Writing Up Research

Experimental Research Report Writing For Students Of English

Robert Weissberg and Suzanne Buker

Method (Experimental Procedures) This section describes the steps you followed in

conducting your study and the materials you used at each step. The description of the steps you followed in conducting study should be written clearly so that a reader in your field could accurately replicate your procedure. Of course, the best way to describe a procedure is step-by-step , or chronologically.

Choosing Verb Tense and Voice in Procedure Description

Choosing the Correct Verb Tense The procedure you used in carrying out your

study should usually be described in the simple past tense. Sentences included under method that are not written in the past tense usually do not refer to the procedures used in the study being reported. Instead, they may be standard procedures that are commonly used by others.

Example 1: For single photon photoemission, the photon

energy must exceed the work function of copper (4.65 eV) (3). The photoinjector drive laser was designed to produce < 2 ps laser pulses at 266 nm (4.66 eV) with 200uJ/pulse. This is accomplished using chirped pulse amplification and compression of a mode-locked YAG laser and frequency upconverting using KD*P double crystals.

Example 2: A chiral nematic mixture (CNM) composed of

CB15/CE2/E48 in a 21:21:58 weight ratio was used for the liquid crystal (LC) formulation. The CB15 and CE2 are single chiral components and E48 is a nematic liquid crystal. Various amounts (10-30% w/w) of Norland optical adhesive 65 (NOA65) as a photopolymerizable monomer were used to prepare mixture formulations with CNM.

Choosing the Appropriate Verb Voice

You can use either the active or the passive voice when you describe the procedure used in your project.

Active Voice

We applied stress to the rubber segments in gradually increasing increments.

We designed the photoinjector drive laser to produce < 2 ps laser pulses at 266 nm (4.66 eV) with 200uJ/pulse.

Passive Voice

Stress was applied to the rubber segments in gradually increasing increments.

The photoinjector drive laser was designed to produce < 2 ps laser pulses at 266 nm (4.66 eV) with 200uJ/pulse.

For reasons related to personal safety, we constructed the test facility in a remote area 4 miles from the main road.

For reasons related to personal safety, the test facility was constructed (by us) in a remote area 4 miles from the main road.

1. The passive voice is conventionally used to describe procedure in order to depersonalize the information. The passive construction allows you to omit the agent (usually “I” or “we”), placing the emphasis on the procedure and how it was done.

2. In addition to questions of style, your choice of the active or passive voice should place old information near the beginning of the sentence and new information at the end. The old information is italicized in each sentence in the next sample.

Example 3:

AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF NATURAL GAS POLOCY ALTERNATIVE

Procedure

A mathematical model was developed for the evaluation of alternative natural gas policies. The model is based upon a simplified energy-demand function which relates the quantity of energy consumed to price. This relationship was not estimated by a statistical procedure. Rather,

parameters were specified which, on the basis of previous studies, were thought to approximate market behavior.

Energy consumption was defined to include natural gas, oil, and electricity used in the residential, commercial, and industrial sectors. Fuels used for transportation, commercial, and industrial feedstock were excluded because natural gas is not generally used for these purposes. It is used to produce

anhydrous ammonia, but this was also excluded. The supply and price of natural gas and prices of

potential natural gas substitutes were specified for each policy option. The model was then used to calculate the price of energy, the quantity of energy, and the quantities of natural gas substitutes that would be consumed. From this information, policy alternatives were evaluated by comparing the consumer expenditure associated with each policy.

1. Passive voice?2. Past tense? Present tense?3. Old information at the beginning?4. Short form?

The four reactors we tested in the work reported here all contained a platinum catalyst (ACTIVE). We will describe each reactor-catalyst configuration separately (ACTIVE). The Wm. A. Sales Company of Wheeling, Illinois manufactured the quartz reactors (ACTIVE).

Old information at the beginning?

The four reactors we tested in the work reported here all contained a platinum catalyst (ACTIVE). Each reactor-catalyst configuration will be described separately (PASSIVE). The quartz reactors were manufactured by the Wm. A. Sales Company of Wheeling, Illinois (PASSIVE).

Old information at the beginning?

Using Short Passive Forms to Describe Procedure

Three such kinds of sentences are commonly used in procedural descriptions.

The first type is a compound sentence with two identical subjects and two or more verbs in the passive.

Full Form:

Subject + be + Past + Conjunction + subject + be + Past Participle ParticipleThe data were collected and they were analyzed.

Short Form:

The data were collected and analyzed.

(Omit the subject and the be auxiliary.)

The second type of sentence is also compound, but in this case there are two different subjects, with different verbs in the passive voice.

Full Form:

Subject + be + Past + Conjunction + subject + be + Past Participle ParticipleThe data were collected and correlations were analyzed.

Short Form:

The data were collected and correlations analyzed.

(Omit the be auxiliary be before the second verb.)

The third type of sentence has a which clause containing a passive verb form. In this case you can shorten the clause by dropping the conjunction which and the be auxiliary.

Full Form:

Subject + Conjunction + be + Past + verb + Complement Participle The data which were obtained were subjected to an analysis of variance.

Short Form:

The data obtained were subjected to an analysis of variance.

(Omit the conjunction and the be auxiliary.)

Write each of the following sentences in its short form:

1. The phase separation temperature was observed , and it was recorded during the cooling using a cross-polarized optical microscope in transmission mode.

2. The photoinjector consists of a copper photocathode which is placed at the endwall of the ½ cell in a 1 ½ cell rf gun.

3. Herbicides were applied before planting at various dosage levels to plots consisting of one 30-ft row which was planted on a 36-inch bed.

4. The plants were seeded by hand into the beds to obtain between two to five plants per hill which were spaced at 3-ft intervals.

5. The variety which was seeded each year was Espanola No. 1.6. Weed counts were made and records were kept of the time which was required to

remove weeds from one 30-ft row.

Short form: The phase separation temperature was observed

and recorded during the cooling using a cross-polarized optical microscope in transmission mode.

Short form: The photoinjector consists of a copper photocathode

placed at the endwall of the ½ cell in a 1 ½ cell rf gun.

Choosing the Correct Verb Tense in Procedural Descriptions

The procedures you used in carrying out your study should usually be described in the simple past tense. Sentences included under procedures that are not written in the past tense usually do not refer to the procedures

used in the study being reported. Instead, they describes standard procedures that are commonly used by others.

The second major section of the experimental research report also often describes materials. This section is sometimes titled Experimental Materials and Procedures. This combined title indicates that researchers generally describe these two aspects together when they write up their research. Here we examine materials description in detail.

Materials

Laboratory equipmentFabricated materialsComputer modelsMathematical modelsField equipmentHuman or animal subjectsNatural substances

Surveys, questionnaires and tests　

Describing Specially Designed Materials: Three Steps:

A. Overview: This step consists of one or two sentences that give a general idea of the material and the purpose for which it is intended.

B. Description of principal parts: Here, each major part of characteristics of the material is described in logical sequence.

C. Functional description: This last step shows how the various features described in Step B function together.

A Field Equipment that Simulates Natural Rainfall

The device described here applied to an approximately 16X20 foot area with kinetic energy approximating that of natural rainfall. It samples and records the rates of runoff in such a way that sediment production can be measured accurately. Maximum error of 1% in application and in runoff measurements was a goal in the design, as were ease

of assembly and transport. The apparatus is patterned partly on that described by Meyer and McCune (2), but it is simpler and more easily transported. The major components consist of 1) a 1500-gallon tank truck for transporting water, 2) a framework and moving spray assembly for applying water, and 3) a device for sampling and measuring the rate of runoff. Power is supplied by a 10-horsepower gasoline engine which drives both

a centrifugal pump and 2-kw electrical generator. Water from the tank truck is supplied to the apparatus by the centrifugal pump (Homart 736.25). The pressure of the output from the pump is controlled by an adjustable bypass pressure regulator valve plumbed to return the excess water to the tank. The output from the regulator is connected to the spray assembly by 100 feet of ¾-inch hose. This moving spray assembly applies water

to the plots through eight nozzles (Spraying Systems 80100), mounted as specified by Meyer and McCune (2). The assembly is moved back and forth along aluminum I-beams by ½-inch roller chains (see Figure 6.4).

Step A. Overview: The device described here applied to an

approximately 16X20 foot area with kinetic energy approximating that of natural rainfall. It samples and records the rates of runoff in such a way that sediment production can be measured accurately. Maximum error of 1% in application and in runoff measurements was a goal in the design, as were ease of assembly and transport. The apparatus is patterned partly on that described by Meyer and McCune (2), but it is simpler and more easily transported.

Step B. Description of principle parts:

The major components consist of 1) a 1500-gallon tank truck for transporting water, 2) a framework and moving spray assembly for applying water, and 3) a device for sampling and measuring the rate of runoff.

Step C. Functional description Power is supplied by a 10-horsepower gasoline

engine which drives both a centrifugal pump and 2-kw electrical generator. Water from the tank truck is supplied to the apparatus by the centrifugal pump (Homart 736.25). The pressure of the output from the pump is controlled by an adjustable bypass pressure regulator valve plumbed to return the excess water to the tank. The output from the regulator is connected to the

spray assembly by 100 feet of ¾-inch hose. This moving spray assembly applies water to the plots through eight nozzles (Spraying Systems 80100),mounted as specified by Meyer and McCune (2). The assembly is moved back and forth along aluminum I-beams by ½-inch roller chains (see Figure 6.4).

Arrangement Plans For Describing Principal Parts Of Materials

1. Spatial arrangement: Describe the features from top to bottom, front to back, left to right, from the center to the outside, or in some other spatial way. This arrangement is especially useful for describing equipment consisting of various connected parts.

2. Functional arrangement: Describe the principal features in the order in which they function, from beginning to end. This arrangement is best for describing parts that operate in a fixed sequence.

The materials used in a study are sometimes described separately from the procedures.

Example A:

All the aromatic compounds used were commercially available materials without further purification. 2-propanol was distilled from sodium metal. The instrumentation used included an HFT-80 and NT-300 spectrometer, a Hewlett Packard 5980-A mass spectrometer, a Waters Associates HPLC Instrument, Model 600A, and a Varian Aerograph 1400 GC instrument with a 10-ft column containing 15% Carbowax on Chromosorb W.

Most commonly, however, materials and methods are described in an integrated form, often with both elements mentioned in each sentence.

Example B: Aqueous sodium hydroxide (30 g, 185 mL) was

cooled in ice in a 500-mL beaker, stirred magnetically while 5 g of nickel-aluminum alloy was added in several small portions, and gradually warmed to 100 C as required to maintain the hydrogen evolution. The

nickel was then allowed to settle, and the liquid was decanted. After being washed with 5% fresh sodium hydroxide and distilled water until neutral, the nickel suspension was filtered with a glass funnel and then finally washed with 100 mL of 2-propanol. The catalyst was transferred with small amounts of dry 2-propanol to a glass-stoppered bottle.

ALUMINUM IN SEAWATER:CONTROL BY BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY

Procedures (including materials) To investigate seasonal and annual variations in

physical, chemical and biological properties of a portion of Mediterranean Sea, a standard oceanographic station location 12 nautical miles (22 km) west of Calvi, Corsica, has been occupied by the Stareso marine Laboratory research ship Recteur Debussion at irregular intervals since 1974. The ocean depth is 2000 m. Water samples for aluminum and nutrient analysis were

Collected there from various depths. Temperature of the samples was determined by reversing thermometers.

All the samples for aluminum and nutrient analysis were filtered through 0.45-um Millipore filters immediately after collection. The filter samples were kept at 4 C in polyethylene bottles for later analysis. To prevent further biological activity, one or two

drops of chloroform was added to each sample. The samples were analyzed for aluminum two weeks after collection, using lumogallion as chelating agent.

Describing Materials and Procedures1. Identify the materials used in the study.2. Determine whether each material

mentioned is conventional or specially designed.

3. If any of the materials are given an extensive description, find the sentences in the description that correspond to Step A (overview), Step B (description of

Principal parts), and Step C (functional description).

4. If there is a step B, identify the arrangement as spatial, functional, or some other arrangement plan.

5. Determine whether the procedures and materials in your selection are described in an integrated form or separately.

Choosing Verb Tenses When we describe the sample used in a study

we commonly use the past tense.

A phosphor screen was used to ensure the position of the electron beam was on axis near the center of our diagnostics. The beam energy was measured to be 3.5 MeV using a dipole spectrometer.

The copper cathode received no special

surface preparation. After machining, the cathode was installed in the rf gun and baked at 100 degree Celsius with the gun under vacuum.

This study prepared two EWOD chips with which to verify the validity of the proposed theoretical models. The first chip incorporated an amorphous fluoropolymer layer deposited on an indium tin oxide electrode.

All the samples for aluminum and nutrient analysis were filtered through 0.45-um Millipore filters immediately after collection. The filter samples were kept at 4 degree Celsius in polyethylene bottles for later analysis.

The JPL reactor was more heavily instrumented than the others for purpose of testing. In addition to inlet and outlet gas temperature measurements, 21 thermocouples were located in and on the converter.

Zibrafish embryos were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 2 h at room temperature and stained for endogenous alkaline phosphatase activity. Then, embryos were mounted in agarose-coated Petri dishes and photographed under an epifluorescence Leica MZ16 F stereomicroscope equipped with a DFC480 digital camera and ICM50 software.

If you use equipment or materials in your study which is standard or conventional in your field and probably familiar to most other researchers, you should describe it in using the present tense.

The photoinjector consists of a copper photocathode placed at the endwall of the ½ cell in a 1 ½ cell rf gun. A solenoid is used to transport the beam to various beam diagnostics.

For single photon photoemission, the photon energy must exceed the work function of copper (4.65 eV). The photoinjector drive laser was designed to produce <sp laser pulses at 266 nm (4.66 eV) with 200 uJ/pulse. This is accomplished using chirped pulse amplification and compression of a mode-locked YAG laser and frequency upconverting using two KD*P doubling crystals.

A typical chemical reactor includes a helical, tube-in tube heat exchanger.

The heater consists essentially of a bundle of parallel tubes, the ends of which are expanded into tube sheets.

Air enters and leaves the solar collector pipe through the air release vacuum breaker valves mounted at the highest point of the system.

The quartz reactors tested for this work are fabricated by the Wm. A. Sales Company of Wheeling, Illinois. Both quartz reactors are configured as six-turn flat spirals, tube-in-tube, over the entire converter.

The conventional approach for exhaustive histogram-based search entails the construction of histograms centered at each possible position in the image.

The state-of-the-art integrated histogram (17,14) represents a radical departure for computing histograms from the conventional approach.

Using Active and Passive Voice in Describing Materials

Both active and passive voice verb constructions are used in describing experimental materials. Your decision to use active or passive voice depends partly on whether the verb is transitive or intransitive. Only transitive verbs can be used in passive voice.

1. The passive voice is usually used when a human agent (the experimenter) is manipulating the materials.

The temperature inside the chamber was increased from 0 C to 20 C. (The researcher increased the temperature.)

Four thermocouples were monitored hourly. (A researcher monitored them.)

The photoinjector drive laser was designed to produce <sp laser pulses at 266 nm (4.66 eV) with 200 uJ/pulse.

A solenoid is used to transport the beam to various beam diagnostics.

After machining, the cathode was installed in the rf gun and baked at 100 degree Celsius with the gun under vacuum.

2. The active voice is usually used when no human is directly responsible for manipulating the materials—that is, when the materials operate “by themselves.”

A 200 hp generator provided power to the piezometers.

Control gauges monitored air pressure inside the chamber.

Because the Faraday cup collects significant amounts of dark current, the integrating current transformer was used to measure the photo-induced charge per pulse free of the dark current background.

3. The passive voice may be used to describe an action involving a nonhuman agent, but a phrase must be included to indicate the agent.

Power was supplied by 14 generators with capacities ranging from 90 to 300KW.

Water is pumped through the south-facing collectors by a circulation pump.

How an Active Dual-Tank Solar Hot Water System Works

Solar systems designed to heat water are now common in private homes in many parts of the country. A typical domestic water heating system consists of three principal parts, which are (A) roof-mounted solar collectors, (B) a solar storage tank, and (C) an existing water

heater. Water is pumped through the southfacing collectors by a circulation pump (D). As water passes through the

collectors, it acquires heat and returns to the storage tank. When hot water is needed, it is taken from the existing water heater (C) and replaced by solar heated water. An electronic control turns the pump on only during those hours when

usable solar energy can be collected. It also activates the drain down valves (E) to drain the system when the collectors sense a freeze, or when the storage tank is completely charged with thermal energy.

The existing water heater serves as a back-up unit during long periods of cloudy weather,

or when demand is unusually high. Otherwise, its energy consumption is eliminated as long as the solar water temperature is higher than the existing water heater’s thermostat setting.

Writing Up Your Own Research1. Materials are described differently

depending on whether they are conventional or specially designed.

2. When describing specially designed materials, the order of information follows a three-part sequence.

3. The description of principal parts may be arranged functionally or spatially.

4. Verb tenses are determined by kind of materials being described.

5. Verb voice depends on the specific verbs you use and whether or not you are referring to a human agent.

Language

1.Use past tense when describing the sample.2.Use past tense when describing specially

designed materials.3.Use present tense when describing

conventional materials.4.Use active voice if the verb is intransitive and

action happens “by itself.”

5. Use passive voice if the verb is transitive and a human agent is involved in the action.

RESULTS

The results section of the report presents the findings of study in both figures and in written text. Figures (graph, tables, and diagrams) present the complete findings in numerical terms, while the accompanying text helps the reader to focus on the most important aspects of the results and to interpret them. In this section we concentrate on the text.

Three Information Elements

Element 1: a statement that locates the figure(s) where the results can be found

Element 2: statements that present the most important findings

Element 3: statements that comment on the results

Element 1: Structure of Data Commentary—Location Elements and Summaries

Measurements of collected charge vs laser energy for three representative cases are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 4 shows the polarization dependence of collected charge for a laser energy of 100 uJ.

Details of the chemicals used are provided in

Table 2. The structure of the resulting polymer walls is

given in Figure 2.

Use a linking as-clause to introduce informative statements:

As can be seen in Figure 3, The applied patterned field enhances phase separation.

As revealed by the graph, the defect rate has declined.

Increasing the concentration of monomer results in expansion of the polymer domains into the pixel regions, as shown in Figs. 2(c) and 2(d).

Choice of Preposition

In As shown in Table 3,…From As can be seen from the data in Table 1, …By As shown by the data in Table 1,…ON As described on page 81,…

Three Information Elements

Measurements of collected charge vs laser energy for three representative cases are shown in Figure 3. From these measurements it is clear that saturation of the charge occurs at laser energies above 50 uJ. Therefore values of quantum efficiency are taken in the low charge limit.

Element 1: a statement that locates the figure(s) where the results can be found

Measurements of collected charge vs laser energy for three representative cases are shown in Figure 3.

Element 2: statements that present the most important findings

From these measurements it is clear that saturation of the charge occurs at laser energies above 50 uJ.

Element 3: statements that comment on the results

Therefore values of quantum efficiency are taken in the low charge limit.

A total of 53 samples were examined. Direct microscopic examination of the samples showed 20 different fungal strains, which were isolated by culture and identified to the level of genus and/or species (Table 1). These findings show that fungi can tolerate adverse environmental changes in the vegetative form. Table 2 shows the results of the psychological tests applied to the isolates. None of the

fungi strains was able to grow in culture media with 500 to 5000 mg/L of anionic surfactant. An inhibitory effect on fungal growth and activity might be expected from the anionic surfactant level found in the ponds (Tomlinson and Williams, 1975).

Sentence 2: Elements 1 and 2. Direct microscopic examination of the samples

showed 20 different fungal strains, which were isolated by culture and identified to the level of genus and/or species (Table 1).

Sentence 3: Element 3 These findings show that fungi can tolerate

adverse environmental changes in the vegetative form.

Sentence 4: Element 1 and 2 Table 2 shows the results of the psychological

tests applied to the isolates.Sentence 5: Element 2 None of the fungi strains was able to grow in

culture media with 500 to 5000 mg/L of anionic surfactant.

Sentence 6: Element 3

An inhibitory effect on fungal growth and activity might be expected from the anionic surfactant level found in the ponds (Tomlinson and Williams, 1975).

Commenting on Results

There are two possible ways to order your comment statements (Element 3).

You may put a short comment (one or two sentences) after each significant result you mention, or you may leave your comments until all the results have been mentioned.

Two Patterns for Ordering Comments (Element 3)

Alternating Pattern: R1 +C1; R2 + C2; R3 + C3

Sequential Pattern: R1 + R2 + R3 + C

R = Results (Element 2)C = Comments (Element 3)

The alternating pattern is best if you have many individual results with specific comments for each result.

The sequential pattern is used when there are several individual results to which one general comment applies.

Functions of Comments (Element 3)

Comments may1. generalize from results;2. explain possible reasons for the results;3. Compare the results with results from other

studies.Items 2 and 3 may be in a separate Discussion

Section.

Examples of comments:1. 1 The function form of this enhancement

fits a cos Φ square dependence which implies that the enhancement is dependent on the energy of p-polarized light rather than its field.

2. 2 The increase in quantum efficiency for p-polarized injection is probably due to the difference in the reflectivity of copper at these polarizations.

3. 3 A more recent measurement of quantum efficiency for polished, clean copper with low applied fields using 266 nm laser pulses was reported by Srinivassan-Rao et al. Although his value agrees with our measurement, it implies that field enhanced emission did not occur and does not explain the difference in photoemission between the damaged and undamaged parts of the cathode.

Examples of comments:1. 1 These data indicate that performance of Rhizobium japonicum strains

is likely to be better under irrigated conditions.

2. 2 This difference in perceived time available for youth related activities is likely due to the additional amount of time spent on the job by divorced mothers.

3. 3 These findings accord with those from a larger study in which the same supplementation program increased birthweights by an average of 224 g in the months July to January.

4. 2 The reasons for this erratic pattern could be the age distribution of the children or the relatively small number of women in the sample with three or more children.

5. 3 Up to this point, these results are consistent with those of Chapman and Hutcheson (1982).

Choosing Verb TensesElement 1: LOCATING THE FIGURE (Present Tense)Examples: Measurements of collected charge vs laser

energy for three representative cases are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 4 shows the polarization dependence of collected charge for a laser energy of 100 uJ.

Figure 2 shows transmission optical micrographs of the cells made from mixture formulations with different concentrations of the monomer.

Figures 3(a) and 3(b) show SEM images of polymer networks derived from a mixture containing 10% (w/w) monomer with no applied field and a field of 17.8 V/um, respectively.

Element 2: PRESENTING THE FINDINGS (Past Tense)Example: Increasing the concentration of

monomer, as shown in Figures 2(c) and 2(d), resulted in expansion of the polymer domains into the pixel regions.

Example:

Figures 3(a) and 3(b) show SEM images of polymer networks derived from a mixture containing 10% (w/w) monomer with no applied field and a field of 17.8 V/um, respectively. The “honeycombtype” polymer walls were predominantly formed in the interpixel regions.

Example: The coefficient of correlation was found to be significant at the 0.001 level.Example: MPO-positive cells accumulated 6 to 12 hours after injury, followed by a phase of resolution that was largely complete by 24 hours (Figure 1E).

In some fields, authors may present their findings in the present tense.

Element 1 and Element 2 together: (Present Tense)

Figure 1-a indicates that the film is well stacked with submicrometer-sized ZnO aggregates.

Figure 2 (a) shows that the structure obtained in the absence of a field consists of an interpenetrating polymer network in a continuous LC phase.

Increasing the concentration of monomers, as shown in Figure 2(c) and 2(d), resulted in expansion of the polymer domains into the pixel regions.

Element 3: COMMENTING ON THE RESULTS (Present Tense and Modal Auxiliaries)

When the comment generalizes from the results, use may:

Example: The degree of separation between the liquid crystal and monomer may be determined by the strength and gradient of the field.

Example: The function form of this enhancement fits a cos Φ square dependence which implies that the enhancement may be dependent on the energy of p-polarized light rather than its field.

When the comment compares your results with the results of other studies, use the present tense.

Example: The quantum efficiency of copper has been measured by Downey et al, using 248 nm light and 193 nm light. Using the Fowler-Dubridge theory for photoemission, these previous measurements of quantum efficiency can be scaled for our wave length of 266nm.

When the comment gives a possible explanation for the results, use a modal auxiliary.

Example: These results can (may) be explained by considering the voltage distribution on 230 KV insulators during freezing conditions.

Example: The saturation can (may) be explained by space charge effects near the cathode surface.

Example: A more recent measurement of quantum efficiency for polished, clean copper with low applied fields using 266 nm laser pulses was reported by Srinivassan-Rao et al. Although his value agrees with our measurement, it implies that field enhanced emission did not occur and does not explain the difference in photoemission between the damaged and undamaged parts of the cathode.

Element 3: COMMENTING ON THE RESULTS (Tentative Verbs)

Example: The photoemission from copper under macroscopic electric fields of 50 MV/m appears to be enhanced by damage on cathode.

Example: The photoemission from copper under macroscopic electric fields of 50 MV/m seems to be enhanced by damage on cathode.

Example: It is likely that the photoemission from copper

under macroscopic electric fields of 50 MV/m is enhanced by damage on cathode.

Example: The result suggests that the photoemission from copper under macroscopic electric fields of 50 MV/m is enhanced by damage on cathode.

Example: The results suggest that the separation of the liquid crystal and monomer results from Kelvin type force of the form:

F = P•▽ E

where p is the polarizability of the material and E is the field strength.

Element 2: Presenting Different Types of Findings

There are three different types of findings that you may need to report, depending on the kind of study you do. Specific words and expressions are used in writing about each type.

1. In some studies the findings involve a comparison among groups, often one or more experimental groups with a control group. In these cases Element 2 statements are often written using comparative or superlative expressions.

Element 2: Comparison Among GroupsI. Comparison:

The professional athletes had faster eye movements than our other subjects.

Quartz I reactors had a higher mass flow than Quartz II.

Superlative:

The highest incidence of Otitis Media was found among Australian Indians.

In other studies the findings show the tendency of a variable to fluctuate over time. To report these kind of results, use expressions of variation or special verbs of variation in your elements.

Element 2: Fluctuation of a Variable Over Time Variable Verb Phrase of Time period

variation

Prices showed a tendency to over the three

increase year period.

The percentage tended to decline in the second

of female half ofstudents the decade.

Element 2: Fluctuation of a Variable Over Time

Variable Verb of variation Time Period

rose

fell

The concentration of increased over the period Sulfur dioxide decreased studied. dropped remained constant declined

3. Findings of a third type show the relationship of one variable with another, or relationships among variables. When you report these kinds of results, it is common to use verbs of correlation or association in Element 2.

Element 2: Relationship Between Two Or More Variables

Variable X Verb of correlation/association Variable Y

correlated withChoice of was negatively correlated with marital status.location associated with

highly Dry weight was not significantly related to total nitrogen.of top growth closely

Checklist for Describing ResultsInformation1. Include three elements of information in

presenting results, in either long or short format.

2. Write comments after each important finding, or put a general comment after the result,

3. Write comments for various functions, depending on your findings.

Language1. Use present tense to locate findings in a

figure.2. 2. Use past tense to indicate the most

important findings.3. Use present tense or modal auxiliaries to

comment on the findings.4. Use comparative and superlative

expressions to report findings involving a comparison among groups

5. Use verbs and phrases of variation to describe variables that fluctuate over time.

6. Use verbs of effect or association to report findings that involve relationships among variables.