Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
A resource book for teachers ofprimary and secondary science
IImplementing and Assessing OpenInvestigation Work in Science
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY:WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY:
A resource book for teachers ofprimary and secondary science
Mark W. Hackling
Edith Cowan University
Implementing and Assessing OpenInvestigation Work in Science
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY:WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY:
Revised edition 2005
© Department of Education and Training, Western Australia 2005
Reproduction of this work in whole or part for educational purposes within an educational institution and oncondition that it not be offered for sale is permitted by the Department of Education and Training.
SCIS No. 1236256
ISBN 0 7307 4146 X
http://www.eddept.wa.edu.au/science/teach/workingscientificallyrevised.pdf
Foreword
PAM MOSS
DIRECTOR, EARLY YEARS, K-10 ACADEMIC STANDARDS AND SUPPORT
August 2005
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
This new edition of Working Scientifically reflects the changes that are evident in the Outcomes and Standards Framework as part of phase two of Curriculum Improvement Program (CIP). These changes, which include the introduction of standards and a revision of the language of the Student Outcome Statements, have been made in response to a department review of the CIP.
The Working Scientifically outcomes in the Curriculum Framework are process outcomes that include Investigating. This outcome has been selected for the standard for Science in Years 5, 7 and 9 as it is a process central to science. Investigations stimulate student interest in science and provide a vehicle through which conceptual understandings can be developed further. For students to improve their understanding of this process and their capacity to use it to test their own ideas and solve problems, they need to be provided with opportunities to plan and conduct their own investigations, process and analyse their data and reflect on their findings.
Teachers have now taken on the challenge of implementing investigation work with their students. Professor Mark Hackling, the author of this book, has worked with many teachers in researching effective ways of implementing this approach in the classroom.
This revised publication provides support for teachers in understanding the process of scientific investigation, implementing investigations with their students, monitoring students’ progress, and planning for each student’s improvement.
I am confident that this resource will make a very useful contribution in supporting teachers to implement the Outcomes and Standards Framework.
1
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
CONTENTS
Page
The Working Scientifically approach to open investigation work in science 2
➥ Why do we include practical work in science? 2
➥ What are open investigations? What does it mean to ‘investigate scientifically’? 4
➥ How does investigation work open the door to conceptual learning? 5
➥ How does investigation fit the 5Es model of instruction? 5
➥ The cognitive apprenticeship approach to teaching and learning of investigation processes 9
The variables structure of an investigation 10
Types and examples of investigations 11
Implementing open investigations in science 14
➥ Barriers to change 14
➥ Scaffolding students’ investigations, using planning and report sheets 14
➥ Other scaffolding tools 18
➥ Cooperative learning strategies for effective investigation work 19
Assessing open investigations using Student Outcome Statements 20
➥ Purposes of assessment 20
➥ Sources of assessment information 20
➥ Using the Outcome to make judgements about students’ achievement 22
➥ Using formative assessment to inform teaching and learning 24
➥ Using portfolios for assessment of open investigation work 24
References 25
Appendix 26
1: Early and middle childhood planning and report sheet 27
2: Middle childhood and early adolescence planning and report sheet 29
3: Early and late adolescence planning and report sheet 32
4: The five steps of investigation 39
5: Roles for cooperative group work 40
6: Investigating outcome 41
7: Science investigations self-evaluation checklist 43
2
Why do weinclude practicalwork in science?When teachers are asked why theyinclude practical work in science,the answer given often variesbetween primary and secondaryteachers. Reasons given usuallyinclude providing opportunities for:
➥language development;
➥learning to work cooperatively;
➥concrete experiences of naturalphenomena;
➥stimulating curiosity andcreativity;
➥motivation and enjoyment ofscience;
➥developing investigation andproblem-solving skills;
➥developing techniques andmanipulative skills associated withusing scientific equipment;
➥experiencing and developing anunderstanding of the nature ofscience; and
➥conceptual development.
Primary teachers tend to place moreemphasis on reasons in the first halfof the list and secondary teachers toplace more emphasis on reasons inthe second half of the list.
There are many different forms ofpractical work: for example,demonstrations, practical exercises,fieldwork and open investigations.Each provides opportunities for
The Working Scientifically
approach to open
investigation work in science
different types of learningoutcomes. It is therefore importantto match the type of practicalwork to the intended learningoutcome and to provide a widerange of practical experiences sothat students have opportunities todevelop a greater range oflearning outcomes.
The degree of openness ofpractical activities can beassessed in terms of whether it isthe teacher or student whodecides the problem to beinvestigated, the equipment to beused, the procedure for setting upequipment and makingobservations and measurements,and the conclusions to be drawn.These criteria can be used toclassify practical activities intocategories as shown in Table 1.
Level Problem Equipment Procedure Answer Common name
0 Given Given Given Given Verification
1 Given Given Given Open Guided inquiry
2a Given Given Open Open Open guided inquiry
2b Given Open Open Open Open guided inquiry
3 Open Open Open Open Open inquiry
Table 1. Levels of openness of inquiry in laboratory activities (after Hegarty-Hazel, 1986)
3
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
At the lowest level of inquiry (Level0), the problem to be investigated,the equipment to be used, theprocedure and the answer to theproblem are all given to thestudents by the teacher or by aworksheet. At the highest level ofinquiry (Level 3), the students arerequired to determine all of thesefor themselves.
Many would now argue that thestudent should be involved inselecting the problem or variablesto be investigated, and that theproblem should be embedded in acontext familiar to the student forthe learning experience to bemeaningful and represent authenticscience (Woolnough, 1994).Student choice enhancesownership, motivation andpersistence in the face ofdifficulties.
The majority of practical activitiesin the Primary Investigationscurriculum are fairly closedbecause the curriculum was writtenfor teachers who lacked confidencein teaching science and thereforewas highly structured.
Similarly, lower secondary scienceis dominated by recipe-style,worksheet-based laboratoryexercises (Staer, Goodrum &Hackling, 1998). This restricteddiet of closed practical exercisesprovides students with fewopportunities for practising skills ofanalysing a problem, formulating aresearchable question orhypothesis, and planning andconducting their own experiments.Many science educators argue thatstudents need the opportunity to doopen investigation work if they areto develop the investigation andproblem-solving skills that are at theheart of scientific literacy. These are
included in the OverarchingStatement, the Science LearningArea Statement (CurriculumCouncil, 1998), and the KeyCompetencies (Mayer, 1993).
The core skills of scientificreasoning entail the coordination ofexisting theories with new evidencebearing on them (Kuhn, Schauble &Garcia-Mila, 1992). Scientifictheories stand in relation to actualor potential bodies of evidenceagainst which they can beevaluated (Kuhn, 1989). Gott andDuggan (1996) have argued thatunderstanding the nature ofscientific evidence, which is basedon competencies associated withexperimental design, measurementand data handling, is central toscientific literacy.
In the US National ScienceEducation Standards, ascientifically-literate person isdefined as one who ‘should beable to evaluate the quality ofscientific information on the basisof its source and the methods usedto generate it’ (National Academyof Sciences & National ResearchCouncil, 1996, p. 22).
In its definition and rationale forscience education, the WesternAustralian Science Learning AreaStatement also focuses onscientific evidence:
“Science has many methodsof investigation, but all arebased on the notion thatevidence forms the basis fordefensible conclusions . . .Science education empowersstudents to be questioning,reflective and critical thinkers.It does this by giving themparticular ways of looking atthe world and by emphasisingthe importance of evidence informing conclusions.”Curriculum Council (1998)
pp. 218-219
4
What are openinvestigations?
What does itmean toinvestigatescientifically?
Open investigations are activities inwhich students take the initiative infinding answers to problems (Jones,Simon, Fairbrother, Watson &Black, 1992). The problems requiresome kind of investigation in orderto generate information that willgive answers. Garnett, Garnett andHackling (1995) describe a scienceinvestigation as ‘a scientificproblem which requires the studentto plan a course of action, carryout the activity and collect thenecessary data, organise and
interpret the data, and reach aconclusion which is communicatedin some form’ (p. 27). The planningcomponent and the problem-solvingnature of the task distinguishinvestigations from other types ofpractical work.
The WA Science Learning AreaStatement’s major learning outcomefor Working Scientifically –Investigating refers to PlanningInvestigations, ConductingInvestigations, Processing Data andEvaluating Findings.
In practice, these processes maynot take place in the strict order of,say, Planning – Conducting –Processing – Evaluating, becausehalfway through Conducting it maybe realised that more planning isneeded and therefore a morerecursive model (see Figure 1) maymore accurately represent theinvestigation process.
“Students investigate toanswer questions about thenatural and technologicalworld, using reflection andanalysis to prepare a plan; tocollect, process and interpretdata; to communicateconclusions; and to evaluatetheir plan, procedures andfindings.”Curriculum Council (1998)
pp. 222
Figure 1. A model of science investigation processes (Hackling & Fairbrother, 1996)
Planning
Identify and analyseproblem
Identify variables
Formulate a research questionor a hypothesis and prediction
Operationalise variables, planthe design and procedure
Conducting
Conduct preliminary trials
Carry out the experiment,observe, measure and recorddata
Evaluating
Evaluate the design of theexperiment and the techniquesor methods used
Evaluate findings in relation tothe problem, question orhypothesis
Processing
Use science knowledge todevelop explanations forpatterns, trends or relationshipsin data
Analyse data; identify patternsor trends in data andrelationships between variables
Organise data, calculate,construct graphs
Reformulateproblem orhypothesis
Revise methodsand techniques
Revisemethods
andtechniques
5
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
How doesinvestigationwork openthe door toconceptuallearning?
How doesinvestigationwork fit the5Es model ofinstruction?
Practical investigation workprovides opportunities for studentsto practise and developinvestigation skills and also gainconcrete experiences of naturalphenomena which provide afoundation for conceptual learning.
The investigation work of WorkingScientifically provides an approachwhich can contribute to learningthe understandings outlined in theconceptual strands Earth andBeyond, Energy and Change, Lifeand Living, and Natural andProcessed Materials.
Although Working Scientifically –Investigating is a separate outcomein the Learning Area Statement, it isintended that investigations beintegrated into the conceptualoutcomes in the implementedcurriculum. The conceptual outcomesprovide the context for investigationwork.
All forms of practical work shouldbe integrated carefully into aninstructional sequence so thatmeaningful links can be establishedbetween the practical andtheoretical aspects of science. Thislinkage can be addressed at twolevels: at the level of the individualactivity using Gowin’s V (Novak &Gowin, 1984), or at the level of asequence of lessons, using the 5Esinstructional model.
Gowin’s V
For an individual practical activity,relationships between the practicaland conceptual can be developedby using Gowin’s V (Figure 2),which is a useful device forstructuring the discussions thatprecede and follow the practicalactivity.
Figure 2. The structure of a V-map (Hackling, 1994)
Conceptual
3 Students’ existingconceptions in theform of concepts,propositions andtheories
1 Focus question
Methodological
6 Knowledgeclaims
5 Transformed data
4 Records of raw data
2 The objects/events/phenomenon to beinvestigated
6
Steps 1-3 are completed in the pre-practical discussion, Step 4 iscompleted as part of the practicalwork, and Steps 5 and 6 are thefocus of the post-practicaldiscussion.
In the pre-practical discussion, alarge ‘V’ is drawn on the board.The teacher establishes the contextand develops with the students afocus question for the investigation(Step 1).
In Step 2, the objects and eventswhich will be the focus of theinvestigation are examined andwritten at the apex of the V.
In Step 3, the teacher elicitsstudents’ understandings relating to
the phenomenon, so they areavailable to anticipate, monitor andcomprehend the data to becollected; these are written on theconceptual side of the ‘V’. Some ofthe students’ beliefs may beunscientific and can be challengedin the post-practical discussion.
Following the practical activity, rawdata collected by students arecollated by the teacher on thelower right-hand side of the ‘V’(Step 4).
At this stage, the teacher canfacilitate the discussion of whetherthere is any need to transform thedata into a table or graph to helpidentify any patterns in the data
Figure 3. A completed V-map (Hackling, 1994)
ConceptualFocus questionWhat effect does exercisehave on heart rate?
Methodological
PhenomenonChanges in pulserate in response tolevels of exercise
TheoriesBody homeostatisGas exchange systemCirculatory system
PropositionsExercise requires energyEnergy is supplied bycellular respiration
ConceptsPulse, heart rate, artery,exercise, muscle, energy,respiration, oxygen,glucose
Knowledge claimsHeart rate increases withintensity of exercise.Increased heart rate suppliesthe extra oxygen and glucoseneeded to provide the energyfor exercise.
Transformed data
heartrate
L M H
Data recordsExercise Average heart rate
Low 73 bpmModerate 85 bpm
High 127 bpm
(Step 5). After this, the data can beinterpreted in terms of theconceptual knowledge elicited inthe pre-practical discussion. Thedata may be inconsistent withstudents’ conceptions and this canlead to a discussion of theadequacy of the initial conceptionsand the extent to which the dataare subject to error or uncertainty.
An example of a completed V-mapis illustrated in Figure 3. Such amap can be a useful way forstudents to record a summary oftheir work in their notes.
7
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
The 5Es instructional modelPrimary and lower secondary science curricula, such as Primar y Connec t ions BSCSMiddle School Science andScience Plus, are structured aroundthe ‘5Es’ instructional model, whichis derived from constructivistlearning theory. Simply stated,constructivists argue that studentsuse their own beliefs andunderstandings to interpretexperiences and construct meaningfor those experiences and their
understandings of the world aroundthem. The 5Es instructional model isbased on the constructivist premisethat students learn best whenallowed to work out explanationsfor themselves over time through avariety of learning experiencesstructured by the teacher. To helpstudents make the connectionsbetween what they already knowand new experiences andinformation, modules of work areorganised around the stages of the5Es model (Figure 4).
Phase of instructional model Purpose Role of reading, writing, practical work and discussion
Engage Create interest and stimulate curiosity Motivating/discrepant demonstrations
Raise questions to create interest and raise questions
Reveal student ideas and beliefs Open questions and individual
Compare students’ ideas writing to reveal students’ beliefs
Explore Experience the phenomenon or concept Open investigation work to
Explore questions and test students’ ideas experience the phenomenon,
Investigate and solve problemsobserve, test ideas and try to answer questions.
Explain Compare ideas Small-group discussion to compare
Introduce definitions and concept names ideas and construct explanations
Construct explanations and Student text reading to access conceptjustify them in terms of observations names and definitionsand data
Writing to clarify and document explanations
Elaborate Use and apply concepts and Further practical activities or problems explanations in new contexts to provide opportunities to apply,
Reconstruct and extend explanations extend, compare and clarify ideas
to new contexts
Evaluate The teacher looks for evidence of Write answers to open-ended changes in students’ ideas, beliefs questions to reveal conceptionsand skills Reflect on any changes to
Students review and evaluate their explanations
own learning
Figure 4. Phases of the 5Es instructional model
8
The 5Es model provides aframework for structuring asequence of lessons consistent witha constructivist approach.
The Engage lesson sets thecontext, raises questions and elicitsstudents’ existing beliefs.
The Explore lesson involvesinvestigation work in which studentsgain first-hand (and, wherepossible, concrete) experience ofthe phenomenon of interest.
The Explain phase draws onstudents’ beliefs from the Engagelesson, concepts introduced by theteacher or from text reading. Theseare used to construct explanationsfor the experiences of the Explorephase.
Further practical work providesmore experiences of thephenomenon, this time in adifferent context, so that theElaborate lesson can involvestudents applying conceptionsdeveloped in the Explain lesson tonew contexts, thus extending andintegrating their learning.
The Evaluate lesson provides anopportunity for students and theteacher to assess developedconceptions and compare them totheir beliefs at the Engage phase.
In the Primary Investigationscurriculum, some of the closedactivities at the Explore phase canbe replaced with openinvestigations to give students theopportunity to plan and conducttheir own investigations andpractise working scientifically.
Similarly, in the secondarycurriculum, open investigationsneed to replace some of the closed,recipe-style activities at appropriateplaces in the instructionalsequence, which can be planned tofollow the 5Es model.
9
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
The cognitiveapprenticeshipapproach toteaching andlearning ofinvestigationprocesses
It is helpful to conceptualise theteacher and the student’s roles inlearning the complex craft skills ofscience as being analogous to thatof the tradesperson and apprentice.
The cognitive apprenticeshipmodel of instruction (Collins, Brown& Newman, 1989; Hennessy,1993) has, as its main elements,modelling, scaffolding, coaching,articulation and fading:
➥ The teacher models strategiesfor the students, making explicittheir problem-solving processes.
➥ The teacher providesscaffolding to structure thework of the students.
➥ The teacher works alongsidestudents, coaching them onspecific skills and strategies.
➥ Students are encouraged todiscuss and reflect on theirdecision making and strategies.Articulation of tacitknowledge helps make itexplicit.
➥ As students gain competence,some of the scaffolding isfaded away.
10
Science experiments are designedto collect evidence to solveproblems, answer questions or totest hypotheses. To have confidencein the collected data, we need tobe sure the tests were fair and thatsources of error were minimised. Todo this we need to controlvariables and use repeat trials orreplication. For example, if wewere investigating the effect of theheight from which a ball isdropped (the independentvariable) on the height to which itbounces (the dependentvariable), we would need toisolate and control variables tomake sure it was a fair test.Variables such as the type of balland the surface onto which it wasdropped would need to be keptconstant, or controlled (acontrolled variable), so that wecould be sure that it was thechange in the drop height that wascausing the effect on bounceheight.
To get a fix on measurement error,we would repeat trials threetimes (e.g. drop the ball three timesfrom 2m, then drop the ball threetimes from 1.5m, etc.) to see theextent of variation in results.
The variables structure
of an investigation
If the variation between the repeattrials was considered excessive, themeasurement procedure would bemodified to reduce the source oferror. It is not always possible torepeat trials because trials may bedestructive: for example, in testingthe effect of temperature on seedgermination – once a seed hasbeen germinated it cannot begerminated again.
In these experiments, replicationis used. This involves setting up twoor three dishes of seeds at eachtemperature rather than just one.The extent of variation in resultsbetween replicates indicatesmeasurement and sampling error:for example, to what extent wereall the seeds viable?
Observations and measurements ofvariables can be either discrete orcontinuous. Discrete data are incategories, such as gender, type ofanimal, brand of paper towel orcolour. Continuous data areassociated with measurementinvolving a standard scale withequal intervals, such as height ofplants in centimetres, the amount offertiliser in grams or the length oftime in seconds.
11
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
Not all investigations have thesame structure and approach todata collection. Each type ofinvestigation will provideopportunities to practise differentapproaches to the collection andanalysis of data. A balancedscience education program shouldnot only include different types ofpractical work (such asdemonstrations, closed exercisesand open investigations), but alsodifferent types of investigations.Gott and Murphy (1987) classifiedinvestigations into three categories,in terms of the purpose of theproblem posed to the students:
Types and examples
of investigations
➥ Decide which … problems
Example: Decide which brandof paper towel is best forabsorbing spilt water.
➥ Find a way to … problems
Example: Find a way ofmeasuring the weight of asuitcase when existingequipment is not adequate.
➥ Find the effect of ...problems
Example: How does the depthof water in a container affectthe rate at which water runs outof a hole in the bottom?
Another way of classifyinginvestigation tasks is in terms of themethods of data collection and theways in which error is reduced inthe design of the experiment.
12
Type 1. Investigating a relationship between two variables where repeat trials can be used
Examples FeaturesHow does the height from which a ball Repeat trials are conducted and is released affect the height to which it averaged because tests are non-bounces? destructive and can be repeatedHow does the amount of stretch in a to get a fix on measurement error.rubber band affect the distance it travels when released?
Type 2. Investigating a relationship between two variables where replication can be used
Examples FeaturesWhat effect does temperature have Replication is used because testson dissolving of jelly cubes/soluble are destructive and cannot beaspirin tablets? repeated, and the material or What effect does temperature have population may be non-uniform.on germination? Hence, replication gives a fix on
sampling error.
Type 3. Testing types of materials
Examples FeaturesWhich kind of paper towel holds Types or brands of materials aremost water? tested for absorbency, strength,Which type of adhesive tape is stickiness, durability, etc. The the stickiest? independent variable is always
discrete. Tests need to be repeated/replicated to get a fix on measurement and sampling error.
Type 4. Investigating the effect of several independent variables on one dependent variable – often associated with a design problem
Examples FeaturesHow do the number of coils, length and There is a need to test a numberthickness of wire, type of metal from of independent variables separately which the wire is made and current or in combinations on one affect the eficiency of a heating dependent variable, and then element? develop a design brief.How do you make a powerful heatingelement?What effect does beam material, beam thickness and span width have on the strength of a bridge? How do you build a strong bridge?
Types and examples
13
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
Type 5. Survey research, where populations are sampled to investigate the relationships between variables
Examples FeaturesHow do height and weight vary The population being tested is with age in boys and girls? non-uniform and samples are
selected based on the parameters being investigated. Random sampling is used to control for interfering variables.
Type 6. Comparative or descriptive studies typical of field biology and the earth sciences
Examples FeaturesHow do the animal communities differ A range of data types is collectedin native bush and parkland? to develop a description of a What factors are likely to have caused phenomenon or location. Random these differences? sampling may be used to controlDescribe the moon as it changes interfering variables. Comparisonsthrough the lunar cycle and investigate may be made between sets of its time of rising over a one-month data relating to different locations period. or time. Such analyses of data
attempt to identify possible causal relationships.
Type 7. Researching, analysing and explaining data collected and reported by other scientists
Examples FeaturesSearch meteorological records and The student must decide where thelocate data for monthly rainfall in Perth data can be located and how it canover the past 50 years. Analyse the be retrieved. The data may berainfall figures. Summarise the provided by the teacher. The datafigures and present the information in must be summarised and presenteda form that helps you identify patterns in a form that helps identifyin the data. Using your knowledge of patterns (e.g. tables and graphs),meteorology, develop explanations for and conceptual knowledge should any patterns you identify. be used to explain patterns in the
data.
Type 8. Chemical analyses
Examples FeaturesUse qualitative chemical analysis to An extensive knowledge of identify this unknown chemical. solubility rules, tests for gases,Use quantitative chemical analysis reactions of acids, flame tests, to determine the percentage indicators, gravimetric techniquescomposition of ethanoic acid in or titration techniques are used to vinegar. plan the analysis. With quantitative
analysis, repetition of tests is used to get a fix on measurement error.
of investigations
14
Implementingopen investigationsin scienceBarriers tochange
The primary science curriculumoften has too little practical workand, at the lower-secondary level,practical work is dominated byclosed, worksheet-based practicalexercises. If more openinvestigations are to be introducedto the science curriculum, severalbarriers to change must beaddressed. The following concernsof teachers represent impedimentsto the implementation of more openinvestigation work:
➥ The curriculum is too crowdedwith content to be covered andtherefore there is not enoughtime to introduce investigations.
➥ Traditional assessments focuson mastery of content and donot reward teachers andstudents who spend timedeveloping investigation skills.
➥ Difficulties associated withlarge numbers of students,equipment, safety and thediversity of experiments makeclassroom managementdifficult.
➥ Students cannot work withoutset procedures.
The replacement of syllabusesspecified in terms of contentstatements and lists of objectiveswith a curriculum frameworkspecified in terms of a smallnumber of more global outcomesfrees teachers to develop
conceptual understandings inselected contexts, thus makingspace and time for the introductionof open investigations. With theinclusion of the WorkingScientifically – Investigatingoutcome, students will be assessedand rewarded for developinginvestigation skills.
Students who are passive followersof teachers’ instructions andworksheets on structured practicalexercises will find it difficult tobecome autonomous decision-makers within open investigationtasks. Students will need scaffolding(Vygotsky, 1978) to provide aframework which supports them inmaking decisions about planningand conducting investigations.
Planning and report sheetsdeveloped in the WesternAustralian trial of the WorkingScientifically – Investigating strandhave been found useful by teachersin leading students through asequence of decision-making stepsas they plan and conduct theirinvestigation, analyse their dataand evaluate their investigation.
The support provided by the sheetsreduces the students’ dependenceon teachers for instructions andthereby reduces the teachers’management problems.
The sheets also provide amechanism for students to recordtheir thinking and doing at thevarious phases of investigation andtherefore to collect informationneeded by teachers for assessmentpurposes.
Scaffoldingstudents’investigations,using planningand reportsheets
Planning and report sheets havebeen developed for students atdifferent levels of experience andcompetence with investigations. Thefirst sheet (see Appendix 1) hasbeen used by children with goodlanguage skills in the early andmiddle childhood years. This sheetis structured using the followingstatements and questions:
Figure 5. Statements and questions from the early and middle childhood planning and report sheet
15
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
Question Purpose of question
I am going to investigate ... Students focus on the problem and formulate a question for investigation.
What I think will happen Students make a prediction.
Why I think it will happen Students justify their prediction using existing knowledge, beliefs andexperiences. Prior knowledge is activated.
What I am going to do Students plan the procedure.
What I will need Students identify materials and equipment needed for their investigation.
How I will make it a fair test Students refine their plan to ensure that tests are fair and variables arecontrolled.
What happened Students record their observations and measurements.
Was this what I expected? Students compare what happened with their prediction. It may force themto confront any discrepancies between their beliefs and their data.
Why it happened Students construct an explanation for their data.
What was difficult for me? Students reflect on what they did, how they did it, what was difficult and,perhaps, what was not done well.
How I could improve this investigation Students identify weaknesses in their investigation and outlineimprovements that could be made.
The second planning and reportsheet (Appendix 2) is usuallyintroduced early in the middlechildhood phase of developmentand then used through this phaseand that of early adolescence.
This sheet incorporates a grid forgraphing results and someadditional and more demandingquestions:
Figure 6. Questions from the middle childhood and early adolescence planning and report sheet
1 What are you going to investigate?
2 What do you think will happen? Explain why.
3 Which variables are you going to:➥ change?➥ measure?➥ keep the same?
4 How will you make it a fair test?
5 What equipment will you need?
6 What happened? Describe your observations and record your results.
7 Can your results be presented as a graph?
8 What do your results tell you? Are there any relationships, patterns ortrends in your results?
9 Can you explain the relationships, patterns or trends in your results?Try to use some science ideas to help explain what happened.
10 What did you find out about the problem you investigated? Was theoutcome different from your prediction? Explain.
11 What difficulties did you experience in doing this investigation?
12 How could you improve this investigation, e.g. fairness, accuracy?
Figure 7. Questions from the middle and late adolescenceplanning and report sheet
16
A third planning and report sheet(Appendix 3) is generally suitablefor students in middle and lateadolescence, including secondarystudents who are preparing anentry for the Science Talent Search.This worksheet uses more formallanguage and incorporates moredemanding questions than theearlier sheets.
1 What is the problem you are investigating?
2 What do you know about this topic from personal experience andfrom science?
3 What variables may affect the phenomenon you are investigating?
4 Which of the variables are you going to investigate as yourindependent variable? (This is the variable you will change to seewhat effect it has on the dependent variable)
5 How will the independent variable be changed in the experiment?
6 What is the dependent variable (i.e. the variable that responds tochanges in the independent variable)?
7 How will you measure the dependent variable?
8 What question are you investigating?ORWhat hypothesis are you testing? State your hypothesis as arelationship between the independent and dependent variables.
9 Predict what you think will happen. Explain why.
10 What variables are to be controlled (kept constant) to make it a fairtest?
11 Describe your experimental set-up using a labelled diagram andexplain how you will collect your data.
12 Are there any special safety precautions?
13 Carry out some preliminary trials. Were there any problems?
14 How did you modify your experiment to fix the problems?
15 Collect and record the data you need to test your hypothesis. Drawyour data table here.
16 How did you make sure your data were accurate?
17 What is the best way to present your data? Is it appropriate to drawa graph? What type of graph is most suitable?
18 Analyse your data. Are the any patterns or trends in your data?What is the relationship between the variables you haveinvestigated? Is the hypothesis supported by the data?
19 Using science concepts, explain the patterns, trends or relationshipsyou have identified in your data. What is your conclusion?
20 What were the main sources of experimental error (sample size andselection, measurement error, poor control of variables)?
21 How confident are you of your conclusions?
22 How could the design of the experiment have been improved toreduce error?
23 What have you learned about the topic of your investigation? Wasthe outcome different from your prediction? Explain.
24 What have you learned about the methods of investigating inscience?
17
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
Students who have hadconsiderable experience inconducting their own investigationsand have developed a schema forplanning investigations may havethe scaffolding reduced.
When assessing students’investigation skills, it may also beappropriate to present the task in aform that has less scaffolding. Inthese circumstances, the formatshown in Figure 8 may beappropriate for presenting the task.
A photocopy master is provided asAppendix 4.
The Five Steps of Investigation
FirstWrite a short statement that makes clear what the problem is that youhave to solve. Also write a research question or hypothesis, and then aprediction. Give a reason for your prediction.
SecondWrite a plan which says what you intend doing. Say what you will do tomake any tests fair. Explain what measurements are to be made and howthey will be made. Draw a diagram to show how the equipment will beused to conduct your tests.
ThirdCarry out your investigation and record all your observations andmeasurements. If you found that you needed to change your plan writedown what changes were made and why they were necessary. Presentyour data in a way that helps show the patterns or trends in your results.
FourthWrite a couple of paragraphs in response to these questions: What patternsor trends were present in the results? How do you explain the patterns?What did your results show you about the question or hypothesis that youwere investigating?
FifthWrite a paragraph that evaluates your investigation. Were your findingswhat you expected? To what extent did you reduce the errors associatedwith measurement, controlling variables and sampling?
Figure 8. A five-step scaffold for a student investigation.
18
Otherscaffoldingtools
Students often need additionalguidance and support to help themwrite a question for investigation orplan the design of the investigationso that tests are fair by controllingvariables. Three additionalscaffolding tools that address theseproblems are described here.Teachers need to model theirpurpose so that students canunderstand how to use them.
➥ The researchable-questionsalgorithm
The general structure of aresearchable question is illustratedbelow, with two gaps to be filled.
What happens to (DV) when
we change (IV) ?
The gaps correspond to thedependent variable and theindependent variable. This scaffold,
without naming the types ofvariables with younger children,can be used to help children writetheir own questions.
For example: What happens to thegrowth of wheat when we changethe salinity of the water?
From researchable questionsstudents can learn to writehypotheses. Hypotheses arestatements of tentative ideas to betested which are expressed in theform of a relationship between anindependent variable and adependent variable. The generalstructure of an hypothesis istherefore:
(This change in the independentvariable) + (will cause this tohappen to) + (the dependentvariable).
Increasing the salinity of water (IV)will reduce (relationship) the growthof wheat plants (DV).
Researchable questions tend to beused with younger children, whenthe independent variable isdiscrete, and when there is littleprior knowledge and experience of
the phenomenon to guide thewriting of an hypothesis. To writean hypothesis, the students musthave sufficient observations,experience and knowledge of thephenomenon to state the expectedrelationship between the variables.
➥ ‘Cows Moo Softly’ is auseful scaffold to remindstudents how to plan a fairtest
• Change something
• Measure something
and
• Keep everything else the Same
➥ Variables tables
Variables tables are useful tools forhelping students to plan controlledexperiments and develop anunderstanding of the three types ofvariables that need to beconsidered in the planning phase.
Figure 9 shows a completedvariables table for an experiment toinvestigate the question ‘How doesthe amount of light affect thegrowth of seedlings?’
Research question: How does the amount of light affect the growth of seedlings?
What I will keep the same What I will change What I will measure
Type of seeds The amount of light: The height of theType of soil dark seedlingsAmount of water partial shadeAmount of fertiliser full sunSize of containerPlanting depth of seeds
Controlled variables Independent variable Dependent variable
Figure 9. A completed variables table (Hackling & Fairbrother, 1996)
19
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
Cooperativelearningstrategies foreffectiveinvestigationwork
The effectiveness and success of allsmall-group work is dependent onstudents having a clearunderstanding of the task to becompleted, sufficient priorknowledge and skill for the task,sufficient time and cooperativelearning skills.
The Primary Investigationscurriculum structures small-groupwork with groups of three usingthree roles:
➥ The equipment manager, whois responsible for collecting,checking and returningequipment;
➥ The speaker, who is the onlygroup member who can ask theteacher or another group’sspeaker for help, and only afterthe group has formulated aclear question; and,
➥ The director, who isresponsible for making sure thatthe team understands the taskand steps to be followed.
In secondary schools where groupsizes are often increased to fourmembers, an additional role canbe used:
➥ The reporter, who isresponsible for reporting backto the class on the group’sfindings.
A photocopy master of these fourgroup roles is provided asAppendix 5.
Basic skills for effective andcooperative group work include:
➥ moving into your groupsquickly and quietly;
➥ speaking softly so that onlyyour team-mates can hear you;
➥ staying with your group;
➥ using your team-mates’ names;
➥ looking at the person speakingto you;
➥ letting others finish withoutinterrupting;
➥ praising others; and
➥ treating others politely.
These expectations can becommunicated to students throughinstructions, rules and modelling. Itis useful for students to completeself-evaluation exercises to givefeedback on their development ofthese cooperative learning skills.
Once these basic skills areestablished, more advanced skillscan be introduced, including:
➥ encouraging others toparticipate;
➥ being sure that everyoneunderstands;
➥ disagreeing with the idea notthe person; and
➥ generating alternative ideasand explanations and choosingthe explanation which best fitsthe data.
20
Assessing open investigations
using Student Outcomes
Purposes ofassessment
In the past, much of the energy andtime devoted to assessment hasbeen used for summativepurposes: that is, to generategrades for reporting. Unfortunately,this assessment has not contributedto the improvement of learningbecause the data are commonlycollected at the end of a unit ofwork after the learning hasoccurred. The assessmentframework provided by the StudentOutcomes provides adevelopmental continuum tostructure formative assessmentthat is conducted during a unit ofwork and is used to providefeedback to teachers and learnersabout what has been achieved andwhat must be learned next.Because the Outcomesare criterion referenced and inlevels, they provide standards thatcan also be used by the school andthe system for quality assurancepurposes.
Sources ofassessmentinformation
In early childhood classes,teachers’ observations of childrenat work, students’ drawings andoral questioning of children by theteacher are important sources ofinformation. As children develop
Figure 10. Sources of assessment data and their relativeimportance as children’s skills develop
skills of written communication,written work samples becomevaluable. At various stages ofinvestigation, groups may reportback to the class on progressachieved. These oral reports alsogive the teacher insights intostudents’ investigation skills. Therelative importance of thesedifferent sources of information atdifferent levels is illustrated inFigure 10.
Teacher observations andquestioning
Oral reports
Written reports
Level 1 Level 8
21
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
The collection of assessmentinformation, in the form of writtenwork samples, for makingjudgements about students’ levels ofwork in Investigating is facilitated byusing the planning and report sheets.
The questions on the sheets elicitfrom students information that isneeded to make judgements usingOutcome. The questions are linkedto the assessment criteria in thePlanning, Conducting, Processingand Evaluating aspects ofInvestigating outcome.
Observational data can berecorded as anecdotal records onadhesive tags, checklists or directlyonto the students’ planning andreport sheets. Observations can berecorded on an opportunistic basisor may be pre-planned.
Collecting information and makingjudgements are progressiveprocesses. A few earlyobservations and work samplesmay be assessed informally tomake tentative judgements, toguide teaching and learning, andto identify further information thatmust be collected to make a moreconsidered and confidentjudgement that might be used forsummative purposes.
It is efficient, initially, to collect asmuch information as possible in theform of written work samples andthen to identify what furtherinformation is needed. Additionalor missing information may becollected by returning the writtenreport to the student with a requestto document particular missinginformation or, where necessary, byobserving subsequentinvestigations.
Following the investigation, whenstudents have completed furtherreading and discussion of conceptsrelated to the investigation, it wouldbe useful to return their planningand report sheets and ask them towrite, on a separate sheet ofpaper, one or two paragraphsinterpreting their results in terms ofthe concepts discussed in class.This explanation will provideevidence about conceptualdevelopment and can be stapled tothe back of the planning and reportsheet.
Students’ performance will beinfluenced by group membership,task and context variables. It istherefore necessary to collectseveral samples spanning differenttasks and contexts and to make an‘on-balance’ judgement of the levelat which the student is working.Where there is a concern aboutcollecting information about aparticular student, that is notcontaminated by the thinking ofother group members, it may benecessary to implement theoccasional investigation byfollowing this procedure:
.
1 Set the context and introduce the problem to be investigated.
2 Students work individually to plan the investigation, recording their plans on planning and report sheets.
3 Collect the students’ plans.
4 Discuss the various approaches devised by the students and, through whole-class discussion, select the best plan.
5 Students work in groups to carry out the experimental work and collect the data.
6 Students work individually using planning and report sheets to record their analysis of the data and their evaluation of the investigation.
7 Collect the planning and report sheets for assessment.
judgements
22
Using theOutcometo make
about students’achievement
The Outcome for the Investigatingassessment framework is shownas Appendix 6.
The Foundation Outcome Statement(FOS) has been included forchildren with disabilities. Higherlevels of investigating are describedas a developmental continuumthrough Levels 1-8. These levels ofachievement of investigatingoutcomes do not correspond withgrade/year levels.
When the outcomes were firstwritten in the Curriculum Profile forAustralian Schools (CurriculumCorporation, 1994), there was anexpectation that many year 3students would be working at Level2, many year 7 students would beworking at Level 4 and many year10 students would be working atLevel 6.
Data obtained from research(Hackling & Garnett, 1995),trialing of outcome statements inWestern Australian schools, andfrom the 1993 Monitoring
Standards in Education tests(Education Department of WesternAustralia, 1994) indicate that theseassumptions were a little ambitious,especially for years 7 and 10, andit appears that students will needthe opportunity to practise theseskills over several years to attainthese levels of achievement.
Prior to the widespread implementation of open investigationwork in schools, there has been insufficient opportunity for students to practise these skills.
The aspects are used for making judgements – for Planning, Conducting, Processing and Evaluating– which can identify strengths andweaknesses in students’ investigationachievement.
The process of using the outcometo make judgementsabout the levelof work demonstrated by a worksample is illustrated using an extract from a work sample provided by Tim, a year 6 student(Figure 12). Tim was investigatingthe effect of changing the weightof an empty ice-cream container,by adding sand, on the distanceit could be propelled across thefloor using an elastic bandstretched between the legs of achair.
This extract from Tim’s work sampleshows his planning for theinvestigation. Some of the variablesto be considered have beenidentified – weight and distance.The sample is therefore at least atLevel 2 for planning. In addition tothis, there is evidence of someawareness of the need for fairtesting ‘... using the same bandand the same container’.
The sample also includes aprediction: ‘I think the containerwith a bit of weight would go thefurthest’. The sample thereforemeets the requirements of Level 3.
23
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
Using formativeassessment toinform teachingand learning
The continuum of outcomesin the assessment framework is abasis for providing appropriateformative assessment feedback tostudents: for example, a studentwho is investigating the effect ofthe height from which a ball isdropped on the height to whichit bounces may only be takingone measurement or conductingone trial at each drop height.The failure to make repeat trialsat each drop height may be theonly thing preventing the studentfrom achieving Level 4 forConducting Investigations.
An effective way to help the studentunderstand the need for repeattrials is to ask if he or she thinksthat if the ball was dropped fromthe same height several times, itwould bounce to the same heighteach time. If the student predictsthat the ball will bounce to thesame height each time, ask for therepeat trials to be performed toillustrate the variation in the heightsthat occurs.
A discussion of the sources of errorwill then help the student tounderstand the variations that occurdue to measurement error and lackof control over variables and theneed for repeat trials andaveraging. Locating a student onthe continuum and identifyingwhich skills are preventingmovement to the next level informsthe teacher about the experiencesthat need to be provided for thestudent to develop the skillsrequired to move to the next level.
Using portfoliosfor assessment ofopen investigationwork
Portfolios provide a useful approachto involving students in collectingevidence to demonstrate theirlearning in the InvestigatingScientifically outcome.
Judgements about a student’s levelof competence need to be based ona collection of work samplesbecause performance is influencedby task and context variables. Areliable judgement, therefore,should be made as an ‘on-balance’judgement across, say, four or fiveinvestigation work samples.
The involvement of students inselecting which samples areincluded in the portfolio requiresthem to consider the features of agood investigation – what criteriadistinguish poor, average, good oroutstanding investigation work?
The provision of clearly expressedoutcomes may encourage dialoguewhich will help students tounderstand the requirements forimproved performance.
Appendix 7 shows how outcomescan be written in a form accessibleto students, and provides aself-evaluation worksheet that canbe used by students to evaluate theirown work—identifying theirstrengths, weaknesses and whatthey need to do better.
Once students have conducted theirself-evaluation, the teacher can gothrough the same process.
The completed evaluation sheetenclosed with the portfolio providesuseful information to parents andwould provide a focus for a parent-teacher interview.
The sample also meets theexpectations of Level 4, in that thestudent identifies the variable to bechanged (weight), the variable tobe measured (distance) and at leastone variable to be controlled (sameband and container).
The sample does not showevidence of formulating a questionor hypothesis and there is noevidence that the key variable ofhow far the band was stretchedback was being controlled.
It would appear that, from theavailable evidence, the worksample represents planning at Level4. Tim may have controlled thedistance that the band was pulledback, but simply not recorded it onthe planning and report sheet.
For this reason, written worksamples do need to besupplemented with observationaldata.
24
ReferencesCollins, A., Brown, J. S. & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: teaching the crafts of reading, writing
and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning and instruction (pp. 453-494). Hillsdale, N.J.:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Curriculum Corporation (1994). A curriculum profile for Australian schools. Carlton, Victoria: CurriculumCorporation.
Curriculum Council of Western Australia (1998). Curriculum framework for kindergarten to Year 12 education inWestern Australia. Perth: the Council.
Education Department of Western Australia. (1994). Profiles of student achievement 1993: Student performance inscience in Western Australian government schools. Perth: the Department.
Education Department of Western Australia. (1998). Outcomes and Standards Framework. Perth: the Department.
Garnett, P. J., Garnett, P. J. & Hackling, M. W. (1995). Refocussing the chemistry lab: a case for laboratory-basedinvestigations. Australian Science Teachers Journal, 41 (2), 26-32.
Gott, R. & Duggan, S. (1996). Practical work: Its role in the understanding of evidence in science. InternationalJournal of Science Education, 18 (7), 791-806.
Gott, R. & Murphy, P. (1987). Assessing investigations at ages 13 and 15. London: Department of Education andScience, Assessment of Performance Unit.
Hackling, M. W. (1994). Using a V-map to structure prelab and postlab discussions. Australian Science TeachersJournal, 40 (4), 57-58.
Hackling, M. W. & Fairbrother, R. W. (1996). Helping students to do open investigations in science. AustralianScience Teachers Journal, 42 (4), 26-33.
Hackling, M. W. & Garnett, P. J. (1995). The development of expertise in science investigation skills. AustralianScience Teachers Journal, 41 (4), 80-86.
Hegarty-Hazel, E. (1986). Lab work SET: research information for teachers, No.1. Canberra: The Australian Councilfor Educational Research.
Hennessy, S. (1993). Situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship: implications for classroom learning. Studiesin Science Education 22, 1-41.
Kuhn, D. (1989). Children and adults as intuitive scientists. Psychological Review, 96 (4), 674-689.
Kuhn, D., Schauble, L. & Garcia-Mila, M. (1992). Cross-domain development of scientific reasoning. Cognition andInstruction, 9 (4), 285-327.
Jones, A., Simon, S., Fairbrother, R., Watson, R., & Black, P. J. (1992). Development of open work in school science.Hatfield: Association for Science Education.
National Academy of Sciences & National Research Council (1996). National science education standards.Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Mayer, E. (1992). Putting general education to work: The key competencies report. Canberra: Australian EducationCouncil.
Novak, J. D. & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tamir, P. (1989). Training teachers to teach effectively in the laboratory. Science Education, 73, 59-69.
Staer, H. Goodrum, D. & Hackling, M. (1998). High school laboratory work in Western Australia: openness toinquiry. Research in Science Education, 28(2), 219-228.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge MA:Harvard University Press.
Woolnough, B. E. (1994). Effective science teaching. Buckingham: Open University Press.
25
Science > Investigating
Investigating
Students investigate to answer questionsabout the naturaland technologicalworld, usingreflection andanalysis to prepare a plan: to collect,process andinterpret data: to communicateconclusions: and toevaluate their plan,procedures andfindings.
nalp
stne
dutS
tsetot
sn
oitagitsev
nilar
utan
eht
tu
oba
saedi
lacig
olo
nhcet
dna
.dlr
ow
FOUNDATION
I FThe student:Explores, uses andresponds to changes toobjects and events, andindicates preferencesbased on experiences.
I F.1 Recognises, identifiesand explores familiarobjects and events in theenvironment.
LEVEL 1
I 1The student:Focuses on a problem,responds to teacher’ssuggestions to carryout simple activitiesrequiring observationand sharing ofobservations.
I 1.1Focuses on problems andresponds to teacher’ssuggestions andquestions.
LEVEL 2
I 2The student:When given a focusquestion and a familiarsituation, contributeselementary ideasabout variables andprocedures, collectsand makes limitedrecords of data andcan say whether whathappened wasexpected.
I 2.1Identifies, given a focusquestion in a familiarcontext, some of thevariables to beconsidered.
LEVEL 3
I 3The student:Shows some awarenessof the need for fairtesting and makessimple predictions;collects and organisesnumerical data anddescriptive informationusing simple tables,diagrams and graphs:and identifies mainfeatures, patterns anddifficulties in theinvestigation.
I 3.1Plans for investigations,showing some awarenessof the need for fairtesting; and makessimple predictions (notguesses) based onpersonal experience.
gni
nnalP
dna
tce lloc
stn e
dutS
fo
y teirava
droc er
ott
navelern
oitamr
ofni
.sn
o itagits ev
niri e
ht
I F.2Explores the environmentusingthe senses.
I 1.2Carries out activitiesinvolving a small numberof steps; and observes anddescribes.
I 2.2Observes, classifies,describes and makessimple non-standardmeasurements andlimited records of data;and uses independentvariables that are usuallydiscrete.
I 3.2Uses simple equipmentin a consistent mannerusing standardmeasurements andrecords data such as insimple tables, diagramsor observations.
gnitc
ud
no
C
esylana
dna
et alsnart
stne
dutS
dna
snretta
pd
ni fot
noita
mrof
nirie
htd
netxeot
sn
oisulc
noc
ward
.g
nid
natsr ed
nu
I F.3Responds to an object orevent.
I 1.3Shares observations.
I 2.3Makes comparisonsbetween objects orevents observed.
I 3.3Displays numerical dataas tables or graphs, suchas bar graphs, andidentifies patterns in dataand summarises thedata.
atad
gnissec
orP
nan
otcelfer
stne
dutS
etaulav e,
noita
g itsevni
dna
ssecor
pe
ht.sa e
dire
h truf
e tarene
g
I F.4Demonstrateschoice-making skills.
I 1.4Expresses their feelingsand thoughts about theexperiment and canpoint to a part of theexperiment that wentwell or where they haddifficulty.
I 2.4Comments on whathappened and can saywhether what happenedwas expected.
I 3.4Identifies difficultiesexperienced in doing theinvestigation.g
nitaulavE
YEAR
7
YEAR
5
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY – APPENDIX 6 41
Science > Investigating
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY – APPENDIX 642
LEVEL 4
I 4The student:Plans and conductsdifferent types ofinvestigations, takingaccount of the mainvariables; collects datausing repeat trials orreplicates; explainspatterns in data orinformation preparedin different formats;and makes generalsuggestions forimproving theinvestigation.
I 4.1Identifies the variables tobe changed, the variableto be measured and atleast one variable to becontrolled or, in adescriptive study, plansfor the types ofobservations that needto be made.
LEVEL 5
I 5The student:Interprets a situation toformulate a plausiblerelationship toinvestigate usingexperimentaltechniques, includingthe control of severalvariables and the use of preliminary trialsor various informationsources; developsscientific explanationsthat are consistent withthe data; and makesspecific suggestions forimproving theinvestigation.
I 5.1Interprets a situation,formulates a question orhypothesis for testing,and plans an experimentin which several variablesare controlled.
LEVEL 6
I 6The student:Uses scientificknowledge to analysea problem, identifyvariables andformulate questionsfor investigation;develops methods thatprovide specific,accurate, consistentinformation which canbe used to evaluatethe question;recognisesinconsistencies withthe data; and suggestsways of reducing error.
I 6.1Analyses problems,formulates a question orhypothesis for testing,uses scientific knowledgeto identify main variablesto be considered andmake predictions, andplans for accuratemeasurement.
LEVEL 7
I 7The student:Identifies from research asignificant scientific issuefor investigation anddevelops procedures tosystematically produce aseries of precise, accuratedata and/or information;draws credibleconclusions that areconsistent with own andother detailed data; andrecognises limitations,acknowledges sources oferror and proposesvarious improvements.
I 7.1Identifies own real-world problem forinvestigation, usesreference material indeveloping anunderstanding of theproblem, and plans oneor more experiments inan ongoing investigation.
LEVEL 8
I 8The student:Shows an a prioriknowledge of the needto take into accountparticular issues andfactors whenconducting aninvestigation; andanalyses criticallyprocedures and resultsto produce valid andreliable information toinform the ongoingrefinement ofinvestigation designsand techniques.
I 8.1Shows, in planning andworking independently,an a priori recognitionfor the need for controlof variables, accuracy ofmeasurement, adequatesample size and repeatedtrials or replications.
I 4.2Takes care with datacollection so that dataare accurate; usesrepeated trials orreplicates; and usesindependent variablesthat are usuallycontinuous.
I 5.2Uses equipment that isappropriate for the task;and uses preliminarytrials of the investigativeprocedure to improve theprocedure ormeasurementtechniques.
I 6.2Decides what is neededand requests equipmentfor the investigation; andselects equipment andinstruments that enhancethe safety and accuracyof measurements andobservations.
I 7.2Makes systematicobservations andmeasurements withprecision, usingstandardised techniquesand recognises when torepeat measurements.
I 8.2Makes judgements aboutthe accuracy required;range and intervals ofmeasurement, anddecides whatobservations arenecessary and sufficientin qualitative work.
I 4.3Calculates averages fromrepeated trials orreplicates; plots data asline graphs whereappropriate; and makesconclusions whichsummarise and explainpatterns in the data.
I 5.3Makes conclusions whichare consistent with thedata and explainspatterns in the data interms of scientificknowledge.
I 6.3Selects the type of graphand scale that displaydata effectively; anddraws conclusions whichare consistent with thedata, explained in termsof scientific knowledgeand related to thequestion, hypothesis orprediction.
I 7.3Draws conclusions whichare consistent with thedata, explains them interms of scientificknowledge and does notover-generalise; andquestions whether thedata are sufficient tosupport the conclusionsdrawn.
I 8.3Identifies anomalousobservations andmeasurements andallows for these whendrawing graphs andconclusions; and drawsconclusions which showawareness of uncertaintyin data and does notover-generalise, andincludes a discussion oflimitations, the methodsof data collection and/ordesign.
I 4.4Makes generalsuggestions forimproving theinvestigation.
I 5.4Suggests specificchanges that wouldimprove the techniquesused or the design of theinvestigation.
I 6.4Recognisesinconsistencies in thedata, identifies the mainsources of error andsuggests improvementsthat would reduce thesource of error.
I 7.4Recognises sources ofmeasurement error,limitations in samplingand inadequacies incontrol of variables, andexplains how thesedeficiencies can beremedied.
I 8.4Evaluates the findingsand the experimentaldesign, reformulates theproblem and plansfollow-up experiments inan ongoing investigation,and makes refinementsto experimentaltechniques and design.
YEAR
9
