Write Spell

Writing and Spelling StrategiesAssisting students who have additional learning support needs

Writing andSpelling Strategies:Assisting students whohave additional learningsupport needs

NSW State Literacy and Numeracy Plan

Writing and Spelling Strategies: Assisting students who have additional learning support needs

NSW Department of Education and Training 2007Disability Programs Directorate: Learning Assistance Program

RESTRICTED WAIVER OF COPYRIGHT

The printed material in this publication is subject to a restricted waiver of copyrightto allow the purchaser to make photocopies of the material contained in thepublication for use within a school, subject to the conditions below.

1. All copies of the printed material shall be made without alteration orabridgement and must retain acknowledgement of the copyright.

2. The school or college shall not sell, hire or otherwise derive revenue from copiesof the material, nor distribute copies of the material for any other purpose.

3. The restricted waiver of copyright is not transferable and may be withdrawn inthe case of breach of any of these conditions.

Every effort has been made to trace the original source of material used in this book.Where the attempt has been unsuccessful, the Department of Education andTraining would be pleased to hear from the copyright holders in order to rectify anyerrors or omissions.

SCIS order number: 1269845

ISBN: 0731384903

This is a product of the NSW Department of Education and Training focusing onliteracy improvement strategies for students in need of additional support.

Disclaimer: The listing of a product in this document in no way implies any form ofendorsement of that product by the NSW Department of Education and Training.

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Contents

Introduction 5

Section 1 Supporting students experiencing difficultiesin writing 7

Meeting the needs of different learners through effective teaching 7

NSW Quality Teaching Model 7

Barriers to writing 10

Effective writing instruction 14

Section 2 Assessing students writing achievements 17

What is assessment? 17

A process for assessing writing achievement 18

Using Basic Skills Test (BST) for planning and programming 20

Section 3 Writing instruction 25

Features of exemplary writing instruction 25

Strategies to engage all students in writing 27

Modelled writing 27

Think aloud writing 33

Guided writing 34

Independent writing 50

Writing conferences 51

Cooperative learning 54

Section 4 Preparing students to write 57

Building field knowledge 57

Brainstorming 58

Note-making 61

Using cued listening to stimulate writing 65

2NSW State Literacy and Numeracy Plan


Organising ideas and information: graphic organisers andplanning sheets 68

Developing word knowledge 77

Constructing concept maps 77

Word meaning checklist 79

Understanding key words 80

Some research-based models for classroom practice 83

Scaffolded instruction 83

Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD): everychild can write 90

The POWER strategy 95

Section 5 Text structure and grammar 103

Establishing a book talk framework 104

Sequencing information 106

Text cohesion 111

Pronouns: understanding pronouns and how they contribute toproducing cohesive texts 111

Conjunctions and connectives 118

Constructing sentences 123

The simple sentence 123

Writing sentences with more than one clause 129

Prepositional phrases 136

Punctuation 142

Conspicuous strategy instruction 149

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Section 6 Spelling 153

Developing spelling skills 153

Developing a teaching plan for spelling 154

Independent strategies for self-correction and practice 161

Spelling with a peer tutor or spelling buddy 165

Room print 171

Using phonological, visual, morphemic and etymological knowledgeto develop spelling 174

Section 7 Using technology to support writing 177

Assistive technology: supporting students to read and write 177

Speech synthesis (text to speech) and word prediction technology 178

Organisational software 180

Voice recognition software 182

Specialised hardware 183

Exploratory learning environments 184

E-mail penfriend writing 184

Section 8 References and resources 187



Acknowledgements

To name individually all those teachers in schools and support roles across New SouthWales who have contributed their ideas to this publication would be impossible.

Their enthusiasm and generosity in testing strategies and materials has been vital inbringing this handbook to fruition.

Special thanks to the principals, staff and students of Chifley Public School, CarltonSouth Public School and Strathfield South Public School for their assistance in

providing photographs of students in writing situations to accompany the materials inthis publication.

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Introduction

Writing and Spelling Strategies: Assisting students who haveadditional learning support needs

This practical resource can assist teachers to develop and adjust teaching strategiesand class programs to meet the needs of a range of learners experiencing difficultieswith spelling and writing.

Writing and Spelling Strategies: Assisting students who have additional learning supportneeds should be used in conjunction with other support material developed underthe State Literacy and Numeracy Plan such as:

Focus on literacy: Writing

Focus on literacy: Spelling

Spelling K-6

Leaps and Bounds Improving student writing using PWA

In particular, the Programming and Strategies Handbook: Assisting students in Year 3and Year 5 who need additional support in literacy is a useful resource for teachers ofstudents who have learning support needs. Within this document links are made tothe NSW Basic Skills Test, a state-wide assessment for students in Year 3 and Year 5,and to the associated material, Teaching Strategies Documents, made available eachyear to assist teachers in further developing their teaching and learning programs.

The Writing and Spelling Strategies handbook will provide teachers with readyinformation based on current research as well as strategies for effectively teachingwriting and spelling to students with additional learning needs.

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Section 1

Supporting students experiencingdifficulties in writing

Students may experience difficulties in writing for a variety of reasons. Thesedifficulties may vary in cause, nature, intensity and duration.

Students who need additional support in writing often demonstrate significantdifficulties planning, writing and revising text. Some students may have difficultycommunicating ideas, events and experiences because of a limited repertoire ofspoken and written English. Others may have difficulties with the mechanicalaspects of writing, such as handwriting, punctuation and spelling.

Meeting the needs of different learners through effectiveteaching

There should be a whole-school approach to meeting the needs of different learners.Teachers should maintain high expectations of all students and ensure that writingis equally visible and valued across the full range of purposes, context and learningareas.

The aim of teaching writing is to equip students with the knowledge and skills towrite effectively for a range of purposes and in a variety of contexts. For studentsneeding additional support with writing, it is the quality of teaching and assessmentthat makes the most difference to their achievement.

NSW Quality Teaching Model

The NSW Quality Teaching Model comprises three dimensions that representclassroom and assessment practices that have been linked to improved studentlearning outcomes.

Intellectual quality

This refers to pedagogy focused on producing deep understanding of importantsubstantive concepts, skills and ideas. Such pedagogy treats knowledge as somethingthat requires active construction and requires students to engage in higher-orderthinking and to communicate substantively about what they are learning.

Suggestions:

Choose authentic texts to deliver key concepts, skills and ideas.

Be explicit about the purpose and audience for the writing and how languageworks at the whole text level, sentence level and word level.

Deconstruct samples of different types of writing.



Teach students the effects of manipulating knowledge and language fordifferent types of writing.

Have students engage with, and reflect on, how writing changes and operatesin different cultural, social and political contexts and over time.

Plan for sufficient time for writing to be sustained and substantial.

Have students talk about and evaluate their writing with peers, teachers andparents.

Explicitly discuss the way language works to make meaning in the studentswriting.

Significance

This refers to teaching that generates significance by connecting students with theintellectual demands of their work. Such pedagogy helps make learning moremeaningful and important to students and draws clear connections with studentsprior knowledge and identities, with contexts outside the classroom, and withmultiple ways of knowing or cultural perspectives.

Suggestions:

Build writing by starting with students background knowledge and priorschool knowledge; for example, brainstorming, mind mapping.

Recognise and value the cultural knowledge and practices of diverse socialgroups. Where appropriate, include members of the community from diversecultural backgrounds as a resource for writing.

Give students opportunities for their writing to influence an audience beyondthe school. (Ask them: Who might need to know this? Why are we writingthis? Who might be an appropriate audience for our work?)

Recognise and use multiple stories (for example, biographies, documentaries,personal accounts) to enrich student understanding of the key concepts to beaddressed in their writing.

When possible, select topics for writing that connect with contexts outside theschool.

Use identified prior school knowledge, out-of-school knowledge and culturalknowledge of the groups represented in the class as content for writing.

Quality learning environment

This refers to pedagogy that creates classrooms where students and teachers workproductively in an environment clearly focused on learning. Such pedagogy setshigh and explicit expectations and develops positive relationships between teachersand students and among students. Progress for all students relies on a positive andstimulating environment where the writing tasks are seen as real and purposeful andthe teacher provides support through explicit teaching.

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Suggestions:

Refer students regularly to the stage-appropriate outcomes they are workingtowards.

Ensure activities are purposeful and interesting with clear goals that studentsperceive to be worthwhile.

Respect every learners personal best.

Have high expectations for all students, but set realistic outcomes whichindividuals can achieve.

Make explicit to students what a quality performance or product looks like.

Encourage students to reflect on and modify their writing using criteriaconsistent with the type of text they are constructing.

Be clear about what you want the students to do or produce and how well youexpect them to do it.

Use exemplars and work samples that illustrate high quality studentperformance based on explicit criteria.

Identify the prior learning of students and monitor their progress to supportthe development of appropriately challenging work for all students.

Celebrate successes in appropriate ways.

Recognise and value diverse cultures in meaningful ways; for example, manystudents from different language backgrounds will need carefully structuredtalking and listening activities as an important bridge to the successful use ofwritten language at school.

Establish time for daily writing.

Use processes such as joint construction to allow all students to contribute toand collaborate on a piece of writing.

Develop links between home and school so that writing is shared and valued.



Planning to teach

When planning for the effective teaching of writing for students who needadditional support, it is useful to consider the following:

What do I want the students tolearn?Consider: Syllabus requirements What the students already know,

understand and can do

Why does that learning matter(for the students)?Consider: How does the learning link to

prior learning? Does the learning have meaning

in the world beyond theclassroom?

What am I going to get thestudents to do or produce?Consider: Teaching strategies Learning processes Products Classroom organisation

How well do I expect them to do it?Consider: High expectations for student

performance and/or product How will students know what a

quality product looks like? How will I know when they have

achieved the outcomes?

NSW QualityTeaching

model

Barriers to writing

Students may experience frustration when attempting to write because of difficultieswith spelling, punctuation, and handwriting. Teachers may need to plan toovercome difficulties with these mechanical aspects of writing. The table belowprovides a comparison of methods to overcome such barriers to writing. Researchindicates, for example, that dictating to a scribe can eliminate some difficulties suchas spelling or illegibility, and result in a longer, higher-quality written composition(De La Paz & Graham, 1997). While students must eventually learn to do their ownwriting, these findings suggest possible bridges to higher performance.

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Comparison of methods to overcome some barriers to writing

Evaluative questions

Method

Have the studentdictate while theteacher scribes.

First draft: Doesit enable thewriter to focus onideas?(Author role)

YesCan significantlyincrease the lengthand quality of thecompositions bystudents who need ahigh level ofsupport.

Final Draft: Doesit improvereadability?(Secretary role)

YesImproves thereadability of themessage because theteacher writes thedictated text orassists the studentwith spelling andpunctuation as thestudent writes.

Notes

Major disadvantageis the studentsdependence on theteacher in thewriting process.

Can be an effectivebridge in earlywriting developmentwith students whocannot translatetheir thoughts into awritten form.

Prompt by supplyingthe spelling ofimportant wordsbefore the studentswrite.

Spellings can bewritten on:

prompt cards

charts

chalkboards.

Slightly

It enables studentsto focus attentionon ideas, althoughsomewhatinconsistently.

Slightly

Does influencereadability of themessage. Number ofmisspellings slightlydecreased (wordssuggested by thestudents for the listtended to be contentwords). Howeverstudents withspelling difficultiesfrequently misspellfunction words suchas every, again, which.

Effects notsignificantlydifferent from othermethods.

Because contentwords convey moremeaning in a textthan do functionwords, being able tocorrectly spell thecontent wordsimproves thereadability of thetext.

Teach a strategy forusing a personalword book to lookup the spelling ofunknown words.

No

Does not alwaysenable students tofocus on ideas. Canbe a distraction.Fluency decreased.A few students withlearning problemsused it to goodadvantage.

Yes

Word books orspelling dictionariesdo improve thereadability of thetext. However,personal word bookscontain a limited setof frequently usedwords and arehelpful only ifstudents realise thatthey need to check aword.

Use for final draftonly.

Note: Having thestudent look up aword in thedictionary is seldoman effective strategy,because knowinghow to spell theword is necessary inorder to find it.





Method

Have the studentask the teacher.

In this commonlyused strategy, thestudent raises his orher hand when he orshe cannot spell aword, and theteacher comes andspells the word asthe student writes itdown.

First draft: Doesit enable thewriter to focus onideas?(Author role)

Inconsistently

Asking the teacherdoes not alwaysenable studentattention to focuson ideas. Forstudents who wrotefewer than 50 wordsat baseline, teacherassistance seemed toincrease fluencyduring intervention.


Inconsistently

Does improve thereadability of themessage somewhatbut asking theteacher for spellingassistance is relatedto the studentsawareness that theymight not know howto spell particularwords.

Notes

Depends onstudents willingnessto ask for assistanceand awareness ofmisspelt words.Waiting can detractfrom writing timeand flow of ideas.

Encourage inventedspelling for first draft.

Yes

Invented spellingseems to effectivelyenable attention tofocus on ideas.Fluency increased.

No

Led to an increase inthe proportion ofwords that weremisspelt.

Supplement with astrong spellingprogram. Inventedspelling was usefulduring first draft butnot whencompleting finaldraft. May bedetrimental tosubsequent spellingperformance.

Promote peercollaboration.

Potentially

Peer collaborationcombined withstrategy instructionmay enableattention to focus onideas in a way thatimproves quality ofwriting if studentsare prepared to workwith each other inmutually supportiveways.

Potentially

Peer collaborationand strategyinstruction had abeneficial effect onthe readability ofsecond draftcompositions.

Depends on howwell students areprepared to workwith each othercombined withstrategy training, e.g.teaching of anediting strategy.

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Teach a self-checking strategy.

Not intended forfirst draft

Yes

The teacher shouldteach a self-checkingstrategy that thestudent can use toedit his or her ownwork.

Editing must beseparated fromdrafting.

When editing, thestudent needs tosuspect that a word ismisspelt or apunctuation error hasbeen made.



Method First draft: Doesit enable thewriter to focus onideas?(Author role)


Notes

Have students usetechnology.

Inconsistently

Ease of revisionprovided by theword processorcreates the potentialfor students to focuson ideas and edit forspelling orpunctuation at alater time.

Partially

Success woulddepend on whetherstudents takeadvantage of thecomputer forrevising, spell-checking etc. and ontheir fluency withediting, keyboardingand use of keyboardcommands.

Improves appearancebut not necessarilythe quality of writing;strong motivationalappeal.

Adapted from: Isaacson & Gleason (1997).

Building confidence

For students who have experienced difficulties learning to write it is important thatteachers focus on removing anxiety and building confidence in students that theywill be successful as writers. Teachers should plan for students to experience successwith writing by providing clear models and scaffolds, explicit feedback and guidanceand many opportunities for success.

Group activities for writing can help remove anxiety and build confidence, and willbenefit the student who needs additional support when writing.

In groups students can: share knowledge about the topic; brainstorm ideas discuss vocabulary choices, sentences and paragraph structures participate in a joint construction of a particular type of text share editing and proofreading tasks.

It is important that students know how to participate effectively in a group. (Seepage 54 Cooperative learning and its essential elements.)



Effective writing instruction

Graham, Harris and Larsen (2001) concluded that there is little doubt thatchildrens success as writers is ultimately tied to the quality of instruction. Otherresearchers have identified factors in effective classroom writing instruction thatapply across the range of learners and the range of classroom contexts. Steps indelivering effective instruction were outlined by Rosenshine and Stevens (1986).

1. Review previously taught skills

Review previously taught skills to ensure that students have learned andremembered them. This gives students more practice and allows the teacher tocheck whether they are having any problems.

The teacher can correct any errors immediately and show or model again how thetask is done correctly. Skills can be retaught and different strategies may need to beused.

2. Present the new writing task

A short statement of the specific nature of the writing task, its purpose orexpectations, occurs first.

The teacher models the skills or concepts to be taught using the think aloudstrategy, see page 33. Students experiencing difficulties will often learn more easily ifthe writing task is presented in small manageable steps. Step by step instruction mayneed to be given. A combination of scaffolded instruction individual, content,material and task as determined by the needs of the students can best supportthese students during the critical stage of initial learning, see pages 8389.

Frequent checking of students understanding is necessary and a lively pace willmaintain students interest.

3. Provide guided practice

In guided practice the teacher guides or leads students through some examples of theskill or concept modelled. A common language is used to provide continuousfeedback about the effectiveness, meaning, and accuracy of students writing. Thisongoing monitoring is important to ensure that students avoid practising errors andcan demonstrate success.

4. Provide independent practice

In independent practice students learn to use the new skills or information with aminimum of direct assistance from the teacher until new information is merged withwhat is already known.

Homework activities can be used for independent practice of skills. To avoidfrustration, material set for homework needs to be set at an independent level.Teachers need to provide a range of contexts so that students can generalise skills.

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5. Provide cumulative review activities

Skills and knowledge will not be retained by most students experiencing difficultiesif taught only once or twice and practised for a brief time. Cumulative review meansthat students are given a task in which examples of the most recently introducedskills are integrated with examples of skills previously taught.

Fun formats, such as games and puzzles, can make the review pleasant. Tests, quickquizzes and oral questions can also be used for review.

Cumulative review is a critical part of instructional design. Material not learned orremembered may need a different presentation and more practice.

Pages 8389 describe four dimensions of scaffolded instruction individual,content, material and task and how they are applied to provide levels ofprompting to optimise the students learning.

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Section 2


Section 2

Assessing students writing achievements

What is assessment?

Assessing is the process of collecting, analysing and recording information aboutstudent progress towards achievement of syllabus outcomes. An important purposeof assessment is to design appropriate learning programs for all students. Theprinciples below underpin effective assessment.

Assessment is integral to teaching and learning. It should be based onlearning outcomes that specify what students know, understand and are ableto do with language.

A variety of assessment strategies and contexts should be used to give studentsopportunities to demonstrate, in an authentic manner, what they know andunderstand about language as well as what they can do.

Assessment procedures should relate to the knowledge and skills that aretaught within the school program, and to the syllabus outcomes.

English K6 Syllabus

The English K6 Syllabus, pages 8689, and Focus on literacy: Writing, pages 3941,contain information on assessing students writing achievements.

The main purpose of assessment is to enhance teaching and learning. Whenanalysing assessment information in order to plan teaching and learning experiencesfor students who are experiencing difficulties with writing, the teacher should asksuch questions as:

Has there been enough assessment information gathered from a variety of sourcesto make my programming effective?

Where is the student now in the teaching and learning cycle?

What are the priority syllabus outcomes to be achieved for this student?

What are the students strengths?

Has the students assessment included an informal survey of the students topicinterests and feelings about writing?

Should a more comprehensive assessment of motor skills or language involvingoutside specialist support be considered?



A process for assessing writing achievement

Within a planned whole-school approach, teachers gather assessmentinformation based on contributions from a variety of sources by, for example:

collecting samples of students writing, carefully selected over time, toprovide evidence of progress; criteria for assessing writing need to cover thewhole text, sentence level and word-level aspects of the text

observing students behaviour and interacting with them as they engage inthe processes of writing during modelled, guided and independent writing.

analysing the students Basic Skills Test (BST) results

using student self-assessment recorded on self-editing checklists, self-monitoring sheets and questionnaires

conducting three-way conferences where the teacher, parent and studentmeet to discuss the outcomes achieved and address relevant issues

discussing student progress with teaching staff (including ESL teachers,community language teachers and support staff)

consulting with outside specialists; for example, speech pathologist.

Teachers analyse the evidence collected to identify what students know andcan do, and match this against the K-6 English Syllabus outcomes. Priorities forteaching are established.

Teachers plan ways to meet students needs through grouping for whole class,small group and individualised instruction. Modelled, guided and independentteaching strategies are used to support students.

Teachers use teaching and learning experiences that develop the skills,knowledge and understandings needed to achieve the writing outcomestowards which students are moving. Principles of effective instruction areadhered to.

Teachers monitor and record students evidence of progress. Written recordsmay include logs and diaries, observation sheets, submissions or records ofmeetings, questionnaires.

Teachers constantly review, adjust and re-plan teaching and learning activitiesto support the individual writing needs of all students. Students experiencingdifficulties need to be identified and supported as early as possible.

Collectingevidence

Makingjudgements

Planning learningexperiences

Teaching

Monitoring,recording student

progress

Reviewing,replanning

teaching/learningprograms

Adapted from Teaching reading: A K6 Framework (1997), p. 24.

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Section 2


Monitoring progress: Some examples of ways to monitor studentswriting

Collecting evidence

Evaluation questions have thetypical features been included? Seepage 31

Questions to evaluate the clarity andeffectiveness of the flow chart, seepage 43

Prompted editing and proofreadingchecklist to check completeness,organisation and mechanics, see page87

Self-evaluation checklist recordingaction and decision making, see page71

A graph: setting my goals, showing myprogress, see page 91

Self-editing think sheet to reflect onthe first draft, see page 72

Written comments to prompt aconference, see page 53

Questions that might guide aconference, see page 52

Questions to give students greaterguidance and help monitor theirunderstanding, see page 63

Conference with a partner or theteacher using a checklist of typicalfeatures that should be included, seepage 95

A checklist for evaluating the process,see page 100

Using a Sentence edit checklist, see page124

Punctuation guide for students tounderstand and monitor the correctuse of punctuation, see page 143

A Punctuation checklist for my narrative,see page 144

Writing

Composing an exposition

Constructing a flow chart

Composing a narrative

Self-monitoring decisions

Self-monitoring writing

Composing an explanation

Composing a narrative

Writing conferences

Interpreting graphics, charts, mapsand diagrams

Constructing a factual paragraph

Assessing the students use of theplanning strategy POWER

Constructing a simple sentence

Using the correct punctuation

Editing punctuation



Collecting evidence

Sample of words misspelt taken fromthe students journal of writing, firstwriting drafts and other specificallydesigned tests, see page 156

Check the scope and sequence ofphonological and graphological skills:spelling, see page 157

A spelling questionnaire presentedorally by the teacher to the student toinform programming, see page 158

The student monitors his/her ownprogress by colouring the grid, see page159

Selecting samples of the studentsindependent writing and activitysheets, see page 160

Spelling

Gathering information about thestudents spelling achievements

Gathering information about thestudents spelling achievements

Gathering information about how thestudent spells an unknown word,learns a new word and proofreads

Monitoring the students spellingprogress

Spelling in a range of contexts;generalisation of skills taught

Using Basic Skills Test (BST) for planning and programming

The BST Writing assessment uses two curriculum-based writing tasks for Year 3 andYear 5 students. It is a criterion-referenced test that shows what students can do andenables standards of performance to be compared from year to year.

The aspects of writing that are assessed include literary and factual writing. Thewriting tasks are marked centrally although 20% of schools mark the writing scriptsof their own students. This is a valuable professional development opportunity forclassroom teachers.

The aggregation of student results from the BST provides the school with anoverview of current achievements for groups of students and contributes to a morecomprehensive understanding of their performance. Along with other forms ofassessment, the analysis of aggregated results can be used by the school to assistwhole-school planning.

How can teachers use BST to identify the specific needs of theirstudents?

Although teachers of Year 3 and Year 5 only receive the BST results for individualstudents, information from BST, along with results from other assessment tasksadministered in their classrooms throughout the year, can guide teachers K6 inidentifying areas which might need additional teaching support or furtherconsolidation. Careful analysis of BST Writing results can assist schools to identifyspecific strengths and weaknesses in writing for students in their school. Teacherscan use individual BST Writing results and other classroom assessments todetermine future programming decisions and to select appropriate strategies forteaching students experiencing difficulties.

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Section 2


Criterion-referenced assessment

In criterion-referenced assessment each piece of writing is assessed against criteriathat measure how well the writing achieves the purpose of the task. This kind ofassessment indicates what skills students have or have not demonstrated andhighlights skills points for further teaching.

Teachers can develop their own criterion-referenced assessment tasks for writingusing the English K6 syllabus as a performance standard. Criterion-referencedassessment can assist teachers to evaluate and diagnose demonstrated studentachievement, and develop intervention strategies to target students strengths andweaknesses.

Sharing a set of assessment criteria with students provides a tool for students to useto assist them to become self-regulating, reflective and independent writers.

The headings below are those found in the annual BST Writing marking manuals.A set of criteria for each writing task is provided for the markers to make judgmentsagainst.

Text processes

Does the student

write what is asked with a clear understanding of audience and purpose

stay on the set topic

choose a structure of text appropriate to the purpose of the writing

make language choices appropriate to the purpose of the writing

organise the text appropriate to the task

write coherently?

Text features

Does the student use

paragraphs properly

titles and headings effectively and appropriately if required

sentence structures that serve the purpose of the text

pronouns and conjunctions effectively to keep the text cohesive

appropriate and consistent tense?

Sentence level

Does the student use

correct clauses

articles and plurals correctly

prepositions appropriately

sentence punctuation

correct subject and verb agreement?



Word level

These criteria examine the grammar at the level of the word choice making up thetexts.

Is the form of the verb correct?

Is spelling mostly correct?

The following example, based on a writing task from the Primary WritingAssessment 2002, illustrates how judgements can be made about the needs ofindividual students from the evidence to be found in their work.

From BST Writing to teacher analysis, planning and programming

Stimulus material: The life cycle of frogs(From Primary Writing Assessment 2002)

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Section 2


Example of the writing of a student in Year 3 who scored in Band 1

Temporal structures the time phrasesare copied from the stimulus materialbut the student has not included anyother temporal structures to indicatethe sequence explained in the writing.

Sentence structures phrases from thestimulus are not successfullycombined into sentences. Most aremissing a finite verb.

Spelling most words are copied fromthe stimulus but there are errors inmodelled spelling, for example, yongand disapear. The verb are which is asimple high frequency word isincorrectly spelt.

Punctuation an unnecessaryapostrophe has been added in theplural form tadpoles and before the -sin the verb disappears.

Articles/plurals somearticles are omitted orused incorrectly.

Areas for explicit teaching

The student has used phrases from the stimulus material but has not combined them into successfulsentences. The last sentence contains an attempt to add original material. The student has not usedappropriate prepositions, pronouns or conjunctions to link ideas together. To write cohesively, thisstudent would need to be taught how to construct simple sentences and use a range of temporalstructures to correctly sequence separate events.

Leaps and Bounds (2003)

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Section 3


Section 3

Writing instruction

Features of exemplary writing instruction

When students are engaged in purposeful writing tasks, teachers provide support forthem through explicit teaching. Teachers also guide students by demonstrating howto achieve particular purposes, discussing the effectiveness of writers choices andgiving feedback at all stages of writing.

The goal of all teaching is for students to become independent writers. Teacherscontinue to provide support until students can compose texts for particular purposesindependently. However, even when students can write for certain purposesindependently, there are always greater writing challenges over the horizon withwhich they need help. This applies even beyond school. So, even thoughindependence is the goal, explicit teaching and guidance are always needed.

From Focus on literacy: Writing, p. 26.



Through their research, Graham, Harris and Larsen (2001) identified the features ofexemplary writing instruction:

a literate classroom environment where students written work is prominentlydisplayed, the room is packed with writing and reading material and word listsadorn the walls

daily writing with students on a wide range of writing tasks for multipleaudiences, including writing at home

extensive efforts to make writing motivating by setting an exciting mood,creating a risk free environment, allowing students to select their own writingtopics or modify teacher assignments, developing assigned topics compatible withstudents interests, reinforcing students accomplishments, specifying the goal foreach lesson, and promoting an I can attitude

regular teacher/student conferences concerning the writing topic the student iscurrently working on, including the establishment of goals or criteria to guide thestudents writing and revising efforts

a predictable writing routine where students are encouraged to think, reflect andrevise

overt teacher modelling of the process of writing as well as positive attitudestowards writing

cooperative arrangements where students help each other plan, draft, edit orpublish their written work

group or individual sharing where students present work in progress or workcompleted to their peer(s) for feedback

instruction covering a broad range of skills, knowledge and strategies, includingphonological awareness, handwriting and spelling, writing conventions, sentence-level skills, text structure, the functions of writing, and planning and revising

follow-up instruction to ensure mastery of targeted writing skills, knowledge, andstrategies

integration of writing activities across the curriculum and the use of reading tosupport writing development

frequent opportunities for students to self-regulate their behaviour during writing,including working independently, arranging their own space, and seeking helpfrom others

teacher and student assessment of writing progress, strengths, and needs

periodic conferences with parents and frequent communications with home aboutthe writing program and students progress as writers.

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Section 3


Strategies to engage all students in writing

Modelled writing

Purpose

Modelled writing helps students to gain knowledge about language, vocabulary andtext structures required to write for a range of purposes. Modelled writing includesexplicit teaching about the processes involved in composing text.

Focus on literacy: Writing, p. 29.

Description

Modelled writing means using both models and modelling. Modelled writing refers,on the one hand, to the selection of models to show students how writing works and,on the other hand, to the teachers practice of modelling or demonstrating writing tostudents.

The best source of models for writing is the real world, that is, the texts that studentsread. In modelled writing, teachers provide students with examples of the type oftext they will be composing, explanations of how these texts work and structureddemonstrations of what efficient writers know and do.

Focus on literacy: Writing, p. 28.

Preparation

Use the assessment information gathered to determine the skills, knowledge andunderstandings to be revisited and taught (build on what students already knowand can do).

Identify the English K6 Syllabus outcomes to be achieved and the indicators thatmight demonstrate movement towards or achievement of the outcomes.

Identify the context or content area the writing will occur in.

Collect short but well-written examples of different types of texts that studentswill be composing. Relate each example to a planned unit of work where thatparticular type of text will play a role in the students learning and where thepurpose and audience for whom the text is written can be clearly identified.

Highlight and label the key features of each type of text. Keep these examples ina book or folder with copies of them on overhead transparencies. See an exampleof an exposition on page 29.

Provide text scaffolds to support the modelling (composing) of each type of textand include these in the folder as a resource, see page 32. (Samples of a range oftext types can be found in English K-6 Modules).

Text scaffolds can also be used in guided and independent writing activities andcarefully structured talking and listening activities. For many students fromdifferent language backgrounds, carefully structured talking and listeningactivities will be an important bridge to the successful use of written language.



Identify the different ways students will build field knowledge prior to themodelled writing session. For example, strategies such as brainstorming what isknown about a topic and what we want to find out about it are good startingpoints for building field knowledge, see page 58. These lead to activities that helpstudents to explore and organise new information appropriate for the type of textto be composed.

Recognise, value and build on the different cultural understandings, skills andvalues that students bring to the classroom.

Implementation

Introduce the type of text by clarifying the purpose and audience for whom thetext is written the social purpose or intention of the text.

Display the model of writing selected to show students how this particular type ofwriting works.

Explore with students the type of texts associated with other key learning areasand state explicitly for students which types of texts are valued in key learningareas. See page 31 for some examples.

Read together and point out the typical features of the text using the thinkaloud writing strategy, see page 33.

List the typical features or on a prepared list tick each typical feature as it isdemonstrated. Refer to page 29 for one example of typical features for anexposition.

Point out to students the type of language used by the author to influence thereader.

Consider presenting an unsuccessful example of the same type of text. Changethe list of typical features into evaluation questions as shown on page 31. Use thequestions to demonstrate why the writing may not be as effective when animportant feature is missing.

Cut samples of texts into sections appropriate to the stages of the type of text.Then have the students sequence the sections into an appropriate order. See page109.

Use a variety of newspaper and feature articles for students to categoriseaccording to audience and purpose.

Use different types of text on the same topic to compare the effectiveness ofdifferent word and text choices made by the writers.

Ask questions to keep students attention and to check their understanding ofimportant points.

Provide opportunities for students to practise the knowledge, skills andunderstandings that have been demonstrated in guided and independent writingsessions.

Helpful hints:Remember to include samples constructed by students.

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An example of modelled writing exposition

The teachers copy showing some of the typical features of an exposition.

Text Structure

A statement of positionwith some backgroundinformation

Preview of argument

Argument 1Point elaboration



Summing up of position

Language Features

Use of modal verb toindicate obligation, e.g.should

Use of word chains tobuild topic informatione.g. cars, pollution,accidents, road deaths

Use of action verbs e.g.die, wander

Linking verb causes usedinstead of causalconjunction e.g. carsemit that causes

Relating verbs, e.g. is, torelate parts of the clause,e.g. the city is very busy

Use of connectives tosequence arguments, e.g.firstly, secondly, thirdly

Cars should be banned in the cityCars should be banned in the cityCars should be banned in the cityCars should be banned in the cityCars should be banned in the city

Cars should be banned in the city. Aswe all know, cars create pollution andcause a lot of road deaths and otheraccidents. Cars are also noisy.

Firstly, cars contribute to most of thepollution in the world. Cars emit adeadly gas that causes illnesses such asbronchitis and lung cancer. The deadlygas can also trigger asthma. Some ofthese illnesses are so bad that people candie from them.

Secondly, the city is very busy.Pedestrians wander everywhere and carscould hit them. This could cause somepedestrians to die. Cars today are thebiggest killers on our roads.

Thirdly, cars are very noisy. If you livein the city, you may find it hard tosleep at night, or concentrate on yourhomework. The noise can make itespecially difficult to talk to someone.

In conclusion, cars should be banned fromthe city for the reasons listed.

Adapted from English K6 Modules, p. 254.



Cars should be banned in the cityCars should be banned in the cityCars should be banned in the cityCars should be banned in the cityCars should be banned in the city

Cars should be banned in the city. As we all know, cars createpollution and cause a lot of road deaths and other accidents.Cars are also noisy.

Firstly, cars contribute to most of the pollution in the world.Cars emit a deadly gas that causes illnesses such as bronchitisand lung cancer. The deadly gas can also trigger asthma. Someof these illnesses are so bad that people can die from them.

Secondly, the city is very busy. Pedestrians wander everywhereand cars could hit them. This could cause some pedestrians todie. Cars today are the biggest killers on our roads.

Thirdly, cars are very noisy. If you live in the city, you may findit hard to sleep at night, or concentrate on your homework. Thenoise can make it especially difficult to talk to someone.

In conclusion, cars should be banned from the city for thereasons listed.

Text for modelling structure and grammar features

This can be used as an overhead transparency (OHT) for the teacher to model the text structure and languagefeatures, depending on the lesson focus. The teacher writes on the OHT thinking aloud. See page 33.

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Evaluation questions for an exposition could be:

Does the first paragraph state the topic and the writers opinion with a summary of the reasons?

Is each argument clearly stated with details to support that argument?

Is the last paragraph written as a conclusion reinforcing the writers opinion?

Are the language features appropriate for this type of text?

Typical features of an exposition

States topic and the writers opinion in the first sentence with a summary of the reasons.

States argument 1 (usually the strongest argument) with details that support this reason. The writerconsiders the roles and relationships of those involved to determine the tone of the writing.

States argument 2 with details that support this reason.

States other arguments with details to support them.

A conclusion is written to reinforce the writers opinion.

Language features include: simple present tense connectives and conjunctions to link arguments, e.g. next, therefore, as a result, firstly. words which qualify arguments, e.g. modal verbs should, could, modal adverbs, e.g. surely,

completely, modal nouns, e.g. catastrophe, devastation, modal adjectives, e.g. urgent, reasonable.

Par

agra

phs

Features of an exposition

Adapted from Choosing literacy strategies that work, Stage 2, p. 199.

Linking texts with other key learning areas

Type of text HSIE Science PDHPD Creative Arts Mathematics

Descriptions Changes Animals, Healthy Portrait of a Describing theresulting from machines lifestyles person or passing ofcolonisation painting time

Reports Local area, New inventions Nutritional Musical 3D shapescountries or the planets foods instrument

Procedures Care plan for Describe an Play a game or Make a puppet Build a prismnatural site experiment or how to test

make a kite lung capacity

Recounts Historical Record the Personal Art galleryevents, growth of plants experience, excursionbiography over time biography

Explanations How people How a machine How muscles How an How to solvegrow and works make the body instrument a problemchange move, how food makes a sound

is digested

Expositions Children Should we There should Modern music No one needsshould be able spend money be no school is better than to learn tablesto watch any preserving rules classicalTV program endangeredthey like animals?

Discussions Environmental Recycling Childhood Dancing is the Usingissues vaccination best exercise calculators in

class



Exposition

Topic ..............................................................................................

Write the topic and your opinionin the first sentence. Give asummary of your reasons.

Argument 1with details that support yourreason.

My first reason/argument/point ......

To begin with, ......


A second reason ......

Furthermore, ......


My last point ......

Another reason ......

Conclusion/reinforcement of youropinion

In conclusion ......

Therefore we/I believe ......

Finally, ......

Task scaffolding writing an exposition

This proforma can be used on an OHT. It provides one example of a task scaffold to support the modelling(writing) of an exposition by the teacher. This sample scaffold can also be used to support students during guided orindependent writing.

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Think aloud writing

Purpose

The purpose of this strategy is to explicitly demonstrate the choices and decisionsthat writers make as they plan, analyse and edit their own writing.

Description

Think aloud is exactly what it means the process of saying aloud what the writeris thinking while completing a writing task. It can be described as self-narration. Bymodelling for students the types of behaviours good writers are engaged in as theywrite, teachers are providing students with the opportunity to become aware of themany strategies writers use to generate and organise ideas. As appropriate, theteacher can encourage students to chime in and help think through the writingtask.

It is a strategy that can be used to demonstrate a comprehensive range of skills,knowledge and understandings about writing. For example, it can be a useful strategywhen teaching elements of:

text structure, grammar and punctuation

spelling

handwriting

the process of writing; for example, editing, proofreading.

Students can be encouraged to use think aloud writing as they provide peer supportduring shared or paired writing.

Implementation

The teacher chooses a writing focus based on the identified needs of the students.For example, the focus could be to teach students specific editing and proofreadingskills. The teacher might select a sample of a students draft writing and use thinkaloud writing to demonstrate the decisions and reasoning when editing orproofreading the text.

Some examples in this handbook where think aloud writing can be used effectivelyare:

during modelled writing where the teacher models each step of the POWERstrategy while writing on an overhead transparency, see page 96

when using collaborative talk while sequencing a scrambled text, see page 108

when an analogy is used to predict the spelling of an unknown word, see page169

self-talk while completing a concept map, see page 77

when modelling the process for indentifying key words and phrases while note-making, see page 80.

Helpful hints: Keep the sessions fairly short. Dont attempt to verbaliseeverything as you write.

Focus on only one or two aspects of the text at a time. The same text can and shouldbe revisited time and again to focus on different text features.



Guided writing

Purpose

The purpose of guided writing is to:

provide students with explicit and systematic teaching of writing to meet theirspecific needs

conduct a writing activity that involves the students and the teacher jointlycomposing a text

provide opportunities for students to work as a group or in pairs to support eachother, with the teacher as a guide.

Description

Guided writing is a key strategy for assisting students who need additional support inwriting.

In guided writing students are required to draw on the knowledge, skills andunderstandings developed during modelled writing sessions, with varying degrees ofsupport from the teacher.

A common guided writing activity involves students and the teacher jointlycomposing a text.

The guided writing sessions can involve the whole class, small groups or individuals.They can provide a setting for effective team teaching with the support teacherlearning assistance (STLA) and other support personnel such as the English as aSecond Language (ESL) teacher.

Preparation

Analyse assessment information gathered to prioritise and identify each studentsspecific needs, see page 18 A process for assessing writing achievement.

Match identified needs to the outcomes of the English K6 Syllabus anddetermine the outcomes that students will be working towards or achieving.

Identify indicators of achievement that students might display as they movetowards achievement of the outcomes.

Identify and plan monitoring procedures, see pages 19, 20.

Decide on how the writing sessions will be conducted; for example, small groups,individuals, whole class.

Identify the strategies that will support students in building field knowledge priorto the guided writing session, see page 57.

Recognise, value and build on the different cultural understandings, skills andvalues that students bring to the writing classroom.

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Key

Award winner

Film of book

Fiction

Picture book

Guided writing strategies

Using a jigsaw cloze to reconstruct text

A jigsaw cloze is a variation of written cloze in which lines of a poem, sentences of a literary text or stages in afactual text are cut up and jumbled like a jigsaw.

Students can reconstruct the text with teacher direction, using as a guide the stages of the text type, thelanguage features that might give them clues (time connectives, use of pronouns) and their knowledgeof order of events. See pages 106110 for the explicit teaching of a sequencing task related to thereconstuction of an explanation.

Constructing a fact file

Provide students with a proforma for organising their information to construct a fact file for a topicbeing researched.

Jointly construct a fact file to demonstrate the process.

Encourage and support students to work in pairs to research and construct their own fact file.

Invite students to share their fact file with other students and compare facts researched.

Below is an example of a fact file constructed after researching a favourite Australian author on theinternet.



Keeping a learning journal

Students can use a learning journal to help them reflect on what they have learned during the course of a unitand to practise integrating new information into written texts.

Demonstrate to students how to keep a learning journal during the course of a planned unit of work(see the example below). Ask students to turn to the first double page in their folder. Explain that theleft hand page can be used for brainstorming things learned each day and the right side for writing afactual paragraph using information from the list or writing about one topic from the list.

Set up two sheets of chart paper side by side (left and right) and jointly construct a text to provide amodel for students as they work independently on their own journal pages.

Display and review a list of typical features of a well constructed factual paragraph that students canrefer to if a prompt is needed, see page 95.

Assist students to use correct spellings and understand the patterns of grammar for the type of text theyare constructing.This could be done by brainstorming and scribing on an overhead transparencyappropriate action and relating verbs, nouns groups that describe, and adverbial phrases to giveinformation about what, where and why, see page 37. Students may be prompted to use these languagefeatures when constructing their text.

An example of a learning journal kept during the course of a Science unit on space.

Brainstorming things learned each day on theleft hand page.

Constructing a factual paragraph usinginformation from the list on the right hand page.

What is the moon like?What is the moon like?What is the moon like?What is the moon like?What is the moon like?

384,400 kms from Earthour closest neighbourno air to breath atmospherecovered in cratershuge mountainsspins on its axisorbits the Earth for 29 daysempty of lifea natural satellitedead and silent worldlow gravity

What is the moon like?What is the moon like?What is the moon like?What is the moon like?What is the moon like?

The moon is a dead, silent world384,400 kms from Earth. Itis a natural satellite and ourclosest neighbour. The moonorbits the Earth taking 29 daysfor each rotation. The Moon isempty of life and there is no airfor humans to breath. Thesurface of the Moon is coveredwith giant craters and hugemountains.

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THE MOON

a natural satellitea remarkable large satellitea dead silent worldour closest neighbourlow gravityempty of life

spins on its axisexplored its surfaceorbits the Earth

action verbsto describe

noun groupsthat describe

relating verbsto provideinformation

hasis

Identifying grammatical patterns

When brainstorming, group the brainstormed words and phrases. This assists students to understand thepatterns of grammar for the type of text they are constructing.



Devising a board game

Work in small groups to devise a board game on a literature theme or other topic being studied.

Examine a variety of board games and discuss the main components. Provide a proforma with leadingquestions to guide students in devising their own game. See the example below.

After the games have been devised, it is important that each group has the opportunity to display andexplain its game to the rest of the class and to play the games created by other groups.

This process allows students to discuss the games, give compliments and share concerns about anypotential problems.

Leading questions when devising a board game

Who will be playing this game? Students in our class

What will be the purpose of the game? To learn more about a topic weare researching, to interpret charts, diagrams, a matrix ...; to constructsimple sentences: questions, statements, commands.

How will that purpose be achieved? Students will be given a clue sheetto use for constructing questions and statements; players will be given aclue sheet to locate the answers.

What will be the name of the game? The topic: Earth in Danger!

How many players will be needed? Two players.

What will the board game look like? It will have numbered squares andthe players will race against each other to the finish (see example on page39).

How will the players move or win points? By giving the correct answers.

Who will start first? Students will take turns to start first.

What will be needed to play this game? Answer cards, game board, eightquestion cards, six cloze statements, counters, clue sheet, spinner.

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START

START

1red

2

3green

45red6

7green

89red10

11green

12

13red14

13red14

10

11green

12

9red

6

7green

8

45red

1red

2

3green

QUIZWINNER!

How to playPlayers take turns spinning the spinner and moveaccording to the number they spin. If a playermoves to a colour, they choose a card of thatcolour and answer the question or complete thestatement, using a clue sheet to search for theanswer. The clue sheet may be a diagram,graph, matrix or written clue. (See page 40.) Iftheir response is correct, they advance accordingto instructions on the card.

Earth in Danger!Game for two players.

Be a quiz winner! Look at your clue sheet carefullyand find the answers.

EquipmentSpinner with numbers 1 and 2CountersRed and green game cardsClue sheets



What can happen when theclimate heats up?Go one step forward.

An example of an information report that could be used as a clue sheet.

Our Earth, BST Booklet, Year 3, 1999.

An example of statement andquestion cards. The Earth is ...................... up.

Go one step forward.Why is planet Earth in d

anger?

Advance one step.

What does the themometer tell us?

Advance one step.

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Organising information to compare and contrast

Provide students with a scaffold for organising information to compare and contrast some aspect of a topicunder investigation.

Brainstorm to record information already known on a topic. Suggest categories for comparing andcontrasting, and jointly complete the scaffold in preparation for constructing a descriptive report. Seeone example of a scaffold below.

As a variation, invite students to work with a friend and use the scaffold to organise information aboutthemselves to describe how they are alike and how they are different. Brainstorm suitable categoriesthat students can use for comparing and contrasting their individual characteristics.

Comparison/Contrast Organisation Form

Who/what are being compared/contrasted?

Sue (me) and Alice (my friend)

On what? Appearance

Alike? Both haveblack hair andbrown eyes.

Sue is talland thin; Alice isshort.

Different?

On what? Food preferences

Alike? Fudge, potatochips, pancakes

Sue likesHungry Jacks; Alice,McDonalds.

Different?

On what? Hobbies and other interests

Alike? Swimming,netball, going tothe movies

Alice playsthe flute Sueplays the drums.

Different?



At Tinamba Bay Camp, BST Booklet, 1993.

Constructing a flow chart

Discuss the use of flow charts to sequence information about related aspects of a topic.

Explain that a flow chart is a visual text and another way of explaining and recording a chain of eventsin a sequence. Explanations and information reports are often supported by flow charts to enable abetter understanding of the topic. Show examples such as the one below.

Emphasise that it is very important to study the flow charts carefully (note the direction of the arrows,the sequence of action verbs etc.) to clearly understand the information provided.

Jointly construct a flow chart as a model for students to follow.

Decide on a topic under investigation, consider the audience and layout and determine the mainchain of events to be sequenced. Ensure students have sufficient field knowledge and the data readilyavailable to complete the flow chart.

Use questioning techniques and think aloud to assist students to design and interpret the flow chart.

When completed evaluate the clarity and effectiveness of the flow chart.

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Evaluating questions may include:

1. Is the topic clear?

2. Are the selected events the most important ones?

3. Is the chain of events in the right sequence?

4. Is there a sequence of action verbs crucial to the explanation?

5. Do the noun or noun groups support the diagrams or pictures?

6. Could a reader not familiar with the topic understand this?

Invite students to work in pairs or small groups to construct their own flow chart.

Helpful hints:Consider using the flow chart as a clue sheet for constructing questions andlocating answers when constructing a board game.



Jointly construct a recount

Jointly construct a recount of a shared experience, for example, a school excursion to the Sydney Royal EasterShow. Use a recount plan to guide organisation in preparation for writing. See the example below.

Determine the purpose and audience.

Consider the context of the recount; for example, if the recount is to be published in the schoolnewsletter the audience is distant and the language choices will be formal. The writer will also need toinclude more information in the writing because the reader may not have shared the experience.

Decide on the information that will need to be included in the introduction.

Brainstorm the key events. Sequence these key events.

Select four of the key events and model how to elaborate on those key events using phrases.Demonstrate how to use authoritative sources to support the development of elaborations, see page 45for examples.

Consider the logic that will underpin the organisation of events.

Decide how the recount will end.

Sample of a recount plan to guide organisation, in preparation for writing. The writer selects theevents about which he or she will write. These are shaded in the example below.

Decide on theinformation that willneed to be includedin the introduction

Select four of thekey events.

Decide how theywill be ordered.

Elaborate on eachevent.

Decide how therecount will end.

Background/Orientation

When? Who?

Where? Why?

Saturday 23rd MarchClass 5BThe Sydney Royal Easter Show - to find outmore about the Great Australian Muster, i.e.the time when the country comes to the city.

Record of events

Order could be, forexample:

a time sequence

most educational tothe least

most favourite to least

some of the favourites(no particular order)

Events in the Main Arena 09:

NED - the legend of Ned Kelly The Santa Gertrudis Spectacular Showtime Freestyle Motor X RM Williams Stockmens Ride Bush poet Guy McLean Fireworks Mick Johnson Comedy Clown Hyundai Precision Driving Team Horseman from Snowy River

Re-orientation(optional) e.g.

How did it end?

Feelings and thoughtsabout the events

Evaluations

Judgements

The day was both educational and entertaining.We now know more about the Great AustralianMuster, i.e. the time when the country came tothe city.

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Model how to elaborate on these key events using effective phrases gathered from an authoritativesource.

Variations:

Create a class mural to show the sequence of events. Jointly construct labels for the mural that recountmain events and highlight elaborations.

Cut a recount into sections. Separate the topic sentence in each event from its elaboration.

Have students working in small groups or pairs sequence the recount. Students can refer to the recountplan on page 44 as a prompt, if needed.

On completion, students report and justify their choices.

Key events

The Santa Gertrudis Spectacular was one of theearliest events we saw.

Watching NED The legend of Ned Kelly wasinteresting.

Elaboration of the event usingphrases

A special parade in the Main Arena 09(adjectival) of Santa Gertrudis cattle to mark the50 years of Santa Gertrudis cattle in Australia(adjectival) was impressive.

This production presented the true and tragictale of the famous bushranger (adjectival)brought to life by a cast of 80 actors and crackriders.

We were able to see the exhibition of Kellymemorabilia in the Woolworths Fresh FoodDome foyer (adverbial).

Authoritative source: The Sun-Herald Magazine 2002, Sydney Royal Easter Show.



Innovating on a text encouraging confidence and creativity in students writing

Select a suitable text containing a repetitive structure either throughout the book or in parts of the book andinnovate on the text.

Read the text several times with the students.

Discuss the structure, the language features, the pictures, the intended audience and the authorspurpose in writing the text.

Discuss how some of these aspects might change after innovating on the text.

Model a simple innovation and have students work in small groups to create an innovation of theirown.

For example, But Where is the Green Parrot? by Thomas and Wanda Zacharias, could become But Whereis the Little Brown Lizard?

The description of each location along with a sketch of the camouflaged lizard for children to find,supported by the repetitive question But Where is the Little Brown Lizard? could become a captivatingstory, composed by primary aged students for younger students to read.

Model a simple innovation and have students work in small groups to create an innovation of theirown.

Text: But Where is the Green Parrot?

Start of story

An example of one location.

End of story

See an example of aninnovation on the next page.

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An example of an innovation on part of the text

But Where is the Green Parrot?

But Where is the Little Brown Lizard?

Variation:

Students could work as a whole class to create a shared big book for Kindergarten, with each groupcontributing its own innovation (location) as part of the story sequence, using the same repetitivelanguage structure.

End of story

An example of one location. Otherlocations would need to be created.Start of story



Prompt questions

Arrive in what?How?

Describe the first scene what can he see?What is the day like?How might he feel?

An example of an innovation exercise for older students

Select a suitable text that contains examples of the language features to be taught. The text below couldbe used as a model for students on how a writer can use noun groups and descriptive phrases to effectivelybuild a picture for readers.

Read the text several times with the students, drawing attention to the context, structure, languagefeatures, intended audience and the effectiveness of the writers choices.

Arriving within sight of his old home, he rested on his oars and surveyed the landcautiously. All seemed very peaceful and deserted and quiet. He could see the wholefront of Toad Hall glowing in the evening sunshine, the pigeons settling by twos andthrees along the straight line of the roof; the garden, a blaze of flowers; the creekthat led up to the boat-house, the little wooden bridge that crossed it; all tranquil,uninhabited, apparently waiting for his return. He would try the boat-house first, hethought. Very warily he paddled up to the mouth of the creek and was just passingunder the bridge when ... Crash!(The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame.)

Plan an innovation with the students. Use questions to guide a brainstorm of phrases that will describe thescene of someone returning to their childhood home after many years away only to find it now empty anddeserted. Use the text as a model to develop the noun groups.

Brainstorm ideas and phrases

Sports car, rests on steering wheel, driving,parking, staring into the darkness

Its quiet and deserted Front step broken, path overgrown, trees

swaying, Its night time but not dark The moon is shining Windows all broken, shattered, the veranda is

falling down, weeds are everywhere Sticky, dusty cobwebs, draping, hanging Garden neglected, weeds everywhere, ivy

covers everything House lonely, deserted, uninhabited, empty,

sad-looking

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Jointly construct an innovation as a whole class group before the students work in smaller groups or pairsto develop their own innovations.

He arrived at his childhood home in the evening after many years away. He approachedslowly in his red sports car and came to a stop. He rested his hands on the steeringwheel and peered through the trees into the darkness. All seemed quiet and deserted.The moon shone down brightly, illuminating the overgrown pathway, littered with leavesand broken branches. The trees swayed in the gentle wind, waving and whispering likelong lost aunties welcoming him home.



Independent writing

Purpose

Independent writing provides students with the opportunity to demonstrate theirskills in composing a variety of text types.

Description

When writing independently, students should be encouraged to:

define their purpose

identify their audience

engage in further research if necessary

jot down ideas and notes

think about how to organise ideas effectively

write drafts

share drafts with peers and the teacher

rework drafts in the light of comments about text organisation, cohesion,grammatical choices, sentence structure, spelling, punctuation and layout

prepare and edit a final draft

publish and present their work for further feedback.

Focus on literacy: Writing, pp. 31, 32.

Strategies to support independent writing

Students who need additional support in writing may need to spend more time withthe teacher on joint construction experiences before undertaking independentwriting.

Strategies to support these students when they have proceeded to independentwriting include:

the POWER strategy, see pages 95101

conferencing with peers, teacher and other support personnel, see pages 5153

appropriate levels of scaffolding, see pages 8389

cooperative learning, see pages 5456

independent use of the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD), see pages9094.

Implementing learning experiences for independent writing

Many of the learning experiences outlined in the guided writing section could beused for independent writing once students have gained the knowledge, skills andunderstandings to construct the type of text required and can undertakeindependent research.

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Writing conferences

Purpose

Writing conferences allow teachers to:

monitor and assess student progress

evaluate and plan effective teaching andlearning activities

establish a supportive framework for problemsolving by students and their peers

provide explicit teaching suited to theindividual learning needs of each student

cater for and support the range of abilitieswithin a classroom

share information

provide positive feedback for student success

give students the tools and the language toreflect on their own and other studentswriting.

Description

A writing conference is a discussion between ateacher and a student or between one student andanother about a students writing. It may be ahighly structured process in which the studentand the teacher keep a written record over time,or it may be an informal process appliedincidentally as required. The writing conferencemay occur before, during or after writing.

Teachers and students involved in a writingconference should focus on the purpose and theintended audience of the text as well as thestructure and language features. Later the textshould be proofread for such details as spellingand punctuation.

Individual conference

Individual conferences allow teachers todiscuss and negotiate text with each studentand to monitor each students development inwriting. A writing conference record can bekept.

Group conference

Group conferences occur when a group has acommon need or interest, such as working onthe innovation of the same narrative text orwriting a procedural text.

Peer conference

Students can conference with each other oncethe teacher has modelled the procedure.

Whole class conference

Whole class conferences are opportunities fora teacher to model writing strategies and toprovide models of written texts.

Types of conferences might include:

Board of Studies NSW, A Resource of Classroom Practices(1998)



Another type of conference can take place in the assessment and reporting process. This can be known as:

The three-way conference, the student-ledconference or the student-centred conference

The teacher, parent and student meet todiscuss the outcomes achieved and addressany relevant issues. Learning goals, proposedby the student in cooperation with his or herteacher, are agreed upon.

Questions that might guide a conference

What has the writer composed?

Is the text effective?

Is the purpose clear?

Is the text well-developed?

What type of text is used?

What does the writer know?

Does the writer know enough about the field or topic?

Is the writer clear about the intended audience?

Is the writer clear about the purpose of the writing?

Is the text type appropriate?

Has the writer used appropriate language choices?

What does the writer need to know?

Does the writer need to know:

more about the field or topic?

what type of text will best reflect the purpose of the writing?

more about structuring and staging the text?

more about the language features such as verb types and synonyms?

how to organise the clauses or sentences so the text is cohesive?

how to check spelling?

how to find more appropriate vocabulary?

how to express shades of meaning?

What can be done to help the writer move on?

Ensure the writer clarifies the purpose of the text.

Provide specific support in the area of need.

Choosing literacy strategies that work, Stage 2.

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Section 3


Prompts for peer conferencing

It is important to provide students with suggestions for comments they could use when conferencing.

The example provided below lists comments as strengths and needs and is specifically related to thewriting of a narrative.

Useful feedback: Narratives

Strengths

Its funny

Its scary

Its exciting, etc.

Great beginning

Great ending

Accurate spelling

Easy to read

Punctuation clear

I like the part when

Interesting title

Some interesting adjectives, e.g.hairy, enormous, freaky

Interesting complication

Good resolution

Clear sequence of events

Needs

More humour

More suspense

A better beginning

A better ending

More accurate spelling

Full stops and capital letters

Paragraphs

More interesting title

More descriptive language

A better complication

Better sequencing of events



Cooperative learning

Purpose

Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students worktogether to maximise their own and each others learning.

Description

Class members are organised into small groups after receiving instruction from theteacher. They then may work through the assignment until all group memberssuccessfully understand and can complete the task. Cooperative efforts result inparticipants striving for mutual benefit so that all group members gain from eachothers efforts and have a shared common purpose.

In cooperative learning situations there is a positive interdependence amongstudents goal attainments; students perceive that they can reach their learning goalsif and only if the other students in the learning group also reach their goals. No onegroup member will possess all of the information, skills, or resources necessary tocomplete the task.

What it achieves

Cooperative learning has been found to improve academic performance, lead togreater motivation towards learning, increase the time on task, improve self-esteemand lead to more positive social behaviours. Cooperative learning is particularlyeffective in classrooms that include a range of abilities and achievement levels aswell as in those with culturally and linguistically diverse populations.

Cooperative learning fosters the development of higher level reasoning andproblem-solving skills and occurs when students work together in small groups toaccomplish shared goals. It is not just placing students in a group and telling them towork together, or having the student who finishes first help the slower students tofinish. Particular attention needs to be given to the structure of the group and therequirements of the task. Students should have the opportunity to work in a varietyof groups.

Five essential elements

Cooperative learning is planned and organised. According to Johnson and Johnson(1989), five basic elements must be included for the lesson to be cooperative.

1. Positive interdependence: Each student needs to feel that his or her contribution isimportant and necessary for the group to succeed. The feeling is that they mustsink or swim together. Assigning group roles to students helps in developing ashared contribution.

2. Face-to-face interaction: Group members need to encourage, support and assisteach others efforts to learn. It is important for students to learn to explain theirreasoning to each other.

3. Individual and group accountability: Each students performance must be assessedregularly and group members need to be aware who needs more help to completethe task. Group members must each agree that they need to work together tocomplete their task if the group is to be success