YAIR_Design Through Making

8/2/2019 YAIR_Design Through Making

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This paper concerns applications for crafts knowledge to design for

industry. Despite theoretical advocation for increased collaboration

between craft makers and manufacturers, empirical research has

previously been limited to anecdotal narrative. The aim of this paper is to

offset this imbalance by documenting an example of best practice, examin-

ing the nature of expertise derived from crafts knowledge and its effect onboth design process and product.

Assertions of the value of crafts knowledge to design centred, until

recently, on upholding standards essentially derived from the Arts and

Crafts Movements commitment to integrity and workmanship. Leach1, for

example, criticised manufacturers for designing without consideration for

their own materials and processes. He envisaged an alliance with craft1 Leach, B A potters bookFaber, London, UK (1940) p 21

www.elsevier.com/locate/destud

0142-694X/99 $ - see front matter Design Studies 20 (1999) 495515

495PII: S0142-694X(98)00040-4

1999 Elsevier Science Ltd All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain

Design through making: craftsknowledge as facilitator tocollaborative new product

developmentKaren Yair, Anne Tomes and Mike Press, Art and Design Research

Centre, School of Cultural Studies, Psalter Lane Campus, Sheffield

Hallam University, Sheffield S11 8UZ, UK

Collaboration between manufacturers and craft makers is believed by

many crafts theorists to offer new originality, insight and specialist

expertise to design for production. In practice, however, there exists a

discrepancy between this ideal and a reality of unreconcilable cultural

and methodological differences. This paper documents and discusses

such a collaboration as an example of best practice with implications

for managers, educators, designers and craft makers. It identifies a new

role for craft makers with the appropriate knowledge and experience to

act as bridges within companies, facilitating the adoption of design

methodologies appropriate to changing priorities in the manufacturing

industries. 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

Keywords: case study, communication, crafts knowledge, design

management, product development


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makers, whose commitment to such values in their own work could, he

believed, be applied to mass production.

Contemporary theorists have re-assessed the value of crafts knowledge,

suggesting its increasing relevance in relation to changes in consumer

values and corporate strategy. In the context of shortening product life

cycles, for example, craft makers modelling skills can be applied to proto-

typing, potentially minimising development times, improving the com-

munication of ideas and facilitating decision making2. In order to counter

increasing competitiveness, one suggested strategy is to develop products

reflecting a unique combination of expertise rather than a single technologi-

cal innovation. Rhodes and Carter3 suggest achieving this through multi-

disciplinary teamworking, indicating a possible role for craft makers in

contributing to products insusceptibility to imitation. In relation to product

aesthetics, Thackara4 argues that the significance of craft makers potential

input to new product development is increasing as consumers begin to

reject technology-led innovation. Increasing emphasis on visual, tactile and

emotive qualities can benefit from the craft makers process-based creativ-

ity, ability to convey meaning through form and sensitivity to materials.

Technology and crafts knowledge have however been shown not to be

mutually exclusive as, according to Braddock5, their integration in the tex-

tiles industries is essential in devising product applications for chemical

and materials-based innovation.

It may therefore be surmised that craftas a discipline distinct from indus-

trial designcould be contributing with increasing significance to new pro-duct development. However, further investigation indicates that the actual

number of successful collaborations with British manufacturers is small.

Several half documented cases reveal a discrepancy between each partys

expectations, and a reality of unreconcilable cultural and methodological

differences6,7. This anecdotal evidence is substantiated by a 1997 Crafts

Council survey, which suggests that only 3.8% of craft makers engage in

design as an activity detached from their own making8.

Dissatisfaction with such collaboration is common to both parties con-

cerned. Manufacturers are perceived by many craft makers as inflexible,unimaginative and myopic. Leading ceramic maker Jacqui Poncelet

describes her experiences with British manufacturers as like pushing an

elephant7, whilst glass designer and maker Stuart Garfoot states in an

interview with the author that,

Most people (manufacturers) nowadays cant stop the machine of production, the

process of production, to listen to an individuals requirements.

496 Design Studies Vol 20 No 6 November 1999

2Woodhuysen, J Small firms,

big firms and the future of the

crafts RSA Journal Vol CXLIV

No 5471 (1996) pp 7479

3 Rhodes, E and Carter, REmerging corporate strategies

Co-Design Vol 3 (1995) pp 613

4 Thackara, J New britishdesign Thames and Hudson,

London, UK (1986) p 10

5 Braddock, S Respect for tra-dition, curiosity for technology. In

Textiles and new technology

2010 OMahoney, M and Brad-

dock, S (eds) Artemis, London,

UK (1994) pp 18, 23

6 Benjamin, J Raising our

glasses Design August (1986)pp 3033

7 Harrod, T and Margetts, MBridging the divide Crafts

May/June No 80 (1986) pp 50

51

8 Knott, C Crafts in the 1990s:an independent socio-economic

study of craftspeople in England,

Scotland and Wales The Crafts

Council, London, UK (1994) pp

177180


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9 Jevnaker, BH Fostering stra-tegic design directions in busi-

ness firms: the hidden assets

SNF Foundation for Research in

Economics and Business

Research Administration,

Bergen, Norway (1997) p 2

10 Biemans, WG Internal andexternal networks in product

development: a case for inte-

gration. In Product develop-

ment, meeting the challenge of

the designmarketing interface

Bruce, M and Biemans, WG(eds) Wiley, Chichester, UK

(1995) p 147

11 Fletcher, W Creativepeople and how to manage their

creativity Hutchinson, London,

UK (1998) p 33

12 Glaser, B and Strauss, AThe discovery of grounded

theory: strategies for qualitative

research Aldine, Chicago, USA

(1967)

Manufacturers criticisms of craft makers, meanwhile, focus on their

alleged limited awareness of design issues, preoccupation with self-

expression and inability to adapt to new situations. David Williams-

Thomas, former managing director of Royal Brierley Crystal, describes his

view of craft makers shortcomings in an interview with the author:

The studio person who comes into Brierley is really trying to develop their own

ideas They dont have the breadth of vision to look at the marketplace, to look at

our processes, and to bring them together.

Interviews undertaken with both parties have offered some insight into the

complexity of the cultures which frequently impede collaboration between

them. For example, the well documented problems of cultural division

between designers and technicians9 may be exacerbated by both the craft

makers status as an outsider, and by the art-based nature of crafts edu-

cation and practice. This can result in stereotyped perceptions of each party

by the other. Craft makers may for example expect an unattainable degreeof flexibility, whilst production staff may not appreciate the limits of the

craft makers company-specific knowledge.

Conflict clearly exists between strong theoretical advocation for crafts

industry collaboration, and empirical evidence of unproductive working

relationships. This indicates a need for documentation of best practice

where it occurs. By analysing the design methodology employed in a suc-

cessful project and determining the influence on it of contextual factors

and the craft makers knowledge, skills and expertise, implications can

be made both for individuals involved in future projects and by policy-making organisations.

1 MethodologyThe case study was conducted in the context of doctoral research into

applications for crafts knowledge to design for industry. The methodologies

chosen reflect a relative lack of academic research in the field of enquiry.

As this precluded the testing of existing hypotheses, issues were allowed

to emerge from the data as it was collected in an approach broadly based

on Glaser and Strauss concept of grounded theory12.

Initial data collection centred on in-depth, semi-structured interviews,

informing understanding of how interviewees perceive their professional

knowledge and relationships. A combination of direct interpretation and

categorical aggregation defined the most significant emic issues contained

within each interview. By comparing such issues across interviews, and in

relation to other resources such as drawings and documents, theoretical

categories began to emerge. These were in turn used to shape further data

Design through making: crafts knowledge as facilitator to collaborative new product development 497


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collection. In this way, analysis could focus progressively on key issues

as determined by the participants actual experiences, rather than by pre-

existing theories. The links that became evident between empirically

derived categories and the existing literature were therefore in no way

pre-determined.

Although qualitative data is inherently subjective, data analysis strove to

maintain rigour by employing multiple forms of existing triangulation pro-

tocol. Firstly, a relativist approach was adopted which sought to preserve

the cases multiple realities rather than attempt to resolve any contradic-

tions within it. Interviews were therefore undertaken independently with

each of the projects key players. Secondly, methodological triangulation

was used where possible. This combined interview data with observation

of the factory at work, review of relevant literature and documents, and

analysis of sketches, technical drawings and prototypes. Finally, additional

insight into interview data was sought through member checking and inves-

tigator triangulation. These methods represent a search for additional per-

spectives on the case, rather than for confirmation of one particular

interpretation.

2 ContextIn order to contextualise the case and its implications, this section indicates

those aspects of its participants backgrounds with particular significance

for their attitudes and motivations towards the project, and consequent

working methods.

2.1 Designer: Jane BeebeCrafts education and practice is centred on a dialogue between creativity,

materials and skill, the maker developing ideas by combining conceptual

vision with manipulation of the object. A crafts educationsuch as that

undertaken by Beebe at Manchester Polytechnic (198093) and the Royal

College of Art (198688)instills in its students a unique tacit knowledge

of how the chosen material is formed and reacts to processes, as well as

its potential as a vehicle for expression.

For many craft makers, the tensions inherent in this dialogue provide the

creative stimulus for a lifetimes work, with vision and skill developing

simultaneously. For Beebe however, the limitations of her own skill level

became increasingly frustrating as her ideas advanced beyond the para-

meters imposed by them. The solution was to work with another, more

highly skilled craft maker who could produce the size and thickness of

blown glass required. This was a process of collaboration rather than



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delegation, with the designers crafts knowledge informing both the initial

idea and its development in the hotshop and finishing workshop:

Beebe: Neil (the glassmaker) puts as much of himself into making something as I

do, so its like the sum of everything that you get, instead of one person. And Neil

knows how I work, and as well, my works appropriate to his sense of form andproportion.

This relationship introduced the designer to the concept of collaboration

as a creative catalyst. It demonstrated the new potential offered by integrat-

ing others specialist expertise with the designers vision, and the impor-

tance of communication in achieving the mutual understanding crucial to

success. Figure 1 shows two of a series of sculptural vessels produced in

this way.

Experience of working in the glass industry constitutes another aspect of

Beebes background which is unusual amongst craft makers yet which hascontributed significantly to her competence as a designer. Developing an

understanding of the management of professional relationships and how to

operate within an existing company structure has since proved essential

for consultancy work. The effect of management style, company culture

and company politics on design policy and implementation were evident

at both Royal Brierley and Dartington Crystal, where she worked as studio

glassmaker and freelance designer, respectively. Dartingtons weaknesses

appeared to be its structure (marginalisation of designers, poor communi-

cations, and mechanistic management systems), its lack of direction


Figure 1 Jane Beebe, Asy-

metric Forms, 1990. Photo-

graph: Trudie Balantyne.


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(designing for an unknown market) and its company politics, resulting in

impeded creativity and new product development.

Beebe: They expect a designer to have all of the answers and do all the work.

Youve got to be psychic. They didnt integrate you as part of the team, you were set

apart, in a Portakabin. To me, design, manufacture, marketing, sales, its all vital that

each feeds to the other, and it didnt.

In addition to developing appreciation of the relationship between pro-

ducts quality and the system that creates them, working at Dartington

provided an opportunity to relate crafts skills to those employed in industry,

specifically the effect of form and processes on pricing.

Beebe: I used to sit and watch production for hours. You could see how one little

movement here or that little pipe-roller there could make so much difference to the

cost of your product and to whether it would go through, because it went under the

price bracket you were working to. Theres a lot to contend with, but it comes

naturally to work around that after a bit.

A project working with Dartingtons finishing team on an exclusive range

of sculptural vessels was valuable to Beebes future work in developing

her skills in team leadership. The most effective strategy found for over-

coming the teams opinion of designers as interventionalists was to demon-

strate equality by sharing their tasks, and establishing a rapport based on

humour. An additional tactic was to exploit the finishers pride by encour-

aging them to demonstrate their skills whilst increasing company prestige.

Rewards were also offered, in the form of praise for their contribution and

a set of photographs of the work. Such motivational tactics successfully

established strong working relationships for the future as well as achieving

short-term aims, and informed relationships with other production teams:

Beebe: I never had any problems with them after that. Theyd always find ways

round things. If Id got a problem production-wise, theyd say well, if you do it like

this itll be alright, dont worry about it. So we always got on very well, we

understood each other.

To summarise, whilst Beebes design skills are essentially derived from

crafts knowledge, her motivations differ from many craft makers in her

need to expand her ideas beyond parameters imposed by her own skill

level. Her experiences have taught her the value to professional practiceof learning-based relationships based on mutual respect. In addition, she

has developed the ability to communicate with and motivate others in order

to attain their input, and to adapt as necessary to company culture.

2.2 Manufacturer: Nazeing GlassNazeing Glass is a Hertfordshire glass manufacturer, operating on its

current site since 1928 and producing only to order, with no in-house



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13 Oakley, M Assembling andmanaging a design team. In

Design methods, a handbook of

issues and methods Oakley, M

(ed) Blackwell, Oxford, UK

(1990) p 332

designers. Its production systems are semi-automated, yet both blown and

pressed ware remain partly reliant upon hand skills, and its products range

from traditional stemware to traffic light lenses and limited edition corpor-

ate trophies. The company occupies an unusual position within the British

glass industry, encumbered by neither the traditional handmade crystal

manufacturers conservatism, nor by the large-scale producers tooling

costs and production constraints.

Although the majority of Nazeings new products involve no design input,

instead reconfiguring existing moulds, in theory the company is well suited

to collaboration with design consultants. The need to adapt to often short

runs of varied products has bred a culture of flexibility and creativity within

the management team which is consistent with the organic management

style recommended by Oakley13 for design-led projects. His definition par-

allels working Nazeings working practices in its emphasis on teamwork,

common goals, job flexibility, communication, and an even distribution ofexpertise throughout the workforce.

In practice, however, relationships between consultant designers and Naz-

eings production staff are characterised by wariness and resentment.

Sales Director: They (production workers) tend to think that because they make it

theyre the ones that know about glass, and the designers come up with these stupid

designs that cant be made.

These attitudes have resulted from the production workers experience of

designers as arrogant and uncompromising idealists, badly informed aboutglassmaking and over-demanding of the processes available. Such design-

ers frequently approach the company with pre-determined requirements,

developed to fulfil a marketing led brief without consideration for pro-

duction constraints. These proposals rarely reach full-scale production, as

the designer is unwilling to compromise on form in order to improve ease

of production and decrease costs.

The resulting negative perception of designers is exacerbated by their status

as outsiders, as mutual respect of competences rarely has time to develop.

New products not only interrupt production, but may also constitute a threatto individual members of the production team, who are forced to prove

their skill to colleagues by making an unfamiliar shape.

To summarise, whilst Nazeing Glasss size, management style and com-

pany policy were conducive to involvement in this design-led and unpre-

dictable project, its weakness was a resistance amongst production staff

towards designers and new products.



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2.3 Client: Mada TradingMada Trading research, source and supply luxury tea and tobacco products

to the Jeddah-based distributor Linjawi Holding Company, part of the Al-

Maglif Corporation. Their products are characterised by quality of manu-

facture, and by a distinctive and sophisticated style which combines tra-

ditional Eastern and contemporary Western aesthetics.

The company had decided to expand its product range by introducing an

expensive, high-quality glass hookah pipe which was to be marketed as

British-made lead crystal. The long tradition of hookah smoking meant

that the pipes accepted form had evolved through use rather than design,

and that there was little understanding of how it actually functioned. Mada

Trading therefore had no technical knowledge to inform the design process,

meaning that the project required technical solutions as well as an aes-

thetic one.

In evaluating the importance of the case, it is important to acknowledge

the products commercial success. The original order for 200 units has now

been repeated twice, with Linjawi Holding Company experiencing dif-

ficulty in matching supply to demand. Standard components from the orig-

inal design have been used to extend the range, which now includes a

cheaper, metal stemmed version, a travelling version with no neck but a

portable case, and an ornate two-headed version intended for sharing and

for combining different flavours of tobacco. Figure 2 shows the standard

production model.

Mada Trading attributes the products success to its virtual immunity to

imitation, achieved through a combination of quality workmanship and

appropriate design. The companys satisfaction with the project is demon-

strated by its continuing collaboration with both designer and Nazeing

Glass on further new product development.

3 Case study: hookah pipes

3.1 Information gatheringDesign work began with a set of sketches exploring form, colour and sur-face effect, intended as stimuli for discussion rather than actual proposals.

Three of these ideas were immediately commissioned by the client for

manufacture, necessitating the transformation of visual concept sketches

into working prototypes. This was problematic because although the draw-

ings had been informed by the designers understanding of glass from both

studio and manufacturing perspectives, technical requirements had not

been addressed.



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Recognising the limitations of her own expertise, Beebe approached glass

manufacturers, engineers and metal workshops for advice, informing

design development with their specialist expertise and her growing under-

standing of production constraints and capabilities. For this she relied heav-ily on a network of professional contacts, developed during her time work-

ing in the glass industry and as a freelance designer and maker. One contact

was David Royce, sales director at Nazeing Glass, with whom several

previous projects had been discussed. Familiarity with the company

enabled accurate assessment of its suitability for the current project:

whereas price had previously been an important consideration, on this

occasion communication and flexibility were more important criteria.


Figure 2 Photograph: Tru-

die Balantyne.


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Such a degree of familiarity also informed understanding of the companys

working practices and particular facilities, skills, strengths and weaknesses.

This allowed design to incorporate practical restrictions (such as those

imposed by the size of the annealing kilns), and strengths and working

practices of the production teams. For example, observing the production

teams work on a lamp shaped similarly to the hookahs base allowed the

anticipation of problems with her own designs. Considering features of

production specific to Nazeing was to prove beneficial in the development

phase, as many of the problems that would have been encountered by a

designer unfamiliar with the company were avoided.

Royce: The beauty of it is that youre working with a designer whos sympathetic to

glassmaking, and in particular not just glassmaking, but what we can make and what

were good at.

Informed by the designers improved knowledge of the company, and by

consultation with engineers and metalworkers, aesthetic vision could nowbe integrated with technical considerations and production constraints.

Determining the size of the bases neck proved problematic: whilst a large

diameter caused the smoker to choke through excess inhalation, a small

diameter impeded the blowing of glass into the mould. In addition,

enabling sufficient smoke to ascend the pipe necessitated reducing the

bases capacity twice. Reconciling these two critical dimensions without

compromising the designs elegance could only be achieved by gradual

refinement through a series of functioning prototypes.

Beebe: They couldnt have known until they had something that they could actually

try to smoke, because nobodys even thought about it before.

It was decided not to produce these prototypes at Nazeing as interruptions

to production needed to be minimised, and at this stage the production

teams wariness of designers had not yet been overcome. It was therefore

considered that a flexible environment more conducive to experimentation

and reflection could be better provided by the craft-based workshop fam-

iliar to the designer.

3.2 Focus on productionOnce Nazeings involvement had been secured through a meeting with theclients, design development could be concentrated on its specific systems

and processes. The management team and designer together identified

remaining potential problems by comparing the designs features to those

of previous projects undertaken by Nazeing. One problem occurred in

achieving a tight seal between the metal and glass components. Although

Beebe had believed this to be caused by irregularities in the hand blown

prototype, Royces experience of other projects suggested to him that



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Nazeings version would be similar. Figures 3 and 4 show their solution,

which prevented smoke leakage by altering the funnels shape to provide

a closer join between the metal components. This demonstrates the design-

ers willingness to incorporate suggestions from others, and to compromise

in order to balance design integrity with ease of manufacture.

Beebe: What was happening for them (Nazeing) was that they were getting specific

drawings with specific measurements on that they were having to make, and the

designer was adamant that it was to the drawing. Whereas I said, does this dimension

here give you a problem? Because I can alter that if you want. I would prefer it like

this, but if it makes it easier, I will take it out 2 millimetres. I will move, as long as

its not at critical points that would just destroy the design.

This time at the factory was also crucial in developing a rapport between

designer and production team. By demonstrating an informed interest in

their work, how certain effects were being obtained and the rate of


Figure 3 Jane Beebe: tech-

nical drawing.


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production, Beebe was able to gain professional respect for her understand-

ing of glassmaking. Establishing a dialogue through crafts knowledge chal-

lenged their perceptions of her as a designer, whilst demonstrating a lack

of arrogance and respect for their skills.

Beebe: Theyll offer you their hand and its black with dirt, but what does it matter?

I think they actually quite like that, that Im prepared to shake the dirty hand.

Foreman: She seems to communicate a lot more (than other designers). And she

doesnt mind being in the factory, you know what I mean? She doesnt mind getting

her hands dirty. Shell talk to you. She seemed to have quite a good idea of how we

went about it. I mean, she ended up telling us what to do in the first place.


Figure 4 Jane Beebe: revised

technical drawing.


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These comments demonstrate the accuracy of the designers evaluation for

the need to demonstrate equality through participation and communication,

and to establish professional respect. The value of her crafts skills is evi-

dent in both respects. Firstly, it enabled her to communicate with the team

as a sympathetic and informed outsider. Secondly, it allowed her to make

accurate technical specifications and to produce a prototype, demonstrating

competence and facilitating production. Royce acknowledges the impor-

tance of such an attitude to overcoming the production teams scepticism:

Royce: The relationship can be very fraught at times. I think the designer has to be

very skilled in public relations, because the attitude of a production glass factory shop

floor is bloody designers.

During this development phase, the established divisions between designer

and production team were therefore overcome through mutual respect gen-

erated by crafts knowledge. This process of integration was to be essential

to the projects success, fostering a positive attitude to the job within theproduction team. It meant that throughout production, the factory floor

were supportive, willing to overcome problems and keen to produce glass

of a high quality. Whilst the designers outgoing personality undoubtedly

contributed in this respect, the most important factors in her success were

her attitudes to design as a collaborative process that develops from within

the company, and her ability to communicate through her crafts knowledge.

3.3 Team motivationThe integration of the entire product development teamcompany man-

agement, designer, foreman, blowers and finisherswas confirmed by apre-production meeting held at Nazeing. The prototype was presented to

be handled and dismantled by the glass makers and production manager,

increasing their understanding of its function. The meeting was also

important in transferring responsibility for the designs acceptanceand

consequently ownership of itto the team as a whole. Encouraging each

person to consider the design in relation to their own expertise and role in

its production also created another opportunity for remaining problems to

be identified.

Beebe: It was getting rid of the attitude that designers are a real problem because

they say, thats it and thats how its got to be done. I gave them the opportunity for

their input, so if it went wrong then, they couldnt blame me.

An additional benefit of the meeting was the contextualisation of the pro-

ject in terms of Nazeings proposed expansion into new markets based on

quality and service rather than cost. It was important to convey to the

production team their role in providing the level of quality required for

this change in company policy.



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Royce: So the guys knew what they were trying to achieve, they knew who the end

client was and that we had huge potential business there. He was expecting that he

would be getting a superb, hand made, crafted product. So we had to keep hammering

into our own people that we mustnt let him down. That it might be just another job

to them, but that the client was paying a lot of money for it, it was something very

new, with different criteria, different parameters, and that we had to be very careful

not to make any mistakes.

On commencing production, the benefits of high production staff motiv-

ation became evident, in terms of both the quality of work produced and the

level of interest and enthusiasm demonstrated. The factory teams resulting

willingness to solve problems is demonstrated by their input as production

began. When the actual moulds were used for the first time, it was disco-

vered that the sharp angle where the shoulder of the base met the pipe

caused the glass to crack. Although the need to maintain an effective seal

precluded any change to the shape itself, the blowers devised the solution

of filing the edges slightly with emery paper. In a typical project, such a

problem would have been blamed on poor design, with little attempt made

by the production team to resolve it.

4 Discussion

4.1 Communication through craftTraditional design management systems follow a linear sequence, whereby

design is essentially imposed upon production. When Nazeing is

approached by an agency with a finished design for production they are

experiencing this model, often compared to a relay race where the batonof new product development is passed from one department to another.

Recent studies, however, reject this method in favour of concurrent devel-

opment which integrates design, engineering, sales and marketing from the

projects conception onwards. Advantages of cross-functional development

include decreased product development times, improved organisational

ability to solve complex problems, heightened customer focus, increased

creative potential, improved learning by team members and a single point

of contact within the company for clients10.

It is established that the success of such cross-functional development inthe manufacturing sector is often inhibited by cultural divisions separating

designers and technical staff, which have been shown by production work-

ers comments to exist at Nazeing. According to Biemans, divisions orig-

inate in differing backgrounds and attitudes between professional groups,

and result in each group perceiving the other according to stereotypes and

displaying little interest in their work10. Such cultural differences may be

expected to be exacerbated in collaborations involving craft makers, as



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their perceived status as artists can stereotype them as insecure, egotistical,

stubborn, rebellious, poor time-keeping perfectionists11. Such negative

stereotyping can result in an attitude from production and technical staff

of resentment and unwillingness to compromise. As Oakley writes,

Resistance (in general) may take the form of constant rejections of new designs,refusal to supply information and help, or simply obstructionall while paying lip

service to the need for new products13.

This case study, however, demonstrates how the dual nature of craft mak-

ingas a discipline with its origins in both design and productioncan

succeed in overcoming such cultural divisions and consequently optimize

the potential of cross-functional development.

The projects stakeholders constituted an unusually diverse group in terms

of attitudes, motivations and working methods, determined by differences

in class, culture and status. Beebe recognised the potential communication

problems resulting from this diversity, and the impact of this on a project

largely dependent on communication for its success. She therefore adopted

a bridging role between the client, subcontractors and Nazeings manage-

ment and shop floor, acting in a way that Royce describes as cha-

meleon-like:

Royce: When Jane is talking with the glass blowers, shes got to be one of them.

When shes talking to prospective clients who might be directors of a chain of stores

or whatever, shes got to be one of them. Shes got to blend in.

Crucial to success in this role was an understanding of the perspectives,

motivations and ways of working characteristic of each group. This was

informed by the dual nature of crafts knowledge as a discipline dependent

on both practical skill and reflection, and by experience of working in the

glass industry. For example, translating the clients tastes and needs into

an appropriate product required the employment of analytical and inter-

pretive skills common to both craft and design education. The management

of relationships both within the manufacturing company and between it

and Mada Trading was aided by the designers experiences, which had

informed her of the need for positive working relationships based on mut-

ual respect of strengths, weaknesses, attitudes and perceptions.

Crafts knowledge was however most beneficial in building a rapport with

the production team derived from a shared tacit understanding of materials

and processes, and the potential to work together on a practical level. This

allowed an unusual degree of communication between designer and

production workers, encouraging contribution to design in the form of



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specialist knowledge related to particular production tasks. Designs were

developed to reflect the production teams competences as well as their

input, countering their usual criticism of designers inflexibility and ignor-

ance.

4.2 IntegrationThe positive relationship between designer and production team meant that

ownership ofand responsibility forthe product could gradually be

transferred to its makers, ensuring quality workmanship and willingness to

resolve problems. The understanding that Beebe had developed of the

teams attitudes and perceptions enabled her to identify personal challenge

and company profit as their motivating factors. Through communication

and inclusion, her achievements became those of the team as a whole,

whose self image shifted gradually from passive labourers to active parti-

cipants in the projects success.

Beebe: Letting everyone say their bit makes them feel that theyve actually made a

valid contribution. The ownership of the project has shifted onto them, so then theyll

take a pride in it and make it beautiful. Because otherwise they wont put that effort

in.

4.3 Design through makingIn contrast to conventional linear models of product development where

design ends before production begins, here specifications were finalised as

late as possible, allowing further refinement as the processes actual

demands were imposed. This flexibility encouraged continued input from

production staff, optimizing the potential for a creative and easily manufac-

turable design solution:

Beebe: We see how it feels and how it looks, because what shows on my drawings

isnt necessarily what happens. When it comes to cutting Ill have a pattern worked

out, but it might look better if it had nine repeats to if it had five. The cutter might

say, you cant get that line exactly, but if we just twist it like this, then it happens.

Before you know it youve got something that actually isnt very much like the

drawing.

This is a process of design through making which demonstrates obvious

parallels with crafts practice. As discussed, the craft object demonstrates

a reconciliation between its makers vision and the opportunities and con-

straints presented by chosen materials and processes. Through repetition

and experience, the craft maker develops understanding of these factors

alongside the judgement to resolve their often conflicting demands. As

Peter Dormer writes,



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14 Dormer, P Why the craftsneed more than literary criticism,

keynote address from confer-

ence The Context for Critical

Studies in the Crafts The Crafts

Council, London, UK (1995)

The crafts are partly shaped and to some extent determined by the patterns of

thinking encoded in processes, tools and attitudes to making14.

Just as the craft maker operates within a dialogue between ideas and

materials or processes, so here the designer oversees a reconciliation

between vision and the limitations of manufacture. It may be argued thatthe ability to reconcile two such disparate concerns is neglected in a typical

design education, where solutions are generated by a conceptual approach.

In this case, the designer extended the process of design through making

from the individual to the collective sphere, allowing the integration of

otherwise unavailable skills, processes and production levels with personal

vision. This approach is unreconcilable with many craft makers need for

control over each stage of design and making. Beebes past experiences,

however, had indicated how sacrificing some degree of control could allow

her work to escape the limitations of personal skill, whilst continuing to

be informed by crafts knowledge. When collaborating with a skilled glass

blower on the making of one-off vessels, she had used his technique as an

extension of her own to generate new possibilities for self expression. At

Nazeing, the same methods were applied to working with the production

team, observation, reflection and reassessment replacing the usual design-

ers detachment. The result is a design tailored to accommodate the manu-

facturers strengths and weaknesses, stretching their competences whilst

producing an achievable solution. Figures 5 and 6 show Nazeings pro-

duction staff working on the final product.


Figure 5 Hookah pipe base

being cut. Photograph: Tru-

die Balantyne.


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4.4 ConclusionThis case study challenges the view traditionally held by manufacturers of

craft makers as inflexible and over-specialised artists. It indicates a new

boundary-crossing role within the new product development process, facili-tating the adoption of design methodologies appropriate to changing pri-

orities in the manufacturing industries. Previous collaborations have

attempted to impose craft makers designs onto production7, have used

them as researchers for future projects7, or have established a crafts studio

within the factory, in the hope that technology transfer will automatically

occur between craft and production6. This new role, however, concentrates

on using the craft makers skills in a different context, as contributors to


Figure 6 Hookah pipe base

being blown into a mould.

Photograph: Trudie Balan-

tyne.


19/21

15 Moss Kanter, R Change-master skills: what it takes to be

creative. In Managing innovation

Henry, J and Walker, D (eds)Open University Press, London,

UK (1991) pp 5561

16 Reich, R Entrepreneurshipreconsidered: the team as hero.

In Managing innovationHenry, J

and Walker, D (eds) Open Uni-

versity Press, London, UK

(1991) p 69

17 Townsend, J Creating theideal workforce Independent on

Sunday (3.5.1998) p 3

the design process as well as the product. In essence, the dual nature of

the designers background in craft makingcombined with broader experi-

ence and her skills in communication and empathyallowed the cultural

differences that are often encountered by consultant designers and craft

makers to be overcome. This enabled active participation to be encouraged

from all areas of the company during design development and pre-pro-duction. A crafts-based design methodology could then be employed,

stressing interaction with the object as it was subjected to the demands of

the production line, and accommodating both constraints imposed by the

processes and opportunities created by it. The product therefore grew from

within the company, rather than being imposed onto it as is more common

at Nazeing. By incorporating contributions to design development from

both management and factory floor, the final solution became a team effort

rather than an imposed vision. This process in effect initiated a feeling of

involvement inand ownership ofthe design within the manufacturing

company, ensuring high workforce motivation reflected in quality work-manship and a willingness to overcome problems.

Such a crafts-based design methodology has parallels with several

important aspects of design management strategy advocated in the current

literature. Whilst these strategies are usually presented as theoretical rec-

ommendations, this case study constitutes an actual example where their

adoption has been facilitated by an individual with a certain set of skills

and experiences.

Firstly, in many ways the methods used parallel those employed by the

product champion described amongst others by Moss Kanter15. This is

evident in the gathering of input and expertise from throughout the com-

pany, the ability to communicate conviction in the project, persistence,

commitment to the team building, and appreciation of the need to credit

all those involved for their input.

Secondly, the encouragement of others input into design development

reflects Reichs concept of the entrepreneurial organisation, which advo-

cates the encouragement of a pro-active workforce:

Distinctions between innovation and production, between top managers and production

workers blur. Because production is a continuous process of reinvention,

entrepreneurial efforts are concentrated on many thousands of small ideas rather than

on just a few big ones16.

Townsend acknowledges the value of releasing latent workforce creativity

by encouraging each person to relate knowledge of their particular job to

the current problem17. In this instance, the designers role was not that of

the consultant expert, but of the facilitator of such renewed creativity.



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18 Cooper, R and Jones, TThe interfaces between design

and other key functions in pro-duct development. In Product

design: meeting the challenge of

the designmarketing interface

Bruce, M and Biemans, WG

(eds) Wiley, Chichester, UK

(1995) p 95

19 Dormer, P Textiles andtechnology. In The culture of

craftDormer, P (ed) Manchester

University Press, Manchester,

UK (1997) p 168

Thirdly, through effective communication with each of the projects stake-

holders and with other contacts which form part of an established network

of expertise, the designer created a product which synthesised a unique

combination of skills, interests and experience. This implemented Rhodes

and Carters strategy for avoiding imitation3. The value of such a strategy

is indicated by an interview with Frances Lambe of Mada Trading, who

partly attributes the products success to its immunity to imitation.

In evaluating the case, it is important to recognise the limitations of its

application to other companies and individuals. Successful collaboration

must depend to an extent on factors previously identified as important in

the management of traditional cross-functional development projects.

These may be summarised as understanding, awareness, communication

and commitment18. It may also be expected that collaborations involving

different media would enjoy varying measures of success: for example it

is well documented that handwoven textiles are closely compatible withcomputer systems and are therefore well suited to adoption by industry19.

Certain influencing factors on the outcome of the collaboration were

determined by the manufacturing company. For example, Nazeings manu-

facturing processes semi-automated form of hand production is relatively

close to that used in crafts workshops, and can therefore be considered

relatively accessible to a craft maker. However, the manufacturing tech-

nology employed in large-scale production of glass and ceramic tableware

is hardly far removed from its crafts origins. We may surmise from the

lack of successful craftsindustry collaborations in these areas, that such

success is as much reliant on company culture and attitudes as on manufac-

turing processes. It should therefore be recognised that despite Nazeings

production teams hostility to consultant designers, its size, lack of tra-

dition, flexibility, structure and project-based approach were conducive

to success.

The collaboration depended to a large extent on the designers mobilization

of skills and creativity within the workforce which although latent until

this project, had always had the potential to be developed. It would be a

matter for further research to determine whether such unexploited potential

exists in all crafts-based industries, or whether this is a feature specific toNazeing or to glassmaking. Overcoming cultural divisions, communicating

with production staff and employing motivational tactics would not con-

tribute to the design process if no specialist expertise existed to be ident-

ified.

An additional factor influencing the projects success is the designers

background, which in this instance combines a crafts education and



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practice as a craft maker with experience of working in the glass industry.

Whilst the methods employed are derived from crafts knowledge, the

additional skills, knowledge and interests informing them differ fundamen-

tally from those possessed by the typical craft maker. It may therefore be

argued that they represent a hybrid of crafts knowledge and professional

skills which is rarely developed in an industry which offers few opport-

unities for craft makers to work as designers. As these skills are generally

underepresented in degree level crafts education, with its tendency to con-

centrate on preparation for crafts-based self-employment, graduates with

an aptitude for design are often ill-equipped to work in industry. One sol-

ution could be the introduction of a postgraduate course which introduced

crafts graduates to design, contextualising their work within a new frame-

work and teaching additional professional and management skills. It is

clear that future research must address the implications of this case study

for educators in craft, design and management studies, in order to exploit

more fully the benefits of crafts knowledge to design for industry.

AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank Jane Beebe, David Royce, Frances Lambe

and Bob Garraway for their co-operation in interview, and Stuart Garfoot

and David Williams-Thomas for providing contextual information.


Documents

YAIR_Design Through Making