and bluejays eat every acorn they can find, and, bydispersing the seeds, become symbiotic treeplanters. These examples are a tiny part ofbiological diversity – the entire array of organ-isms and natural communities that thrive anddepend on each other in complex interwovenlives.

Maryland’s biodiversity is rich and variedcompared to its size. Roughly 900 species ofvertebrate animals, 3,900 vascular plant taxa(species, subspecies, or varieties), 160 butterflies,22 freshwater mussels, and thousands of otherinvertebrate animals can be found within itsborders. Terrestrial and aquatic species aresupported by over 100 different assemblages ofplant communities, including tidal marshes,swamp forests, Coastal Plain bogs, pinelands,serpentine grasslands, upland hardwood forests,scrublands, and beds of submerged aquaticvegetation. These plant communities and habitattypes are the basic fabric that maintains the webof life.

When the early colonists first explored thispart of the New World, they found it teemingwith animals, including elk, gray wolves, bison,and mountain lions. Today, these species aregone from Maryland and many more have greatlydeclined. In the years since European coloniza-tion, our forests have been changed and somespecies dependent upon them are now rare,endangered, or no longer dwelling in Maryland.When forests are under stress, individual speciesand their habitats become threatened, therebyendangering the health of the forest itself.

Maryland’s largest mammal, the black bear,requires large forested areas to survive. The bestbear habitat is found in Garrett county where

Change in Area of Timberland by Stand-Size Class

0.00

200.00

400.00

600.00

800.00

1,000.00

1,200.00

1,400.00

1,600.00

Sawtimber Poletimber Sapling &Seedling

Nonstocked

tho

usa

nd

s o

f ac

res

1986

1999

4.2%

-31.7%

6.5%

27.1%

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expansive hardwood forests are interspersed witha dense rhododendron understory and wetlands.Until recently, it was believed that Eastern WildTurkeys needed large forested areas to survive,yet a capture and release program has success-fully reintroduced them in every county ofMaryland. They may be found in mature hard-wood and pine forests as well as grassy fields.White-tailed deer are very abundant and arefound throughout Maryland in forests, farms,wetlands, parks, open areas, and suburban areas.Some suspect that white-tailed deer may be morenumerous today than prior to European settle-ment. In pre-colonial times, they were prey forwolves and mountain lions and Native Americanshunted them year round – today, man is their onlypredator.

While diverse forest meet the habitatrequirements of many different species andattract a great variety, large stretches of forestaren’t always needed. Chipmunks and sala-manders, for example,can thrive in a smallpatch of woods. Butmany species dorequire large blocksof forest to thrive.These species arecalled forest interiordwelling species, orFIDS. Scarlet tana-gers are FID birdsthat have highersuccess rates whenraising young if they

nest deep in the forest. Closer to forest edges,their eggs are often pushed out of nests bybrown-headed cowbirds. The cowbirds then laytheir eggs in the nest, leaving the tanagers toraise the young cowbirds. Cowbirds are rarelyfound in the center of large forests.

There is other life in the forest and it is us.We enjoy forests for study, fun, exercise, peaceand solitude, and any number of other reasons.Our enjoyment is both intellectual and emotional;the forest is both the ancient home of our ances-tors and the modern counterpoint to our urbanlives. Our “recreation” in natural settings isdeeply rooted and deeply important and the widearray of forests across Maryland offer ampleopportunity for different kinds of contact –hunting, horseback riding, backpacking, cross-country skiing,snowshoeing, rockclimbing, caving,birding, picnicking,

gathering nutsand berries,

photographing and watching wild animals, identi-fying and photographing wildflowers, and, maybe,just looking and listening. Hiking and camping inprimitive areas are the top two recreational usesof our forests.

The latest information (2001) from the USFish and Wildlife Service measured spending inMaryland for wildlife-related recreation to beapproximately $1.743 billion. The same sourcereports that nearly 40% of Marylanders partici-pated in wildlife-related recreation and over one-quarter of a million nonresidents visited Marylandfor fishing and hunting alone.

As our population burgeons and land usepressures intensify, it is increasingly importantthat we protect our most productive naturalareas. Once gone, they cannot be fully restored.

Their resourcepotential, their utilityfor education andresearch, their recre-ational, aesthetic, andcultural values wouldbe lost to futuregenerations.

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Harvesting The Forest

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Heat is a form of energy. The source of that energy, captured by the trees’ leaves, is the sun. Multiplying the potential energy of those two to three piecesof split wood by the untold thousands of logs accumulating in the trees all around me, I am awed by the sheer magnitude of energy that drives life,passing from one form to the next. The energy captured by trees and other plants will eventually be tapped by bacteria and fungi, by insects and otherherbivores, and then passed on to birds and other predators, like us.

Bernd Heinrich

The Working Forest

Growing Stock Volume Has IncreasedNearly all of the forestland in Maryland is

capable of growing trees suitable for woodproducts. Only about 10% of the forestland isheld in reserves where trees are not removed foruse. These lands include parts of State forests,designated wildlands, and urban forests. Harvest-ing and land use change can and has occurredacross the remaining 90% of the land, but annualwood growth is more than annual wood removaland has been since 1952. In fact, Maryland’sforests now contain more large trees withincreased volume than they did at the turn ofthe century.

Since 1986, average annual harvesting andland use removal of growing stock volume totals82.6 million cubic feet. Growing stock volume is ameasure of live trees that are considered com-mercial and measure 5 inches dbh or larger.Sixty-three percent of this removal comes fromharvesting, 28% is attributed to volume ontimberland reclassified to noncommercial forest-land, and 9% comes from timberland convertedto nonforest uses. Average annual net growthsince 1986 has been 106.8 million cubic feet. Thissurplus of growth represents an annual netincrease in the volume of wood on timberland and

sawtimber volume is 1.6 to 1 for a positive annualchange of 156 million board feet. Yellow poplarshowed an annual increase of 150 million boardfeet, a ratio of 6.2 to 1. Loblolly pine showed nosignificant increase in volume. Sawtimbervolume has increased 14% since 1986. Volumesper acre have increased from 5,935 board feet to6,797 board feet for a total of 16.1 billion boardfeet of sawtimber volume in Maryland (forcomparison, a new home requires approximately20,000 board feet of lumber).

The Renewable Resource

The economic and population shifts of theearly 1900’s affected much of Maryland’s foresttoday. These forests are being used for a varietyof products: building lumber, shipping

an average net gain of 24.1 million cubic feet peryear.

Ratios of growth to removals of growing-stock volume vary with tree species. Yellowpoplar is growing 4.5 times faster than it is beingremoved by harvest or land use change. Redmaple is being taken twice as fast as it is grow-ing. Loblolly pine, one of the top five species ingrowing stock volume, is equally balancedbetween removal and growth. Overall, during themost recent inventory period, growing stockvolume increased by 7%.

Sawtimber Volume Has IncreasedAverage annual net growth of sawtimber on

timberland is 428.6 million board feet. Harvestingand land use change removes 272.7 million boardfeet per year. The ratio of growth to removals of

13

business in Maryland. Thereare hundreds more that manu-facture secondary forestproducts such as molding,wooden boats, caskets, doors,musical instruments, pictureframes, and signs. The industryas a whole is broken into threemajor categories: TimberManagement and Harvesting,Primary Wood Manufacturing,and Secondary Wood Manu-facturing.

Timber Management andHarvesting includes theoperation of timber tracts, treefarms, reforestation services, and forestnurseries; the harvest and transportation of logs;and the production of wood chips and rough,round, hewn, or split wood raw materials. Thissector is concentrated on the Eastern Shore,employs a total of 1,375 and has an annual

statewide output of $230 million.The Primary Wood Manufacturing sector

processes logs and related raw materials intolumber, veneer, plywood, pulp, paper, and otherproducts. It is concentrated in the westerncounties, employs a total of 3,449 and has a $720million annual statewide output.

The final sector, Secondary WoodManufacturing, turns the primary manufacturingproducts into finished ones, such as furniture,toys, cardboard containers, cabinets, and finishedbuilding components. It is focused in the centralcounties of Maryland, employs a total of 9,074and has the largest annual statewide output –$1.234 billion.

All regions of Maryland support some levelof wood processing but the central and westernportions account for over two-thirds of the annualoutput value and 60% of the employment. This islargely due to a concentration of secondarymanufacturers in the central counties and paperand other product mills in the western counties.

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nretsaE 931$ 947 07$ 144 041$ 519

nrehtuoS 62$ 451 93$ 042 181$ 423,1

nretseW 63$ 492 484$ 732,2 401$ 139

etatS 032$ 573,1 027$ 944,3 432,1$ 470,9

Source: The Economic Importance of the Maryland Forest Products Industry.

crates, shelving and furniture, pallets, flooring,molding, mulch, chips for fuel and particle board,and pulp for paper. Many forest stands arenow between 70 and 120 years old and havereached the age where most are about 18 inchesin diameter. These large trees are used forveneer and other high quality wood products andhave brought about an increase in the value ofwood products over the last three decades.

In 1996 (the year for which the most com-prehensive information is available), severalhundred forest products operators and timber-dependent businesses operated in Maryland.These businesses provided nearly 14,000 jobs,had an annual output value of $2.2 billion, andcontributed $.75 billion in value-added economicactivity. According to the MD DNR ForestService, 329 logging companies, 208 firewoodcompanies, 104 sawmills, seven veneer logbrokers, 280 Christmas tree farms, one pulp andpaper mill, and eight reforestation plantingcompanies are registered or licensed to do

14

The eastern counties support the largest timbermanagement and harvesting output ($139 million)and the southern counties follow the centralregion in secondary wood manufacturing output.

In addition to providing direct employment andincome for Marylanders, the forestry andwood product industry generates income forbusiness owners, property income, and indirectbusiness taxes. This “Value-Added” economicactivity boosts the industry’s contribution to theState’s economy by another $.75 billion.

A healthy forest products industry helpsensure a healthy and resilient Chesapeake Bay.Without healthy wood fiber markets, forestlandowners would have more economic incentiveto grow houses rather than trees! Since forests,as a land cover, are the best for producing clean,fresh water, any loss of forestland to other useshas a detrimental effect on Chesapeake Bayrestoration efforts.

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nretsaE 45.36$ 95.91$ 78.73$ 00.121$

nrehtuoS 00.31$ 07.11$ 21.07$ 38.49$

nretseW 83.51$ 61.381$ 13.53$ 58.332$

etatS 59.501$ 67.842$ 35.404 32.957$Source: The Economic Importance of the Maryland Forest Products Industry.

The Forest Industry’s Impact

Because of the widespread commercialuse of forest resources, timber plays asignificant role in the economy of Marylandand the forestry industry has significantlinks to other Maryland industries. For everydollar of economic output value of the woodproducts industry, another dollar is producedelsewhere in Maryland’s economy. Forevery job in the wood products industry, twojobs are stimulated elsewhere. And forevery dollar of value produced by theindustry, nearly two more dollars in valueare added as the product moves up thevalue-adding chain.*

The total annual payroll from the forestproducts industry in Maryland is more than$420 million. If indirect benefits of thesewages and salaries were included, the

effect would be even greater.**Another way to look at the impact of the

industry is to project how changes in overalloutput would ripple throughout the state’seconomy. A 10% drop in primary woodmanufacturing ($72 million) would result in a$156 million drop in the value of all goods andservices in the state. Western Maryland wouldabsorb nearly $92 million of this loss. The same10% decline would cost 1,390 jobs, most of themin Western Maryland. A 10% drop would alsohave a significant effect on wages, income, andtaxes causing a $76 million loss.***

*The Economic Importance of the Maryland ForestProducts Industry, 1996**Maryland’s Forest: Past, Present, & Future, MarylandCooperative Extension Service, University of Maryland)***The Economic Importance of the Maryland ForestProducts Industry, 1996

15

Maryland’s Association of ForestConservancy District Boards: Unique tothe Nation

Maryland established Forest ConservancyDistrict Boards in 1943 to help its ForestService promote forest management onprivately owned woodlands. The originalgoal of the Boards was to help ensure asupply of forest products throughscientific forest management. Today,their role has expanded to includeleadership for the improvement of theenvironment in urban and suburban areasand education about the benefits of treesand forests. The volunteer members of theBoards serve as tree and forestadvocates, and educators. The ForestryBoards are active in all twenty-threecounties and Baltimore City.

The Forest Landowner

Selling wood is a major source of income forprivate owners (who hold 76% of the forestlandin Maryland). If a viable forest economy ispresent, owners have economic incentives tokeep their land in forests. If not, they aremotivated to look for other uses. Conversion toother land uses, such as development, isencouraged when people become uncertain thatkeeping the land in farms and forests will yieldfuture returns. Such an outcome, over time, willresult in the loss of countless environmentalbenefits.

Forests are the preferred land use in effortsto improve water quality. Years of research haveshown that forest is the best form of land use toreduce sedimentation, remove nutrients fromgroundwater, and regulate streamflow duringstorm events. All of which lead to improvedwater quality, enhanced habitat for livingresources, and a better aquatic environment.

Healthy, managed, productive forests willhelp retain sustainable natural resource-based

industries by providing working landscapes fromwhich a sustainable supply of resources isavailable. Many forest landowners rely on theincome produced from their forestland whether itis from timber sales, hunting leases, or somenontraditional product. If the resource-basedindustries cannot operate due to regulatoryconstraints or insufficient raw material supply,they will close or relocate to other states, takingjobs and associated economic and environmentalbenefits with them. The loss of these industrieswould leave the landowner with limitedmanagement options and, if faced with economicneeds, little opportunity for producing cash flow.The likely outcome would be the sale of the landfor development.

In 1999, the income from timber sold onMaryland woodlands, whether as stumpage(price paid to the landowner for standing trees) orcut and then sold, was estimated to be $32.4million. This provided a direct economic benefit toMaryland workers. For every $1 paid tolandowners for a sale of timber in 1999, $14 indirect wages and salaries was generated for theState’s economy.

The Maryland Department of Agriculturereports that “farm revenue” for forest productsreached over $33 million in 2000 and hasaveraged over $30 million since 1996. But manyof Maryland’s 130,000 forest landowners are stillunaware of the sustainable value of theirforestland. Information targeted to the generalpublic about the value of forests and trees doeshelp create an awareness of the resource butcontinued work is required to supply personallyrelevant material that will motivate a landownerto “do” something with his forestland.

Forest landowners in Maryland can receiveinformation and recommendations to better carefor their forestland by contacting the MD DNRForest Service office in their County. The ForestStewardship Program provides technicalassistance to help individual landowners enhanceor protect the timber, fish/wildlife habitat, waterquality, wetlands, and recreational/aestheticvalues of their property, as well as find ways touse sustainable land management practices thatprotect the Chesapeake Bay. Practices eligiblefor technical and/or financial assistance includeafforestation, forest improvement, windbreaksand hedgerows, streamside and wetlandsprotection, fish habitat improvements, wildlifehabitat enhancement, and soil and waterprotection. Over the past 10 years, an average of28,500 acres/year has been enrolled.

16

Improving the Management of the Forest

Woodland Incentive Program - This provides cost-share assistance to private landowners for tree planting, site preparation, and timber standimprovement practices. It covers up to 50% of the cost of eligible practices and is available to owners of at least 10 but not more than 500 acres that havepotential to be harvested for logs, pulpwood, firewood, woodchips, posts and other forest products. Maryland distributes approximately $100,000 to 75-100landowners covering 1,500-2,000 acres each year.MD DNR Forest Service, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410-260-8531.

Forest Conservancy District Boards - County forestry boards are allowed to review all timber harvests in the state. State law provides that anyforestlands of three acres or greater on which commercial cutting is done must be left “in a favorable condition for regrowth,” that young growth beretained, that restocking after harvest be arranged, and that the operator maintain adequate growing stock after selective cutting. In practice, the forestryboards only review timber harvests in the Chesapeake Bay Critical Area and in specific parts of Frederick County.MD DNR Forest Service, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410-260-8531

Master Logger Program - This is a series of comprehensive training courses designed for the logging professional. Program attendance iscompletely voluntary but the Master Logger Program endorses only those loggers that complete the training agenda. Training covers such topics as bestmanagement practices, forest management, logging aesthetics, logging safety, and first aid and CPR. Landowners, foresters, and all interested may attendthe courses. Maryland Forests Association, P.O. Box 599, Grantsville, Maryland 21536, 301-895-5369, mfa@hereintown.net

Forest Conservation and Management Agreement - A property tax program that allows owners of five or more contiguous acres of forestland toapply for a reduced or frozen property tax assessment. If the owner agrees to not develop the land for nonforest uses for a minimum of 15 years, theproperty tax assessment is frozen at $125/acre for the life of the agreement. Maryland has about 1,300 agreements covering 97,539 acres of forested land.A “forest conservation and management plan” is required.MD DNR Forest Service, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410-260-8531.

Timber Stand Improvement and Reforestation Income Tax Modification (TaxMod) - In this program, taxpayers may subtract from theiradjusted gross income on their state income taxes an amount that is double the cost of reforestation and timber stand improvement practices (less any cost-share assistance). Eligibility requires ownership or lease of 10 - 500 acres of forestland capable of growing more than 20 cubic feet of wood per acre peryear and available for the primary purpose of growing and harvesting trees.MD DNR Forest Service, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410-260-8531.

17

Forests and Land Use

Nature, over the course of eons, has built aforest ecosystem that is integral to the mainte-nance and fundamental quality of our lives. Thereis no forest where we completely understand allthe relationships among its living parts – plants,animals, fungi, and bacteria – much less therelationships of these living parts with its nonlivingparts – geology, climate, hydrology, and soil. Butwe do understand a coarser interdependence;without functioning forests the whole systemfails.

The greatest threat to Maryland’s forest baseis the conversion of forestland to nonforest uses– a somewhat bureaucratic way of saying thatthe natural forest vanishes. But also, as residen-tial and other development spreads across thelandscape, the spatial configuration of the remain-ing natural forest changes. The creation of smallisolated patches of remaining forest reduceshabitat quality for species that require large tractsof interior forest and reduces the opportunity forthe gene flow and migration needed to maintainresilient natural plant and animal populations. Inaddition, large blocks of forest are often subdi-vided into “smaller” parcels which increases the

potential for their conversion to nonforest use andreduces the amount of actively-managed largeblocks of forest.

Projections by the Maryland Department ofPlanning estimate that between 1990 and 2015the land area dominated by urban developmentwill increase to a total of 1.5 million acres. This isan increase of 48%. The total area developedmay be 25% of Maryland. Without changes inland use planning and effective resource-specificcontrols, thousands of acres of forests could belost to development.

The need is to prepare for the addition of onemillion people over the next 20 years, develop acoordinated strategy to strengthen the State’sability to direct growth, and enhance our olderdeveloped areas. This translates to an “inside”game to revitalize towns and an “outside” gameto manage and protect resource lands. In short,Maryland is trying to spend money more effi-ciently, protect its trees and forests, and keep itscommunities strong.

Historically, the need to protect a particularspecies of plant or animal or a natural systemsuch as tidal wetlands or the Chesapeake Bay’s1000-foot critical area has brought about a newlaw and regulatory actions that prohibit some

activities previously allowed. This approach tonatural resources protection and managementoften generates controversy and createsadversarial relationships between governmentand landowners.

The Forest Conservation Act (FCA) wasadopted in 1991 to conserve the State’s forestresources during land development. It is one ofthe first laws of its kind in the United States. TheAct requires identification of existing foreststands, protection of the most desirable foreststands and establishment of areas where newforests can be planted. Forest conservationplanning occurs during the initial site planning of aproposed development, when forest conservationcan occur without causing undue economic costs.The FCA establishes standards for local authori-ties to enforce during development. The Act is ameans to protect not only forest and trees indeveloping areas, but also any sensitive areasidentified during the local planning or comprehen-sive land use plan adoption process. Over nineyears 8,700 acres of forest have been plantedand 46,000 acres have been retained through theForest Conservation Act.

Even though a large number of restrictiveregulations are in place, this approach is slowlygiving way to the use of voluntary programs that

Sustaining the Forest BaseWhy do we need forest? There are many compelling reasons, but they are generally tabulated in quarterly balance sheets. Ecosystem “services” include airand water purification, flood control, erosion control, nutrient recycling, and pollination services. Ecologically, forest is natural habitat and most specieson earth are adapted to it and require it. There have been and are many practical arguments for forest – practical in the material sense. Ultimatelyadvocates for forest are motivated also by ethics rooted in our own psychological dependence on wilderness. Conservationists...have all in their own wayreaffirmed that like other animals we, too, need forest or other wilderness to live healthy adapted lives.

Bernd Heinrich

18

use incentives rather than mandates to achievedesired results. Several of these types of pro-grams are available for forest owners.

A Forest Conservation and ManagementAgreement freezes property assessments atlower rates in exchange for a landowners com-mitment to put their land under proper manage-ment.

Maryland TAXMOD allows owners offorestland who reforest their property or carryout timber stand improvement to deduct doubletheir cost of employing these measures from theirincome for tax purposes.

The voluntary Forest Legacy (fundedthrough the US Forest Service and responsiblefor over 1,400 acres of forest preservation) andRural Legacy programs offer easement protec-tion for forest and agricultural land. Maryland hasset a goal to protect 200,000 acres of vitalresources by the year 2011, earmarking $138million for the Rural Legacy Program to accom-plish these goals. Thus far, the State has pre-served more than 40,000 acres.

The Conservation Reserve EnhancementProgram, created in 1998, pays farm landown-ers to create riparian buffers, retire highlyerodible soils, and restore wetlands on agricul-tural land. It offers voluntary easements forpermanent protection and is a major part of theStream ReLeaf initiative to establish 1,200 milesof buffer in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.Maryland’s goal is to enroll 100,000 acresstatewide by 2002: 70,000 acres of riparianbuffers, 20,000 acres of highly erodible lands, and10,000 acres of wetlands. The program has beenextended, and as of June 2003, 64,000 acreswere enrolled.

The Urban Initiative represents a newcomprehensive approach to address naturalresource preservation, conservation, and restora-tion in the urban context. Examples of the UrbanInitiative include such projects as the AnacostiaRiver watershed in Prince George’s County withtree and riparian buffer planting, wetland restora-tion in Federalsburg, helping teachers from twoAnnapolis elementary schools integrate naturalresource conservation into classroom instruction,and designing a “retrofit” bioretention pond in aparking lot as part of the Elkton DowntownRevitalization Plan.

The Maryland Greenways Commission ischarged with promoting and coordinating theprotection and development of natural greenwaycorridors in cities, suburbs and rural areas. Somegreenways are pristine wildlife or ecologicalcorridors not intended for human use or access;others are designed primarily to accommodaterecreational users or educational activities. Agreenway can be a protected creek bed, a trail, aridgeline, or strip of vegetation along a streambank, a converted railroad or a utility right-of-way.

These voluntary, non-regulatory measures areall part of an expanded effort in Maryland toimprove environmental protection through use ofthe carrot rather than the stick.

Forest Ownership

Maryland’s timberland is over three-quartersprivately owned. People own forestland forrecreation, investment, timber production, wildlifehabitat, and simple aesthetic enjoyment. In 1999,there were roughly 2.4 million acres of timberlandand approximately 78% was owned by private

individuals. The forest industry owned less than4%, or 88,000 acres. Federal, State, and localentities owned 421,000 acres, or 17%. Between1955 and 1976, the number of private ownersincreased from 35,000 to 95,800. By 1989, therewere 130,600 private owners. In 1976, 55% or52,690 owners held less than 10 acres. By 1989,the number of owners holding less than 10 acresincreased to 65% or 84,890. Each property is soldon an average of once every 12 years and only39% of the owners have had harvest experiencewith their forest.

Landow ners

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1955 1976 1986 1989

Tho

usan

ds

Area of Timberland by Ownership, 1999(thousands of acres)

Other Private78%

Forest Industry4%

Public18%

Public Forest Industry Other Private

19

city parks and conservation areas have beencreated. Also funded by the transfer tax, theAgricultural Land Preservation Foundationhas 3,062 agricultural and woodland preservationdistricts covering more than 398,000 acresincluding the purchase of easements on 1,551properties totaling 217,000 acres.

A Giant Step for Sustaining the Forest

The acquisition of 58,000 acres on theEastern Shore is the largest conservationland purchase in Maryland’s history. In1998, the State, together with the RichardKing Mellon Foundation and The Conser-vation Fund, purchased land owned byChesapeake Forest Products Company tocreate a national model of public/privatecooperation for sustainable forestry. Thepreservation of these lands will protectwater quality, essential wildlife habitat, therural landscape and economy of theregion, and will add to recreationalopportunities.

Fragmentation and Parcelization

In addition to the number of acres lost todevelopment, the location, size, and number ofowners of the remaining forests is critical tomanagement. As forestland is fragmented intosmaller and smaller blocks by residential homesand developments many wildlife species areaffected. Fragmented forests resemble “islands”surrounded by a “sea” of farms, houses, roads,and other products of civilization. The species

The State Forests of Maryland are made upof roughly 137,000 acres in four major parcels:Potomac- Garrett, and Savage River StateForests in Garrett County; Green Ridge StateForest in Allegany County; and Pocomoke StateForest in Worcester County. About half of theState Forest acreage is in a management cat-egory that permits harvesting. Over the past fiveyears, 4,534 acres (about ½ of 1% of the totalavailable forest per year) have been harvested.

Recent studies show that conserving openspace does not require an either/or choicebetween the environment and economics. Forestconservation and protection is a sound invest-ment. Studies comparing the fiscal impact ofdevelopment to the conservation of relativelyunfragmented open space (such as forests) havefound that conservation and protection of openspace has a more positive benefit on acommunity’s economy than fragmented sprawldevelopment. The benefits come from lowercosts of community services, increased propertyvalues resulting in higher tax revenues, greaterrecreational opportunities, more tourism dollars,and natural water quality improvements andrunoff control.

Maryland allocates millions of dollars everyyear to its three principal land preservationprograms: Program Open Space, the Agricul-tural Land Preservation Foundation, and theRural Legacy Program. These efforts share thebasic aim of protecting undeveloped land fromthe pressure of an ever-expanding population.Through 2002, nearly $1 billion has been allocatedto State and local governments for the acquisitionof approximately 285,000 acres under ProgramOpen Space. Funded by a portion of the realestate transfer tax, more than 3,000 county and

restricted to these islands are limited to fewerpotential partners and run the risk of inbreeding.Combined with the natural population fluctuationscaused by storms and fire, isolated pockets ofspecies can simply disappear. Even seeminglysound fragments of forests are made vulnerableby their “edges.” This boundary is more suscep-tible to damage from high winds and, even moreimportantly, is ripe for invasion by predators andparasites from the adjacent open areas, includinginvaders that could never survive in a deep,interior forest. In effect, the “edge” reduces thesize of the already isolated “island” and furtherlimits its capacity as a healthy, diverse ecosys-tem.

Forested areas are “parceled” when increas-ing numbers of owners control smaller andsmaller portions of the forest. The “paper”subdivision or parcelization of large blocks offorest is the beginning of forest fragmentation.These small parcels of forestland are more likelyto be converted to nonforest uses, such asagriculture or residential development. Smallerparcels and more owners make the traditionalbenefits of forests more difficult to obtain and themanagement options available to ensure thesebenefits become more limited and difficult toimplement.

Assessing the causes, consequences, andpatterns of fragmentation and parcelization iscritical to management planning for maximumeconomic and ecological benefits. Parcelizationand fragmentation of forested areas oftencorresponds with a decrease in the percentage offorestland actively managed. Without manage-ment, forest health is likely to be overlooked, andforest benefits become less predictable and moreincidental.

20

The Green Infrastructure land network is aconcept that will combat fragmentation andprotect and link Maryland’s remaining ecologi-cally valuable lands. These lands will include, forexample, large contiguous tracts of forestlands,important wildlife habitats, wetlands, ripariancorridors, and areas that contain key elements ofMaryland’s biological diversity. The network willbe linked by a system that connects large con-tiguous blocks of natural resource lands (hubs)through corridors that encompass the mostecologically valuable areas between these hubs(e.g. areas of high aquatic integrity, wetlands,wildlife migration routes and important forest-lands). Green Infrastructure is a coordinatedstatewide approach to land conservation andrestoration that will: 1) systematically identifyand protect lands with important ecological andbiodiversity-related characteristics; 2) addressproblems of forest fragmentation, habitat degra-dation, and water quality; 3) maximize theinfluence and effectiveness of public and privateland conservation investment; 4) promote sharedresponsibility for land conservation betweenpublic and private sectors; and 5) guide andencourage compatible uses and land managementpractices.

The Urban Forest

Forest is natural habitat and most terrestrialspecies on earth are adapted to it and require it.This applies not only to our rural forest residentsbut to our urban forest residents. The urbanforest ties our communities of brick and concreteback to their roots in nature.

Maryland is home to about 4.8 million people.It is ranked 14th in the nation in population, and it

Baltimore City

has the 6th highest population density with anaverage of 489 people per square mile statewide.Nearly 80% of Marylanders live in the greatermetropolitan areas of Baltimore and Washington.The forests of these communities are invaluableassets.

Tree-lined streets shape the character of atown, individual trees add value to property, and,collectively forests and treesreduce air pollution by absorbinggaseous pollutants and filteringdust, ash, and smoke. A densegrove of trees about 50 feet widereduces the apparent loudness ofnoise by as much as 50%.Forests and trees buffer glarecaused by lights and the sun,provide wind protection, and coolthe air. A vigorous urban forestreduces heat retention, known asthe “heat island effect” andlowers home cooling costs.Runoff and erosion from stormsis reduced because leaves slowraindrops allowing them to soakinto the soil, thus reduces runoffand therefore the need forerosion control structures. Treesprovide habitat for white-taileddeer, squirrels, chipmunks, birds,raccoons, and scores of otheranimals. In short, trees are anintegral part of the physical andemotional life of cities.

A backyard or planting stripalong a highway is not necessar-ily the favored location for mosttrees. In urban areas, soils are

generally disturbed, graded, and compacted, withlow levels of oxygen and high levels of salt. As aresult, the trees and forests of our cities aresubject to stresses and limitations not shared byrural areas. Therefore, plans to establish ormaintain urban forests must be adapted to suit theurban environment.

21

Stresses influencing the health of urbanforests include lack of space for roots to grow,too little or too much water, nutrient deficiencies,insects and diseases, and low levels of oxygen inthe soil. Stress is added by improper pruning andother treatments, wounds from machines andpeople, artificial lights, altered waterways,compacted soil, and soil contaminated with salt,pesticides, and fertilizers. Nationwide, the aver-age life span of a tree in a downtown area is lessthan 10 years. Proper planning and speciesselection can decrease these impacts.

Urban forests are typically categorized intofour zones. The zones are the suburban fringe,the suburbs, city residential, and the city center.The suburban fringe is the area between ruralareas and established residential communities.Here, new subdivisions are found and newdevelopment is expected but opportunities forforest conservation remain. In the suburbs muchof the natural forest has been removed forhousing subdivisions. The city residential zone

features individual homes and townhouses onsmall lots. The space allotted to trees is abouthalf that in the suburbs. The city center haslimited space for trees but they grow in pots,holes in sidewalks, vacant lots, greenways, andparks. Trees in rights-of-way and other publicly-owned trees make up about 5% of the urbanforest.

Maryland’s Roadside Tree Law passed in1914, this Law and its regulations were devel-oped to protect roadside trees (trees in publicroad rights-of-way) by ensuring their proper careand protection and in the interest of promotingand maintaining safe, unobstructed, and aestheti-cally pleasing public road rights-of-way. The law,

one of the nation’s oldest tree protection laws,shows the importance of trees to Marylanderseven early in the last century. Permits arerequired to care for or remove such trees.Individual permits are available for a single treeor group of trees. Blanket permits for ongoingtree maintenance programs, such as thoseconducted by utilities and highway agencies arealso available. Commercial practitioners whoperform this work must have a Maryland TreeExpert License. All permitted work is reviewedby the MD DNR Forest Service.

The goal of urban forestry is to help blend theliving elements of a community with the builtinfrastructure so that conflicts are reduced andcommunities are more livable. The Urban andCommunity Forestry Program coordinatesseveral programs to enhance or protect urbanforests and trees, including Tree-MendousMaryland, Tree City USA, and Excellence inForest Conservation and Land Development.

22

Helping to Sustain the Forest Base

Rural Legacy - This program provides state funds to local governments and land trusts to acquire land and conservation easements to protect agricultural andforestlands. Funding comes from a variety of sources, including general obligation bonds and proceeds from the real estate transfer tax.MD DNR Rural Legacy Program, 580 Taylor Avenue, E-4, Annapolis, MD 21401, 410-260-8428, 410-260-8404 (fax).

Forest Legacy - A voluntary program of the US Forest Service administered in cooperation with state foresters. Under Forest Legacy, state forestry agencies maypurchase private forests in full, or acquire conservation agreements on the lands from willing sellers. The US Forest Service may fund up to 75% of the program costs, withat least a 25% match from non-federal sources. Forest Legacy areas must be environmentally important forest areas that are threatened by conversion to nonforest uses. Toqualify, landowners must prepare a multiple resource management plan, or Stewardship Management Plan, to guide long-term care of their forestland.MD DNR Forest Service, 580 Taylor Avenue, E-1, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410-260-8531.

Program Open Space - This provides grants to counties and local governments for open space and recreation areas. Funded by a realty transfer tax on residential andcommercial property, it has provided funds to acquire over 200,000 acres of land.MD DNR Program Open Space, 580 Taylor Avenue, E-4, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410-260-8426, 410-260-8404 (fax).

Maryland Environmental Trust - A statewide land trust established in 1967 to protect farmland and forestland, wildlife habitat, waterfront, significant natural areas, andhistoric sites. It solicits donated conservation easements and purchases easements using money from the general fund, Program Open Space, and other sources. In 2000, itheld 482 easements on 64,737 acres. MD DNR MET, 100 Community Place, Crownsville, MD 21032, 410-514-7903.

Maryland Agricultural Land Preservation Program - This program focuses on farms, not forests, but may include some wooded agricultural land. If farmland meetsthe minimum criteria established by the MALPF, landowners sign a voluntary agreement that the land will be maintained in agricultural use for five years. Once the land isin preservation status, the landowner becomes eligible to apply to sell an agricultural land preservation easement to MALPF. As of 1998, preservation easements had beenpurchased on over 152,000 acres. Maryland Agricultural Land Preservation Program ,Wayne A. Cawley, Jr. Building, 50 Harry S. Truman Parkway, Annapolis, Mary-land 21401-7080, 410-841-5860.

Forest Conservation Act - The Act provides guidelines for the amount of forestland retained or planted after the completion of development projects. These guidelinesvary for each development site and are based on land use categories. Where little or no forest exists, the Act requires that forests be established by planting trees. Undersome conditions planting may occur outside of the project site where a forest would provide protection to other natural resources, such as streams or wetlands. It appliesto all activities requiring a permit for subdivision, grading, or sediment control that is larger than 40,000 square feet. Information on the condition of the existing forest and aplan for conserving the most valuable portions of the forest are required.MD DNR, Forest Service, Tawes State Office Building, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, MD 21401, 410-260-8531.

Roadside Tree Law - Passed in 1914, this law is designed to protect trees in rights-of-way. It requires the MD DNR Forest Service to supervise tree maintenance workperformed in rights-of-way to maintain electricity, telephone, and other utilities. Licenses are issued and training is provided to tree experts who maintain trees in rights-of-way. Also, permits are issued to citizens who want to care for trees in rights-of-way adjacent to their homes.MD DNR Forest Service, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410-260-8531.

The TREE-MENDOUS MARYLAND Program - encourages Marylanders to plant, care for and maintain trees to help restore and protect the natural environment, inparticular, our greatest natural resource, the Chesapeake Bay. Program components include the Gift of Trees, volunteer opportunities, and tree purchasing. Information isavailable MD DNR Forest Service, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410-260-8531.

Tree City USA - A program conducted by the National Arbor Day Foundation in conjunction with the National Association of State Foresters. To qualify as a TreeCity in a given year, a jurisdiction must have a tree board or department responsible for tree care (and a tree ordinance establishing or designating such); have an urbanforestry program supported by the spending of at least $2 per capita and have a proclamation recognizing and celebrating Arbor Day.MD DNR Forest Service, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410- 260-8531.

PLANT - An awards program administered by MD DNR Forest Service and the Maryland Forest Conservancy District Boards. Awards are given based on thenumber of accomplishments completed by the applicant during the award year. A minimum of four accomplishments is required to be recognized. Acceptableaccomplishments for PLANT awards range from holding a one-time tree event or ceremony (Arbor Day) to having built comprehensive ongoing planting andmaintenance programs. MD DNR Forest Service, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410-260-8531.

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Clean Air

According to the US Department of Energy,deforestation, industrial activity, and the use offossil fuels have elevated carbon dioxide levels inEarth’s atmosphere by 25 percent over the last100 years. Concentrations of this heat-trappinggas continue to rise. Earth’s meansurface temperature has increased asmuch as 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit since1860. Many scientists maintain thatunabated emissions of CO

2 and other

greenhouse gases will bring furtherglobal warming and climate change.

Forests play a key role in globalwarming, since they are both sourcesand sinks of carbon dioxide emissions.In fact, forest loss to agriculture ordevelopment, along with overharvest-ing, have made forests the secondlargest source of CO

2. However, when

existing forests are conserved andsustainably managed, or cut-over

forests are replanted, they become effectivelong-term sinks. The process, called carbonsequestration, occurs when grassy crops andfast-growing trees remove carbon from the airand store it in soil or use it to grow roots, stems,and leaves. An estimated 3.5 billion tons ofcarbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas, could be

removed from the atmosphere by using farmlandand forests to absorb it. The United Statescurrently generates an estimated 5.8 billion tonsof carbon dioxide annually.

Along with carbon dioxide, trees removenitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,ozone, and particulate matter from the air. They

also reduce and moderate localtemperatures, reducing energy de-mand for artificial cooling (and itsaccompanying pollution) during peaktemperature periods. Currently, allMarylanders live in areas that meetfederal standards for carbon monox-ide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter,and nitrogen dioxide. Only 13% ofMarylanders live in areas wherestandards for one-hour ozone areexceeded, for which trees deservesome of the credit.

Forests help clean air by remov-ing carbon dioxide and pollutants andreleasing oxygen. These are normal

Maintaining The Quality of the ForestThe carbon dioxide is taken up from the air, masses of which seep across continents in a matter days. Since these air masses mix together as in a giantblender, it stands to reason that those 4.6 million carbon dioxide molecules taken up by just one tracheid cell (say in a twig of a maple seedling next tomy cabin) in just one second could have come from a decaying log in the Amazon, a car on a Los Angeles freeway, a coal-burning power plant in Utah, ahornbill in Indonesia, and a baboon in Tanzania. If we could put a pinhead-size red dot on a map of the world to indicate the source of each of those 4.6million molecules that were taken up in the last week by one growing tracheid cell, then the whole map from pole to pole would be colored solid red...Conversely, if we colored the map with blue dots for the fate of each of the oxygen molecules that the tracheid produces at the same time, then in a weekor less, the earth map would be a nearly solid blue. Each wood cell of every tree in my forest is in a give-and-take with the rest of the world.

Bernd Heinrich

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physiological and biochemical processes of plantmetabolism and growth, but excessive amounts ofchemical pollutants in the air may interfere withthese processes and cause physical damage totrees and other plants.

Ozone is a gas normally found in air in smallquantities. High concentrations of ozone causechronic health problems in people and may injuresome plant species. Trees that seem to besensitive to ozone damage include eastern whitepine and black cherry. Other species of pine, ash,poplar, maple, and oak may be sensitive as well.While damage from high concentrations of ozonedoes not seem to kill trees, it is an additionalstress on their health. Since 1992, ozone damagein Maryland has been monitored through theForest Health Monitoring System but the extentto which ozone is affecting forest health andecosystem diversity remains unclear. Whileozone levels can differ within a few miles due toelevation changes and other site factors, airquality data indicate general increases in ozonelevels across Maryland. Scientists are concernedabout the relationship of forest health and con-centrations of ozone in the atmosphere and somefeel that ozone levels may be reaching concentra-tions where natural adaptations may no longer beeffective in buffering the gas.

Clean Water

Acid deposition includes rain, snow, fog,gases, aerosols, and particulates like dust that areacidic in nature. Chemicals such as sulfate,nitrate, nitrite, and ammonium ions in the air reactwith precipitation and deposition making themeven more acidic. Natural sources of thesechemicals include fires, volcanos, and marshes.

These have been reacting with precipitation anddry deposition throughout time. However, auto-mobiles, power plants, and factories, haveincreased the amounts of these chemicals to thepoint that natural adaptations may no longer beeffective in keeping the pH levels in balance.

In 1991, the National Atmospheric DepositionProgram found that Maryland is located in ornear the region of highest levels of acid precipita-tion in the United States. Maryland also receiveshigher levels of sulfate and nitrate in the form ofprecipitation than the rest of the country. Actualmeasured effects of acid deposition on forestsare limited. While no direct adverse effects onforests have been documented, indirect effectsmay result from long-term changes in pH levelsin streams and lakes and soil chemistries.

Studies indicate that approximately one-thirdof all headwater streams in Maryland are suscep-tible to impacts from acid deposition or arealready acidic. The ability of vegetation, soils,and bedrock to buffer acidic inputs and lessenimpacts depends on the path water takes throughthe watershed. Rain seeping through leaf litter toa small stream and then to a large stream has adifferent impact than rain flowing across a rockoutcropping into a pond then following a streamto a lake. The potential for long-term effects ofacid deposition on soils is greatest on poorlybuffered soils, particularly at high elevationswhere soils are thin or where soils are alreadymoderately acidic. Changes in soil chemistry mayworsen for 50 to 60 years before effects onforests are observed. Similarly, it may take 40 or50 years for watersheds to show improvements inresponse to less acid precipitation and deposition.

1990

1999

1995

2002

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Strategic Forest Lands Assessment

Strategic Forests are key blocks of forestthat provide the optimal mix of ecologicaland socioeconomic values necessary tosupport natural resource based industriesand maximize ecological benefits. SFLAuses Geographic Information Systems toidentify where forest conservation effortswould make the greatest contribution to-wards achieving a sustainable forest re-source land base. To do this, SFLA evalu-ates where multiple ecological features andprocesses are occurring. It also attempts tounderstand the socioeconomic variables(timber, jobs, and recreation) that supportand will continue to sustain forest resource-based industries. The vulnerability (threat of

forest management and planting, riparian buffercreation or enhancement, stream channel restora-tion, wetland restoration/creation, pollutionprevention techniques, and appropriate landdevelopment methods.

Stewardship and careful management of ourstreamside and shoreline areas are important tomany of our goals for the Chesapeake Bay:reducing nutrients, improving habitat, enhancingwatershed management, and achieving ournatural resource protection goals. MarylandStream ReLeaf is a project committed to restor-ing forested buffers along streams and shorelines,and to conserving riparian buffers throughout theState. In 1996, Maryland pledged to create 600miles of riparian forested buffers by the year2010. This goal was reached in 2001 and a newgoal of an additional 600 miles has been set.

Forests are efficient filters, cleaning sedi-ments and other pollutants from water. Forestbuffers, strips of forests along bodies of water,are essential to maintain clean water. Tree rootsprotect waterways by stabilizing stream banksand shorelines and reducing erosion. Shade fromtrees lowers water temperatures in the summerand increases amounts of oxygen dissolved in thewater. Dissolved oxygen is needed by fish andplants. Forests increase large woody debris andorganic matter in waterways, thereby improvingliving conditions for cold-water fish and spawningconditions for warm-water fish. Planting andmaintaining forest buffers is a cost-effectivemeans of reducing amounts of pollutants enteringwaterways, including the Chesapeake Bay. InMaryland, there are almost 17,000 miles ofstreams and 7,500 miles of shorelines. Many ofthese areas have naturally vegetated buffers of100 feet or more, but 36% lack this basic envi-ronmental protection. Over 1/3 of these inad-equately buffered waterways are in developedareas, with the remainder in rural areas.

Stream systems across the state have alsobeen impacted by changes in land use and landcover. The reduction in forest cover and increasein impervious surfaces through development canbe seen in eroding banks, deepening channels,and finer sediments in the stream bed. All ofthese changes affect both the function and theaesthetic qualities of the stream and all aredirectly related to the land use activities takingplace within the watershed.

Restoration of a watershed involves coordi-nation of all of the various land use and landcover components to establish a balance betweenhabitat requirements, aesthetic goals, and landdevelopment needs. These components include

Forest Health

Pests and diseases are a natural part offorest life and, while they influence all aspects ofthe forest, individual attacks may have few long-term impacts. Defoliation of one species mayresult in slower growth and even some death, butother species may respond with increased growthand reproduction. Animals that feed on insectsmay thrive on the abundant food during out-breaks. It is only when insects and diseasesreach levels where natural adaptations are noteffective in limiting damage that they significantlyaffect the forest. Large scale damage can erasevaluable visual and scenic qualities, recreationalopportunities, watershed integrity, wood products,and wildlife habitat.

In Northern and Western Maryland, thou-sands of acres of forest have suffered varyingdegrees of gypsy moth defoliation and an esti-mated 428 million board feet of oak timber hasbeen lost. These forests are regenerating but withnew tree species less amenable to wildlife andless valuable as timber. Defoliation from thismajor pest increased dramatically from 1,197acres in 1999 to 22,824 acres in 2000. Conse-quently, almost 17,000 acres were treated in

conversion to a non-forested use) of specificforested landscapes, especially those of highecological integrity and significant economicbenefit, is then determined. Finally, foldingin the capabilities of Maryland’s forestconservation and restoration programs helpsround out a complete framework for focus-ing resource management actions.

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2000, the most since 1996. As the gypsy mothmoved south into previously unaffected areas ofSouthern Maryland and the Eastern Shore,defoliation, mortality, and changes in Marylandspecies composition has increased.

The hemlock woolly adelgid, a native of Asiaintroduced to the United States in the 1950’s, is aserious pest of hemlock trees. This aphid-likeinsect is commonly found in urban forests aroundBaltimore and Washington, and has also spreadto the native hemlock stands of western Mary-land. The extent of damage is not well-docu-mented but spraying is underway.

The pine shoot beetle, a European native, isattacking forests in Maryland’s four westerncounties. A Federal quarantine restricts move-ment of pine Christmas trees, pine nursery stock,

and pine logs from these counties unless they areinspected and certified as pest-free. A nativebeetle, the southern pine beetle, periodicallyravages Southern Maryland and the EasternShore killing hundreds of acres of woodland,particularly native timber, causing large changesin wildlife habitat.

Ongoing surveys and assessments of forestinsect and disease problems are a necessary partof forest management and decisions for treat-ment are often made. Pest control treatments areusually applied only to “critical” areas and foreststhat are actively managed. Critical areas includeforested areas where people live or play andwhere there are high numbers of susceptible treespecies. Treatments are generally effective anddamage is usually restricted to areas that are not

treated. Treating entire areas that are affected bypests would be a massive project.

WildfiresFire has both positive and negative health

effects on forests. Fires create mosaic patternsof new growth mixed in and around establishedplant and animal communities. New plant growthafter fires provides an abundance of food andtrees killed by fire provide shelter for birds andother animals. On the other hand,fire-caused injuries can result in decay anddeformity and mortality from insects and diseasesmay increase in burned areas. Higher concentra-tions of nutrients are found in soils following firesbecause the ashes are mixed into the soil. Waterfiltering through burned areas washes nutrientsout of the soil and into waterways often changingthe chemistry of the water. Ironically, fish aremore likely to suffer from fire than are otheranimals.

Maryland averages roughly 5,000 wildfiresannually. The acreage of forest, marsh, andgrasslands burned is between 8,000 and 9,000acres. The top three causes (65%) of wildfire inMaryland are arson, debris burning, and children.Other fires are caused by lightning strikes,campfires, smoking, equipment use, and railroadoperations. The MD DNR Forest Serviceresponds to 600 to 700 fires each year whichburn about 3,900 acres. The remaining wildfiresare typically very small and are handled by thevolunteer and paid fire service community ofMaryland. The MD DNR Forest Service assiststhese fire companies in training, providing special-ized equipment, investigating fire origins, andenforcing regulations.

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The MD DNR Forest Service concentratesits fire prevention and suppression in rural andsuburban areas, but as the suburban fringespreads and people move into forested areas, thecomplexity of suppressing fires involving bothnatural vegetation and structures increases.Narrow roads, flammable vegetation close tohomes, and inadequate water supplies haveincreased the threat to life and property. Thissituation is important now and will become moreso in the future. Special tactics and equipmentwill be needed to meet these risky and more andmore common circumstances.

Forest Diversity

Exotic and invasive plants established inMaryland are threatening forests and other nativeplant communities. Many of these plant specieswere introduced prior to the initiation of Federalplant quarantines in 1919 and others have beenintroduced more recently forlandscaping, wildlife habitat,or erosion control. Favorableclimate and soil conditions,and absence of competitorsto keep them in check areallowing these introducedspecies to spread to menac-ing proportions. Theseinvasions alter the structureand composition of the localecosystem and lead to areduction in biodiversity anda breakdown of regionaldistinctiveness. Manyexperts feel the prolifera-

tion of non-native species is the singlegreatest threat to biodiversity worldwide,second only to habitat destruction by man.

Once invasive plants gain a foothold theymay degrade areas subject to erosion by replac-ing native grasses with plants that are much lesseffective at anchoring soil. An invaded area thatbecomes a mono-culture offers reduced habitatfor animals. Since non-native species usuallyinvade from “edges” they have caused a majorshift of resources to eradication programs inareas with high infestations, typically parks andurban green spaces. Control is often difficult andexpensive and site preparation to remove non-natives is now an initial step in most reforestationand habitat restoration programs. While not asobvious or dramatic as the damage caused byinsects and diseases, introduced species candominate forested areas and old fields or otheropenings preventing tree regeneration, inhibitingnative herbaceous plants, changing visual quality,and reducing recreational use.

Truck & Hand Pumps

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Animals may also affect forest diversity. Forexample, populations of white-tail deer have risendramatically in response to a lack of naturalpredators, an abundance of favorable habitat, andprotective game laws. In the early 1990’s,Maryland’s deer population was estimated at160,000 animals. The density ranged fromapproximately 25 deer per square mile in the ruralregions of the State, to 15 per square mile in thesuburban areas. These densities are high com-pared with the number of deer that most ofMaryland can support. When there are too manyanimals for the land to support, the competitionfor food becomes intense. Nutritious foodsbecome sparse, and without adequate diets, deerare small and unhealthy. In areas heavilybrowsed by deer, the diversity of plants is oftensignificantly reduced and forested areas aredifficult to regenerate when deer browsingpressure is high. Forests that survive repeatedbrowsing develop slowly with widely-spacedtrees of low vigor, poor form, and few species.

Some of the introduced exotic and invasive plantspecies causing problems in Maryland are:

Norway mapleLesser celandineWinged euonymus (burning bush)Porcelain berryAsiatic bittersweetTree of heavenJapanese honeysuckleEnglish ivyDevil’s tear thumb (mile-a-minute weed)Privet kudzuPerwinkleGarlic mustardJapanese spiraeaMultiflora rose

English Ivy, Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus) & Perwinkle

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Helping Maintain the Quality of the Forest

Forest Stewardship Program - Funded by the US Forest Service, this program provides technical assistance to landowners voluntarily seeking toenhance wildlife habitat, establish windbreaks, enhance recreational opportunities, protect soil and water quality, increase wood production, and fulfill othermultiple use objectives. It provides financial support to private landowners to develop Forest Stewardship Plans. Maryland foresters prepare on average 425Plans on 25,000 acres each year. MD DNR Forest Service, 580 Taylor Avenue, E-1, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410-260-8531.

Forest Land Enhancement Program (FLEP)- A new program established by the 2002 Farm Bill. It replaces the Forestry Incentive Program (FIP)and the Stewardship Incentive Program (SIP), which were repealed in the 2002 Farm Bill. FLEP is the new incentive program that encourages long-termsustainability of nonindustrial private forestlands by providing financial, technical and educational assistance by State Forest Service Agencies to assistprivate landowners in actively managing their land.MD DNR Forest Service, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410-260-8531.

The Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP) - A program authorized by the 2002 Farm Bill. EQIP offers financial and technical helpto assist participants install or implement structural and management practices on eligible agricultural land. Provides incentives in the form of cost sharepayments to implement conservation practices including forestry management practices on nonindustrial private forestland. Program focus is gearedtowards livestock and agricultural production interests. The majority of practices will likely be funded at 50%. Limited resource producers and beginningfarmers and ranchers may be eligible for cost-shares up to 90%.MD DNR Forest Service, 580 Taylor Avenue, Annapolis, Maryland 21401, 410-260-8531.

Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP) - This allows states to leverage federal funds from the Conservation Reserve Programthat allow agricultural landowners to enter 10- to 15-year contracts with the US Department of Agriculture under which they agree to convert highlyerodible cropland or other sensitive acreage to vegetative cover, native grasses, wildlife plantings, trees, filter strips, or riparian buffers. In addition to rentalpayments, landowners can receive up to 50% of the costs making the conversions. By providing a financial contribution, states can use CREP to target aspecific geographic area, such as a watershed or river, or specific resource types, such as wetlands or streams that provide habitat for endangered species.Maryland, the first state with an approved CREP, will enroll 70,000 acres of riparian buffers, restore 10,000 acres of wetlands, and enroll up to 20,000 acresof highly erodible land. Contact your local Soil Conservation District or USDA Service Center.

GLOSSARY

association - a collection of plants with ecologically similar requirements, including one or more dominant species from which the group derives a definite character.

biological diversity or biodiversity - the variety of life in all its forms and all its levels of organization. Biodiversity refers to diversity of genetics, species, ecosystems, andlandscapes.

board foot - a unit for measuring wood volume in a tree, log, or board. A board foot is commonly 1 foot by 1 foot by 1 inch, but any shape containing 144 cubic inches ofwood equals one board foot.

commercial forestland - any area capable of producing 20 cubic feet of timber per acre per year that has not been protected from such use by law or statute.

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diameter at breast height (dbh) - standard measurement of a tree’s diameter, usually taken at 4 1/2 feet above the ground.

forest - a biological community dominated by trees and other woody plants.

forest fragmentation - the subdivision of large natural landscapes into smaller, more isolated fragments.

forest types - associations of tree species that have similar ecological requirements. Maryland forest types include Allegheny hardwood, loblolly-shortleaf, northernhardwood, oak-gum-cypress, oak hickory, and oak-pine.

habitat -the ecosystem in which a plant or animal lives and obtains food and water.

hardwoods - a general term encompassing broadleaf, deciduous trees.

introduced species - a nonnative species that was intentionally or unintentionally brought into an area by humans.

pole timber - trees 4 to 10 inches dbh.

pulpwood - wood suitable for use in paper manufacturing.

sapling - a tree at least 4 1/2 feet tall and up to 4 inches in diameter.

sawlog - a log large enough to be sawed economically on a sawmill. Sawlogs are usually at least 8 inches in diameter at the small end.

sawlog tree - a tree at least 11 inches dbh and suitable for conversion to lumber. Sometimes, trees 11 to 14 inches dbh are called small sawlog trees, and trees larger than 18inches dbh are called large sawlog trees.

sawtimber - trees from which sawlogs can be made.

stumpage - the value of standing trees in a forest.

stumpage price - the price paid for standing forest trees.

succession - the natural replacement of one plant (or animal) community by another over time in the absence of disturbance.

sustained yield - an ideal forest management objective in which the volume of wood removed equals growth within the total forest.

watershed - a region defined by patterns of stream drainage. A watershed includes all the land that contributes water to a particular stream or river.

wildlife habitat - the native environment of an animal. Habitats ideally provide all the elements needed for life and growth: food, water, cover and space.

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The facilities and services of the Maryland Department of Natural Resources are available to all without regard to race, color, religion, sex,sexual orientation, age, national origin, physical or mental disability.

This document is available in alternative format upon request from a qualified individual with a disability.

Maryland Department of Natural ResourcesTawes State Office Building

580 Taylor AvenueAnnapolis, MD 21401

Phone 410-260-8531, MD DNR Forest Service

TTY via Maryland Relay: 711 (Within MD) (800) 735-2258 (Out of State)

Toll Free: 1-877-620-8DNR ext 8531

http://www.dnr.state.md.us

Photo Credits:Front Cover: Vic Giordano, E.F. McCarthy, and Tom Darden

page 11: USFWS - V. Bern, Mike Bender, Ron Singer, and Hans Stuart

September 2003

Publication funded by the US Forest Service grant #99-215

The Mission of the Maryland Department of Natural ResourcesTo inspire people to enjoy and live in harmony with their environment, and to protect what makes Maryland

unique - our treasured Chesapeake Bay, our diverse landscapes, and our living and natural resources.

The Mission of the Maryland Department of Natural Resources Forest ServiceThe Forest Service mission is to restore, manage, and protect Maryland’s trees, forests

and forested ecosystems to sustain our natural resources and connect people to the land.