Workplace sociology

Gerhard Ohrband3rd lectureJob Analysis and Design

Course structurePart I Introduction1 Managing diversity2 History and context for Work and Organizational

Psychology / Roles and methods

Part IIPeople at work3 Job Analysis and Design4 Personal Selection5 Training

Course structure6 Performance Appraisal: Assessing and Developing

Performance and Potential7 Job Stress and Health

Part IIIHuman Factors at Work8 Workload and Task Allocation9 Work Environments and Performance10 The Design and Use of Work Technology11 Safety at Work

Course structurePart IVOrganizations at Work12 Leadership and management13 Work motivation14 Teams: the challenges of cooperative work15 Organizational development (OD)

Part II – People at work3 Job Analysis and DesignOutline:1. Why carry out a Job Analysis?2. Major categories of Job Analysis Data3. Steps in a Job Analysis Project4. Job Analysis and Job Design5. Validity and Job Analysis6. The Future for Job Analysis Research and

Practice

1. Why carry out a job Analysis?- Human resource planning- Efficient utilization of human resources- Performance management- Training and development- Knowledge management- Job design and redesign- Safety and health management- Classifying and grouping similar jobs- Job evaluation and compensation- Legal/quasi-legal requirements

2. Major categories of Job Analysis Data

Two main types of job analysis data1. Tasks and duties (Job-oriented)2. Required behaviours and implied knowledge, skills and

abilities (Worker-oriented) A hybrid of task and worker approaches is needed for most

purposesInformation gathered from both types of data Tasks: Frequency performed? Importance of performance? Skills/knowledge needed for performance of task or

behaviour: When are they learned? Importance for tasks and behaviours?

Abilities: Necessary for task performance? For new skill/knowledge acquisitions?

3. Steps in a Job Analysis Project

Determinating the scope of the job analysis project Deciding the methods to be used in collecting information:

Preliminary data from existing records / collecting job analysis data

Examples of specific job analysis techniques:Position analysis questionnaire (PAQ, Mc Cormick, Mecham and

Jeanneret, 1989): structured questionnaire, 195 items.Six divisions:a) Information inputb) Mental processesc) Work outputd) Relationships with other peoplee) Job contextf) Other job characteristics

PAQ + 8 items: Pay, compensation and employment status Rating scalesExample: item 49. Using mathematics. Using the response scale below,

indicate the highest level of mathematics needed to perform the jobLevel of mathematics0 does not apply1 Simple basic (addition and subtraction of 2-digit numbers)2 Basic (addition and subtraction of 3-digit numbers, multiplication

and division)3 Intermediate (e.g., fractions, decimals, and percentages)4 Advanced (e.g., algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and statistics)5 Very advanced (advanced mathematical and statistical theory, e.g.,

calculus, topology, vector analysis, factor analysis or probability theory)

PAQ Factor analysis of ratings for a sample of

2200 jobs -> 13 overall dimension (Mc Cormick et. Al., 1989)

Examples: Decision/communication/general

responsibilities Public/customer/related contact activities Unpleasant/hazardous/demanding

environment

Page 9 of the PAQ

Functional job analysis (FJA) History: developing a job classification scheme for the

Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) in the USA Three worker function scales (things, data, people)

scaled along low, medium and high complexity Example:

Things: High 4 a. Precision workingb. Setting up c. Operating controlling II

Medium3 a. Manipulating b. Operating controlling I c. driving-controllingd. starting up

Low 2 a. Machine tending I b. Machine tending II1 a. Feeding-offbearing

Other techniques … Task inventories: a list of tasks that are relevant

to particular job or type of work Selection and worker characteristics Job element method: Steps: 1 - SMEs (subject matter experts) produce initial set of job

elements and sub-elements in terms of knowledges, skills, abilities and work habits significant for the job

2 – SME rate each element and sub-element on four scales (a. importance for the work to be barely acceptable, b. importance for selecting superior workers, c. trouble likely if element not used in selection, d. how practical it is to expect applicants to the have the element)

Other techniques … Critical incidents technique (CIT) Competency profiling (Boyatzis):Threshold competencies vs.

competencies

Critical incidents technique (CIT) Developed by John Flanagan and others in studies for

the US Army Air Forces towards the end of the Second World War.

Used mainly for Job requirements specification Training needs assessment Performance appraisal Providing useful information for the design of

instruments and controls and their arrangement; for example, in the aircraft cockpit

Strength of CIT: production of very specific behavioural descriptions, sometimes thousands of them, which can then be categorized into types of related behaviours

Five steps of the CIT procedure1. Determination of the general aim of the

activity (job being studied)

2. Development of plans and specification for collecting factual incidents regarding the activity

3. Collection of data (the incidents description)

4. Analysis of the data (categorization of incidents)

5. Interpreting and reportingthe requirements of the activity

2. Development of plans and specification for collecting factual incidents regarding the activitya) Decide who will be the sources of

incidents. The sources should have substantial recent experience of observing incumbents in their work

b) Decide how the data will be collected. Several options include

Individual interviews Workshop groups Distributed questionnaires Form for recording incidents

Example of a form for CIT Adapted from Flanagan (1954): ‘Think of a time when

you witnessed a subordinate (supervisor, fellow-worker, team member etc.) do something that was very helpful (effective) or very unhelpful (ineffective) in meeting the aim of the work.’

Questions: What were the general circumstances leading up to

the event? What did the person actually do? Why was this helpful (unhelpful)? What was the outcome of this action? What was the person’s job title? How long had the person done this job? When did the incident happen?

3 Collection of the data (the incident descriptions)a) Ensure that the respondents share the job analyst’s understanding

of the general aim of the work activity being reported, and what the incident descriptions will be used for, and that the people described in the incidents remain strictly anonymous

b) Ensure that the respondents understand what constitutes a well written incident description:

It should be simple, describing a single incident It should be written in active voice, describing what the incumbent

did The incident should make a significant contribution, either

positively or negatively, to the general aim of the activity (this is what it makes critical)

It should begin with a brief statement of the context of the incident It should end with a brief statement of consequences of the

behaviour It is not judgemental. That is, there is no mention of underlying

motives, attitudes or competencies

Threshold competencies vs. competencies

performance performance

threshold competency competency

4. Job Analysis and Design Job characteristics model (Hackman and

Oldham) Five “core” job characteristics: Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback

Job characteristics model (Hackman and Oldham, 1976)

Core job Dimensions

Skill variety

Task identity

TaskSignificance

Autonomy

Task feedback

Psychological states

Experienced meaningfulnessof the work

Experienced responsibilityfor outcome of the work

Outcomes

High internalworkMotivation

High qualitywork performance

High satisfactionwith the work

Low absenteeismand turnover

Knowledge of the actualresults of the work Activities

Growth Need Strength

Job characteristics model

MPS= (skill variety + task identity + task significance)

x autonomy x feedback

3

MPS: motivational potential score

5. Validity and Job AnalysisEssential features of the job analysis

process (Landy, 1993): Instrument development should be thorough and complete Pilot test at least once, or with several waves of SMEs Make it user-friendly Motivate SMEs by giving them “ownership” of the job

analysis outcomes Give them clear training and instructions, examples and

some practice Let them be anonymous Gather ratings in small groups on company time, but

mutually convenient for them

6. The Future for Job Analysis Research and Practice Changes to the world of work:

- rapid influx of information technologies - competitive pressures - globalizationRisher, 1997: notion of the “job” encourages and inflexible

and static view of work that is incompatible with the need for flexibility in the utilization of human resources and the rate of task and technological change within contemporary work organizations

Schneider and Konz, 1989: job analysis techniques need to become more strategically focused and adaptable

Discussion Points1. Is job analysis really necessary?2. How can a job analysis project contribute when an organization is

undergoing change and is expected to change even more in the future?

3. Jobs have been broad-banded in many areas and work roles for individuals are now seen as flexible and dynamic. How can job analysis be applied in this situation?

4. What is the difference between job-oriented and worker-oriented methods of job analysis, and why does this matter?

5. If jobs have disappeared and in many organizations the team is now seen as the basic unit that carries out work, is job design important any more?

6. What symptoms would suggest that the structure of tasks, skills and resources available to individuals (or teams) does not allow them to meet their objectives (e.g., resolve customer’s complaints, or meet quality and delivery specifications)? What action would you take if presented with these symptoms?

Literature Harvey, R.J. (1991). Job analysis. In M.D. Dunnette and

L.M. Hough (eds), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, volume 2, 2nd edn. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, pp 71-163.

Risher, H. (1997). The end of jobs: planning and managing rewards in the new work paradigm. Compensation and Benefits Review, 29, 13-17.

Schneider, B. and Konz, A.M. (1989). Strategic job analysis. Human Resource Management, 28, 51-63.

Wall, T.D. and Jackson, P.R. (1995). New manufacturing initiatives and shopfloor job design. In A. Howard (ed.), The Changing Nature of Work. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, pp. 139-74.