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www.cengage.com/chemistry/brown
Albia Dugger • Miami Dade College
Cecie StarrChristine EversLisa Starr
Chapter 1Invitation to Biology
Space fish
Milk fish
Hagfish
Puffer
• Life defies a simple, one-sentence definition• Life is recognized by what living things do
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
LIFE
Order
Evolutionary adaptation
Responseto theenvironment
Reproduction
Growth anddevelopment
Energyprocessing
Regulation
Biology The scientific and systematic study of life
Biologists think about life at different levels of organization
The biosphere
Communities
Populations
Organisms
Ecosystems
Organs and organ systems
Cells
Cell
Organelles
Atoms
MoleculesTissues
10 µm
1 µm
50 µm
The biosphere
Communities
Populations
Organisms
Ecosystems
Organs and organ systems
Cells
Cell
Organelles
Atoms
MoleculesTissues
10 µm
1 µm
50 µm
• atom – Fundamental building block of all matter
• molecule – An association of two or more atoms
• organelle– Functional components that make up cells
• cell – Smallest unit of life
• tissue – In multicelled organisms, specialized cells organized in
a pattern that allows them to perform a collective function
• organ – In multicelled organisms, a grouping of tissues that
perform a collective function
• organ system – In multicelled organisms, set of tissues and cells
engaged in a collective function that keeps the body functioning properly
• organism – Individual that consists of one or more cells
• A population is a group of individuals of a species in a given area
• A community is all populations of all species in a given area
• An ecosystem is a community interacting with its environment
• The biosphere includes all regions of Earth that hold life
Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom Domain
Ursus americanus(American black bear)
Ursus
Ursidae
Carnivora
Mammalia
Chordata
Animalia
Eukarya
1 µmOrganelles
Nucleus (contains DNA)
Cytoplasm
Membrane
DNA(no nucleus)
Membrane
Eukaryotic cellProkaryotic cell
Nucleus DNA
Cell
Nucleotide
(a) DNA double helix (b) Single strand of DNA
NucleicontainingDNA
Sperm cell
Egg cell
Fertilized eggwith DNA fromboth parents
Embryo’s cells withcopies of inherited DNA
Offspring with traitsinherited fromboth parents
• DNA contains information that guides all of an organism’s metabolic activities, including growth, development, and reproduction
• Small variations in DNA structure give rise to differences between species and individuals
• The passage of DNA from parents to offspring is inheritance
• DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid; carries hereditary information
that guides growth and development
• growth – In multicelled species, an increase in the number, size,
and volume of cells
• development – Multistep process by which the first cell of a new
individual becomes a multicelled adult
• reproduction – Processes by which parents produce offspring
• inheritance – Transmission of DNA from parents to offspring
Outer membraneand cell surface
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Negativefeedback
Excess Dblocks a step
D
D D
A
B
C
Enzyme 1
Enzyme 2
Enzyme 3
D
(a) Negative feedback
W
Enzyme 4
XPositivefeedback
Enzyme 5
Y
+
Enzyme 6
Excess Zstimulates astep
ZZ
Z
Z
(b) Positive feedback
Charles Darwin
Populationwith variedinherited traits.
Eliminationof individualswith certaintraits.
Reproductionof survivors.
Increasingfrequencyof traits that enhance survival and reproductive success.
4321
www.cengage.com/chemistry/brown
Albia Dugger • Miami Dade College
Cecie StarrChristine EversLisa Starr
Chapter 2Life’s Chemical Basis
Start With Atoms
• At life’s first level of organization, atoms interact with other atoms to form molecules
• The properties of molecules depend on, but differ from, those of their atomic components
• The behavior of elements, which make up all living things, depends on the structure of individual atoms
• nucleus – Core of an atom; occupied by protons and neutrons
• proton – Positively charged subatomic particle that occurs in
the nucleus of all atoms
• neutron – Uncharged subatomic particle in the atomic
nucleus
• electron – Negatively charged subatomic particle that
occupies orbitals around an atomic nucleus
• Isotopes are atoms of an element that differ in mass number
• isotopes – Forms of an element that differ in the
number of neutrons their atoms carry
• mass number – Total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an element’s atoms
• radioisotope – Isotope with an unstable nucleus that
spontaneously emit subatomic particles or energy by the process of radioactive decay
• radioactive decay – Process by which atoms of a radioisotope
emit energy and/or subatomic particles when their nucleus spontaneously disintegrates, which can transform one element onto another
• tracer – Molecule labeled with a detectable
substance that track biological processes inside living organisms
Cancerousthroattissue
PET, positron-emission tomography
(a) A ball bouncing down a flight of stairs provides an analogy for energy levels of electrons
Third shell (highest energylevel)
Second shell (higherenergy level)
Energyabsorbed
First shell (lowest energylevel)
Atomicnucleus
(b)
Energylost
Periodic table
Hydrogen
1H
Lithium
3LiBeryllium
4BeBoron
5BCarbon
6CNitrogen
7NOxygen
8OFluorine
9FNeon
10Ne
Helium
2HeAtomic number
Element symbol
Electron-distributiondiagram
Atomic mass
2He
4.00Firstshell
Secondshell
Thirdshell
Sodium
11NaMagnesium
12MgAluminum
13AlSilicon
14SiPhosphorus
15PSulfur
16SChlorine
17ClArgon
18Ar
• shell model – Model of electron distribution in an atom that help
us visualize how electrons populate atoms from the innermost shell outward
• Concentric circles represent successive energy levels– 1st shell: up to 2 electrons– 2nd shell: up to 8 electrons– 3rd shell: up to 8 electrons
• ion – Charged atom
• electronegativity – Measure of the ability of an atom to pull electrons
away from other atoms
Why Atoms Interact
• The characteristics of a bond arise from the properties of atoms that take part in it
• Atoms form different types of bonds depending on their electronegativity– Ionic bonds– Covalent bonds– Hydrogen bonds– Van der Waals interaction
Ionic Bonds
• An ionic bond is a strong association between oppositely charged ions that arises from the mutual attraction of opposite charges
• ionic bond – Type of chemical bond in which a strong
mutual attraction forms between ions of opposite charge
Covalent Bonds
• Atoms share a pair of electrons in a covalent bond, which is nonpolar if the sharing is equal, and polar if it is not
• covalent bond – Chemical bond in which two atoms share a pair of
electrons
• polarity – Any separation of charge into distinct positive and
negative regions
2, 3, or 4 covalent bonds may form between two atoms when they share multiple electrons
Molecular oxygen: O=OMolecular nitrogen: (N=N)
Hydrogen Bonds
• Hydrogen bonds collectively stabilize the structures of large molecules
• hydrogen bond – Attraction that forms between a covalently
bonded hydrogen atom and another atom taking part in a separate covalent bond
Water’s Life-Giving Properties• Water is essential to life because of its
unique properties:– Solvent for salts and other polar solutes– Resists temperature changes– Cohesion
• Unique properties of water result from extensive hydrogen bonding among water molecules
Water Is an Excellent Solvent• Water is a solvent that easily dissolves
salts, sugars, and other polar substances
• solvent – Liquid that can dissolve other substances
• solute – A dissolved substance
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic
• Hydrophilic substances dissolve easily in water; hydrophobic substances do not
• hydrophilic – Substance that dissolves easily in water,
such as salt
• hydrophobic – Substance that resists dissolving in water,
such as oil
• Ice forms below about 0°C (32°F) floats because the molecules pack less densely than in water
• evaporation – Transition of a liquid to a gas – Requires energy (removes heat from liquid)
Water resists changing its temperature because of its high specific heat
• High specific heat
Cohesion• Hydrogen bonds cause water molecules to resist
separating from each other
• Cohesion
– Tendency of molecules to stick together – Pulls water upward in plants– Causes surface tension
• Adhesionan attraction between different substances, for example, between water and plant cell walls
Neutral solution
Acidic solution
Basic solution
OH–
OH–
OH–
OH–
OH–OH–OH–
H+
H+
H+
OH–
H+ H+
H+ H+
OH–
OH–
OH–OH–
H+
OH–
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
OH–
Neutral [H+] = [OH–]
Incr
easi
ngly
Aci
dic
[H+ ]
> [O
H– ]
Incr
easi
ngly
Bas
ic [H
+ ] <
[OH
– ]
pH Scale0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Battery acid
Gastric juice,lemon juice
Vinegar, beer,wine, cola
Tomato juice
Black coffee
RainwaterUrine
SalivaPure waterHuman blood, tears
Seawater
9
10Milk of magnesia
Household ammonia
Householdbleach
Oven cleaner
11
12
13
14
Acids and Bases
• Most biological processes occur within a narrow range of pH, typically around pH 7
• pH – Measure of
concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a fluid
• concentration – Number of molecules
or ions of a solute per unit volume of a solution
Buffers• A buffer keeps a solution within a
consistent range of pH
• Most cell and body fluids are buffered because most molecules of life work only within a narrow range of pH
• buffer – Set of chemicals that stabilize pH of a
solution by alternately donating and accepting ions that contribute to pH
The Bicarbonate Buffer System• Carbon dioxide gas becomes a weak acid when it
dissolves in the fluid portion of human blood:
H2O + CO2 (carbon dioxide) → H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
• Carbonic acid separates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions, which can separate into hydrogen ions and carbonate ions :
H2CO3 (carbonic acid) ↔ H+ + HCO3-
(bicarbonate) ↔ H+ + H+ + CO3 -
2
Bicarbonate Buffer System (cont.)
• Exchange of ions between carbonic acid and bicarbonate keeps blood pH between 7.3 and 7.5 – up to a point
• Buffer failure can be catastrophic in a biological system
• Example: Too much carbonic acid forms in blood when breathing is impaired suddenly – the resulting decline in blood pH may cause coma
Fig. 3-10
Moreacidic
0
AcidrainAcidrain
Normalrain
Morebasic
123456789
1011121314
Fig. 3-11
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
Calc
ifica
tion
rate
(mm
ol C
aCO
3pe
r m2 p
er d
ay)
[CO32–] (µmol/kg)
150 200 250 3000
20
40
Water vapor
H 2NH
3
“Atmosphere”
Electrode
Condenser
Coldwater
Cooled watercontainingorganicmolecules
Sample forchemical analysis
H2O“sea”
EXPERIMENT
CH4
Long Nose Butterfly
Flatfish