Working ScientificallyReliability, Accuracy, Validity
· Reliability
· First-hand investigations: XPT must be repeated and show
consistent results
· Secondary sources: Must be unbiased, appropriately recorded,
current, reputable
· Accuracy
· Primary: XPT design is valid, results are close to true value
of quantity being measured
· Secondary: Information consistent across multiple reliable
sources
· Validity
· Primary: Investigates what you intended to, controls
variables, uses suitable equipment
· Secondary: Info gathered with appropriate methods, relates to
research topic
Dependent, Independent, Controlled variables
· Dependent: Variable that is being measured, changes in
response to independent. (e.g. temperature of water changes in
response to time heated)
· Independent: Controlled by experimenter to cause
phenomena.
· Controlled: Kept the same across all samples/subjects to make
sure dependent variable is actually changing in response to
independent variable.
Risk Assessment
· Hazard
· Risk
· Mitigation
1: Causes of Infectious Disease – How are diseases
transmitted?Infectious diseases and disease transmissionClassifying
different pathogens: (disease causing agents)
· Microscopic, cellular (living)
· Protozoa: Unicellular eukaryotes, parasites. Usually reproduce
through binary fission, motile (moves with flagellum/cilia).
Obligate—only continues life cycle in host.
· Fungi: Eukaryotic. Can be unicellular (yeast, e.g. thrush) or
multicellular (mould, e.g. tinea). Usually attack body surfaces.
Consist of branching filaments called hyphae which form a structure
called mycelium. Opportunistic—waits for immune system weakness
before becoming pathogenic.
· Bacteria: Unicellular prokaryotes. Can cause disease by
competing with good bacteria or through exotoxins (secreted) or
endotoxins (released upon death). Genetic material = 1 circular
chromosome.
· Microscopic, non-cellular (non-living)
· Viruses: Cannot reproduce independently. Have nucleic acid
contained in a protein coat/capsid. Can be DNA-based (adenoviruses,
e.g. common cold) or RNA-based (retroviruses, e.g. HIV). Invades a
host cell, where its nucleic acid is translated into proteins,
forming new copies (virions). The cell is filled with these virions
and bursts, releasing them. Obligate and intracellular—only
reproduces in host.
· Prions: An abnormally folded protein. Can convert normal
proteins into abnormal form. More stable and resistant to
denaturation than normal proteins. There are no known cures.
Aggregate together to form amyloid fibrils that cause disease.
· Macroscopic organisms (parasites—grows on host and benefits at
their expense)
· Ecto-parasites: Usually arthropods (insects, spiders). Can
directly inject toxins into the body or indirectly cause disease by
acting as a vector (organism that transmits pathogen).
· Endo-parasites: Usually helminths—worm-like organisms. Live on
host’s nutrients, often in digestive system.
Disease examples
Pathogen
Disease
Features
Bacteria—salmonella enterica
Salmonellosis (food poisoning)
Vomiting, dehydration, abdominal cramps
Fungi—trychophyton
Tinea
Itchiness, scaliness, yellowing/hardening nails
Protozoa—plasmodium spp.
Malaria
Fever, fatigue, headaches, vomiting
Helminth (endo-parasite)—taenia solium/saginata
Tapeworm
Lack of appetite, restlessness, weight loss, abdominal pain
Arthropod (ecto-parasite)—sarcoptes scabei
Scabies
Itching, red skin, crusting of skin
Transmission of disease in an epidemic
· Epidemic: affects great no. of people/animals, spreads to new
areas
· Pandemic: epidemic on a global scale
Equine influenza virus
· In 2007, several cases of sick horses were reported in Sydney,
and also in breeding stallions in Japan.
· EIV symptoms: fever, watery nasal discharge, cough, lack of
appetite, muscle pain.
· Transmission: Highly contagious. Spread directly through
horses (nasal secretions, body fluids), and indirectly through
humans (contaminated shoes, clothes, grooming equipment, food/water
buckets). Spread much faster in areas of high horse stocking
density.
· Management: Lockdown was put on movement of horses, horse
properties quarantined.
· Future control: Restrict horse importations, strict
biosecurity measures, educate those in the horse industry,
biosecurity training.
Microbial testing of water/food
· Can be done by inoculating nutrient agar plates with food or
water samples and incubating at 30 degrees for a few days.
· Sterile technique (using alcohol to sterilise workplace and
Bunsen burner to sterilise inoculating loop, not opening agar plate
more than 45 degrees) is important to prevent contamination and
control variables.
· Interpreting agar plates (FEMSOC): Form, elevation, margin,
surface, opacity, colour.
· Bacterial colonies: White/cream, circular/irregular, small,
defined margin, look wet and shiny.
· Fungal colonies: Appear fuzzy, filamentous margin,
powder-like.
· Yeasts: White, glossy.
· Mould: White/grey/green, fuzzy.
Modes of transmission
Transmission requires a chain of infection, consisting of a
susceptible host, a pathogen, and a mode of transmission.
A passive carrier is an uninfected host that can transmit the
disease to others, while an active carrier is infected. Active
carriers who don’t show signs or symptoms are asymptomatic
carriers.
Animal diseases that can be transmitted to humans are called
zoonotic diseases.
· Direct contact: Physical contact. Between child and parent =
vertical transmission, other (in same species) = horizontal.
Includes touching, biting, blood-to-blood, contact with wounds,
sexual contact.
· Indirect contact: Uses reservoir outside of host—a fomite =
infection carrying object/substance (e.g. infected water, surface,
air, food, unsterilized surgical instrument, spit particles from a
sneeze).
· Vector transmission: A specific type of indirect transmission.
Usually occurs through arthropods (e.g. mosquitoes, fleas, ticks)
but sometimes fungi, plants and mammals such as bats. Often
transferred when insects suck blood/are ingested. Vector diseases
(e.g. malaria, dengue fever) usually occur in warm, humid
conditions.
Robert Koch and Louis PasteurKoch’s postulates
· Developed bacteriological techniques and agar plate technique;
identified bacterium responsible for anthrax, TB, and cholera;
showed specific microbes cause specific diseases.
· Developed a system for identifying a pathogen—Koch’s
postulates.
1. Microbe must be present in all cases of the disease.
2. Microbe is isolated from host and grown in culture medium
(e.g. agar).
3. Microbe is grown and inserted into healthy host, must cause
same disease.
4. Microbe is reisolated and grown again in a culture medium,
must be proven to be same microbe isolated from first host.
Pasteur’s microbial contamination experiments
· Proved that microbes caused fermentation (beer/wine), spoilage
(food) and rotting.
· Pasteur’s 1862 classic XPT:
· Filled a swan-necked and a straight-necked flask with broth.
Swan-necked remained clear, open flask became cloudy and
smelly.
· Disproved spontaneous-generation theory (that disease occur
spontaneously), proved decay and disease were caused by air-borne
microbes—germ theory.
· Discovered attenuated (weakened) pathogens could cause
immunity, showed relationship between anthrax spores and anthrax
infection.
· Developed vaccines for chicken cholera, anthrax, rabies, and
identified specific parasites responsible for silkworm disease.
Causes and effects of diseases on agriculture
Types of disease in agriculture: endemic (consistently present),
exotic (introduced).
Factors that can contribute to infectious disease development
include host factors (susceptibility, immune system), pathogen
factors (availability, adaptations, virulence factors), and
environmental factors (hygiene and density).
Factors increasing risk of disease today include increasing
mobility of human populations, industrial agriculture,
deforestation, irrigation, climate change, pesticide resistance,
loss of genetic diversity, and inexperienced farmers.
Plant diseases
· Plant pathogens: Fungi, bacteria, viruses.
· E.g. rust: Fungus invades stem tissue of plants and destroys
leaf tissue, reducing photosynthetic capacity. It produces spores
which spread to other parts of the plant and other plants until the
whole crop is covered. Rust destroyed 15 million tonnes of wheat
world-wide annually.
· Impacts: Cost millions of dollars, reduce productivity,
increase production, impact ability to trade, harm the environment,
and decrease plant variety.
· Plant disease symptoms: Death of plants, necrosis (tissue
destruction), abnormal growth, discolouration, wilting.
Animal diseases
· Animal pathogens: fungi, bacteria, viruses, arthropods,
helminths.
· E.g. Classical Swine Fever: Viral infection, last broke out in
1961. Had serious impacts on domestic and export production of
pork.
· Impacts: Animal deaths, economic loss to farmer, loss of
trading opportunities, human illness (zoonooses), low growth rates,
loss of fertility, loss of economic value of individual
animals.
Adaptations of different pathogens that facilitate their
adhesion, invasion and transmissionFor an organism to cause disease
it must enter the host, multiply in host tissues, overcome/bypass
host defence mechanisms, and damage the host. Adaptations assist
this process.
Pathogen
Virulence factors (adaptations to facilitate
adhesion/invasion)
Transmission route
Prions
· ‘Piggyback’ other proteins to facilitate movement through the
gut.
· Secrete substances that allow invasion of lymphoid (lymphatic
system—removes fluids that leak from blood vessels) tissues.
· Prions then invade nervous tissues and travel to the
brain.
· Mainly unknown
· Vertical (mother to child)—can transmit across placenta/become
aerolised.
· Indirectly through infected meat
Viruses
Adhesion
· Viral surface proteins adhere to surface of host cell.
Invasion
· Viruses enter cell through endocytosis (viruses are enveloped
and enclosed in membrane) or by delivering viral genome through
pore in membrane.
· Direct contact (can be blood-borne—use RBCs to facilitate
growth)
· Indirect contact with fomites
· Airborne transmission—can stimulate sneezing/coughing, remain
suspended in air
Bacteria
Adhesion
· Use pili and fimbria (hair like structures on surface)
· Adhesins on surface resist washing action of secretions
(urine, mucus)
· Form a biofilm (community of bacteria attached to a host
surface).
Invasion
· Enzymes break down cell
· Capsule of biofilm resist phagocytosis (engulfment by
WBCs)
· Chemicals destroy immune defences
· Toxins are secreted to damage cells
· Direct contact
· Indirect contact and infected substances/fomites
· Airborne—stimulate sneezing/coughing, resist drying out in
air
· Vector-borne transmission—produces proteins to attach to
vectors, vector is unaffected
Protozoan
· Microtubule penetrates host cell and facilitates entry,
membrane is formed to protect from lysosomes
· Faeco-oral (e.g. infected food/water)—induces diarrhoea and
transmission
· Direct contact
Fungi
Adhesion
· Assisted by cell wall/capsule molecules
Invasion
· Thermotolerance—heat shock proteins cope with body
temperatures
· Cell wall and capsules protect fungi from host attacks
· Secretion of hydrolytic enzymes damages host cells and
provides nutrients
· Direct contact
· Airborne transmission
· Soil-borne—form endospores to resist desiccation (drying),
stable in a range of conditions
Macro-parasites
Hookworms
· Secrete proteins that reduce host cell responses
Ticks
· Secrete molecules to prevent vasoconstriction, clotting or
inflammatory response
· Direct contact
2: Responses to Pathogens – How does a plant or animal respond
to infection?Response of a named plant to a named pathogen
Root rot/dieback disease
· Cause: Phytopthora cinnamomi fungus
· Symptoms: Wilting, decreased fruit size, necrosis, plant
death.
· Pathogen
· Thrives in moist conditions and lives in soil, plant tissues,
and water
· Feed off root and stem tissue of plants, leaving lesions in
plant and reducing movement of water and nutrients
· Can become dormant in harsh weather and germinate in suitable
conditions
· Transmits indirectly—water-borne and soil-borne
· Plant response (e.g. Banskia)
· Polygalacturonase inhibitor proteins inhibit the activity of
pathogens in penetrating cell wall
· Chemical compounds ward off fungus and reduce growth
· Enzymes are produced to break down toxins released by
fungus
· Chemical receptors activate active defence—hydrogen peroxide
is released to kill fungus, cell wall is reinforced to seal off
fungus.
Analyse responses to the presence of pathogens by assessing
physical and chemical changes in animal cells and tissues
Physical barriers
· Skin: Consists of outer epidermis, dermis, hypodermis. Good
blood supply = access for WBCs, RBCs, platelets. Epidermis is
covered in keratin (waterproof protein = extra barrier). Upper
epidermis = barrier of dead skin cells.
· Mucous membrane: Line body cavities. Features—cilia (to remove
particles), secrete protective substances (mucus traps and flushes
away foreign substances)
· Tight junctions: Line blood vessels to prevent diffusion of
pathogens.
· Peristalsis: Alimentary canal (mouth to anus) contracts,
moving food and preventing bacteria from reproducing.
· Vomiting, diarrhoea, increased urination: expel harmful
substances and pathogens.
Chemical barriers
· Urine: Antimicrobial peptides secreted along urinary tract
prevent bacteria binding to cells and break down bacterial
cells.
· Sweat: Secretes lysozomes that lyse (break down) bacterial
cell walls.
· Saliva: Has a flushing action and antimicrobial molecules.
· Tears: Produced by lacrimal glands, contains antimicrobial
substances.
· Gastric secretions: Hydrochloric acid’s high acidity
discourages growth and survival of microbes.
3: Immunity – How does the human immune system respond to
exposure to a pathogen?Innate and adaptive/acquired immune systems
and responses to pathogens
Non-specific defence (innate immunity)
First line of defence (physical barriers)
· Skin: Dry, waterproof surface. Limits pathogen growth and
prevents entry. Secretions from sebaceous glands inhibit pathogen
growth.
· Mucous membranes: Line alimentary canal (mouth to anus),
respiratory tract, and urinogenital tract. Secrete substances to
trap pathogens and inhibit their growth.
· Cilia: Small hairs in nose and upper respiratory tract. Mucous
coating filters out microbes. Hairs move pathogens to throat to be
sneezed/coughed out.
· Chemical barriers: Anti-microbial secretions from skin,
stomach wall, mucous membranes, vagina. Stomach and vagina
secretions are acidic -> reduce microbe growth.
· Other secretions: Lysozymes (enzymes that break bacterial
walls) in tears and saliva. Acidity of urine inhibits pathogen
growth. Secretions of fatty acids from sebaceous glands in skin
reduces microbial growth.
Second line of defence
· Cells involved
· Granulocytes—neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
· Monocytes—macrophages, dendritic cells
· Inflammation response (first response)
· Area of infection becomes hot and swollen as histamine
(hormone) is released into blood, making blood vessels dilate and
increase permeability -> fluid containing phagocytes (a type of
leukocyte/WBC) enters tissues.
· Phagocytes engulf and destroy pathogen through phagocytosis.
Types of phagocytes—macrophages (chronic infection) and neutrophils
(acute infection).
· Destroyed pathogens, phagocytes and body cells are known as
pus. Pus is carried to lymph nodes (swell in process) to be
filtered.
· Granuloma
· If inflammation cannot kill a pathogen, macrophages assemble
around pathogen to seal it from food supply and kill it. This is a
granuloma.
· Fever
· Pyrogens (chemicals) are released by phagocytes into the
blood, where they travel to the brain, causing body temperature to
raise to about 40 degrees to decrease pathogen
growths/survivability.
Specific defence (adaptive immunity)
Third line of defence
· Antibodies: Produced by lymphocytes (a form of WBC found in
lymphatic system) when antigens (foreign objects) are detected in
body. Each is specific to a specific antigen. They combine with
antigens to kill/inactivate them or clump them together so
macrophages can find them easier.
· B-cells: Lymphocyte made in bone marrow. Naïve until exposed
to antigen, then they differentiate. Achieve antibody mediated
immunity.
· Plasma B-cell: Produce antibodies.
· Memory B-cell: Remain in body to detect later infection by
same antigen. Required antibody can be produced quickly in large
amounts.
· T-cells: Lymphocyte made in bone marrow and thymus gland.
Achieve cell mediated immunity.
· Killer T-cell: Attack and destroy macrophages that have
engulfed antigens.
· Helper T-cell: Secrete chemicals to stimulate B and T cell
cloning.
· Memory T-cell: Remain in body and reactivate quickly with
future infections from same antigen.
· Suppressor T-cell: Inactivate B and T-cells when antigen is
destroyed.
4: Prevention, Treatment and Control – How can the spread of
infectious disease be controlled?Interrelated factors involved in
limiting local, regional and global spread of a named disease
Local
· Sanitation—waste and sewage disposal
· Overcrowding
· Communication networks and roads
· Education
· Animal husbandry practices
· Local cultural/spiritual beliefs (e.g. Madagascar—famadihana,
involves dancing with dead relatives -> plague outbreak)
Regional
· Geography (e.g. mountains, deserts, rainforests)
· Rainforest destruction
· Mobility/isolation
· Bacteria/viruses in seafood in coastal regions
· Trade of fresh food
· Seasonal variations in temperature
Global
· Mass international travel
· Migrants—food insecurity, overcrowding, lack of access to
healthcare
· Pre-migrant medical examinations
· Misuse of antibiotics
· Ease of communication via internet
Polio vaccination campaign (1980s)—factors
· Local: Faeco-oral transmission, water sources and waste
systems, sanitation and hygiene, rumour that vaccines were
sterilisations to reduce Muslim populations, danger to
polio-eradication workers
· Regional: Political and military instability
· Global: Disease occurred in most countries, international
travel, worldwide eradication was questioned
Procedures employed to limit the spread of diseaseHygiene
practices
·
· Policies/guidelines: Safe Water System, 1997 Food Regulation,
Universal Precautions
· Sewage/garbage disposal
· Filter/chlorinate drinking water, narrow-mouth plastic
containers
· Washing hands
· Cooking food thoroughly
· Cough/sneeze etiquette
· Cover hair/skin lesions when preparing food
· Clean/sterilise medical equipment
· Gloves (change every patient) and masks while treating
patients
Quarantine
· = period of compulsory isolation on animals/items.
· Helped our nation to be one of the few free from sever pests
and diseases.
· Seeks to prevent entry of harmful disease and pests.
· Department of Agriculture and Water Resources (DAWR) screens
and inspects thousands, and uses pre-border, border and post-border
quarantine.
· They use research, international resources/intelligence,
monitoring, etc.
· Quarantine involves fumigation and destruction of infected
goods.
· Works closely with other government agencies—ACBPS, FSANZ,
DHA
· Measures: Legislation, border control, dog teams, X-ray
inspection, surveillance, quarantine (plants and animals, mosquito
trapping programs, public awareness campaigns (Quarantine Matters
w/ Steve Irwin), Northern Australia Quarantine strategy (early
warning system—sentinel animals are checked for diseases and used
to detect entry of diseases)
Vaccination (passive and active immunity)
· First vaccine: Developed by Edward Jenner in 1976 for smallpox
-> eradicated the disease.
· Vaccine for polio in 1955 -> reduced cases by 80%
· Active acquired immunity: immune response occurs, memory cells
produced.
· Naturally induced: Body undergoes immune response and suffers
disease.
· Artificially induced: Through vaccines, which contain modified
toxins—toxoids; attenuated (weakened, e.g. rabies), dead, or
similar but less harmful pathogens (e.g. cowpox for smallpox).
· If antigen reinfects body, secondary response occurs,
producing many memory cells and antibodies -> destroy antigens
before disease develops.
· Booster shots over years -> lifelong immunity, counteracts
decrease of memory cells.
· -> Herd immunity.
· Passive acquired immunity
· Artificial: Introduction of antibodies from someone who has
experienced the disease (immunoglobulins) into the body to prevent
disease development -> short-term immunity (couple months) as no
memory cells are produced.
· Natural: E.g. mother’s antibodies -> child through placenta
or milk.
· Advantages: Active immunity, limit disease spread, eradicate
disease, decrease healthcare costs.
· Disadvantages: Possible mild symptoms, human error,
allergies.
Public health campaigns
·
· Sewage treatment, garbage disposal, pollution monitoring
· Advertising campaigns (e.g. Slip Slop Slap, Grim Reaper ads
for AIDS)
· Screening programs (BreastScreen, bone density tests for
osteoporosis)
· Laws/regulations (1997 Food Regulations, diseases classified
as ‘notifiable’ e.g. AIDS)
· Immunisation
· Quarantine
Pesticides
· Chemicals that destroy pests—e.g. disease vectors, damage
crops
· DDT—used to kill mosquitoes and prevent spread of malaria, now
banned in many places due to negative ecological and health effects
(e.g. reduced fertility, breast cancer)
· Organophosphates, pyrethrums—safer, popular, used to control
mosquitoes.
· Other uses—e.g. spraying potato crops to destroy aphids with
the potato leaf roll virus.
Genetic engineering
· Uses biotech to alter genotype of an organism -> creates
disease-resistant transgenic organisms -> prevent and control
spread of disease.
· E.g. Bt cotton—contains Bt bacterium gene that produces toxins
to kill certain insects.
· E.g. Inserting human insulin gene into E. Coli bacteria ->
produce large amounts of insulin to treat diabetes.
Effectiveness of pharmaceuticals in treating and controlling
infectious diseaseAntibiotics
· Chemicals made by microbes to kill/inhibit microbes by
targeting prokaryotic metabolism, destroying cell walls (e.g.
penicillin), inhibiting DNA production (e.g. tetracyclines),
destroying membranes/enzymes/ribosomes etc.
· Selectively toxic—can target fungi, bacteria, protozoans.
· DO NOT work on viruses (as they have no metabolism), but can
be prescribed to prevent secondary infections.
· -> reduce mortality and disease rates.
· Can be broad spectrum (act against range of microbes e.g.
tetracyclines) or narrow spectrum.
· Effectiveness has diminished—bacteria evolving/conferring
resistance (e.g. Golden Staph), people not taking whole course,
over-prescribed antibiotics.
Antivirals
· Inhibit development of viral infections (DO NOT cure them)
· Target virus-specific features—e.g. target the capsid, prevent
virus entry, prevent virus releasing DNA/RNA into cell.
· E.g. anti-herpetic agents (Helpin), anti-influenza agents
(Tamiflu)
Environmental management and quarantine methods used in
epidemics/pandemics
Ebola Virus 2014-16
· Severe infectious disease, causes rapid death (50% death
rate), spread through direct contact, a zoonose.
· Management incl. broad spectrum antibiotics, replacement of
lost fluids.
· Admin control—organisation of response, allocation of
tasks
· Environmental control—facilities for barrier nursing, hand
hygiene, waste management (leak proof bags, covered bins), PPE
(masks, gloves, waterproof boots, respirator, suit), surfaces
sterilised every day.
· Quarantine—isolate patients in single room/at least 3m between
patient beds. Same clinical staff and equipment assigned to single
patients. Visits restricted.
· Work w/ and educate community on transmission and
prevention.
Incidence and prevalence of infectious disease in
populationsMobility of individuals, and portion that are
immune/immunised
· Incidence: New cases during a certain time.
· Prevalence: Proportion of population with a disease at a
certain time.
· Historical mobility
· Silk Road—trade route from China to Europe -> spread the
Black Death.
· Christopher Columbus—introduced 30 infectious disease into the
Americas e.g. smallpox, malaria.
· Modern mobility
· Mobility in WWI spread the Spanish flu -> killed more
people than died in the war.
· HIV—originated in Democratic Republic of Congo. Increased,
improved, cheaper travel options -> pandemic by 1980s.
· Urbanisation -> overcrowding, pressure on healthcare,
increasing homeless population, poor living conditions -> spread
of disease e.g. TB, ebola.
· About 86% of the global population is immunised today.
Malaria/Dengue Fever in South East Africa
· Seasonal disease, first roughly 20 weeks of 2019:
· E.g. Malaysia: 50,000+ cases, 0.002% prevalence, 2x higher
than last year.
· E.g. Singapore: Almost 4000 cases, 0.0007% prevalence, 4x
higher than last year.
· Climate change -> increase spread.
· Dengue causes 10 million cases and 10,000 deaths per day.
Historical, culturally diverse, and current strategies to
predict and control spread of disease
Historical
John Snow, 1854 London cholera outbreak—used maps to record
deaths and pinpoint the pathogen source
Egypt, 69-30 BCE—Cleopatra used mosquito nets.
Middle Ages—bodily fluids (‘humours’) balanced through purging,
bleeding, etc. Pleasant scent from pomander (container w/ spiced
wax) used to repel Black Death. Plague doctors wore full length
gowns and masks.
Culturally diverse
Philippines—traditional foods, e.g. garlic and onion, contain
quercetin to lower blood pressure.
Traditional Chinese Medicine—acupuncture, herbal medicine,
specific diet, massage, etc. Bitter and cold herb formula
treatment, herbs incl. ginseng, honeysuckle -> antibiotic
properties.
Current
Australia’s National Framework for Communicable Disease
Control—prevention, detection and response.
Surveillance system—detecting disease, notifying organisations
e.g. National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System ->
investigation, control.
Quarantine (e.g. severe acute respiratory syndrome outbreak in
2003, people isolated in houses/homes)
Contemporary application of Aboriginal protocols and importance
of recognising/protecting Aboriginal cultural/intellectual
propertyBush medicine
· Plants substances used include tannins, oils, alkaloids, etc
-> antimicrobial properties.
· Animal fat often incorporated into medicines to increase fat
solubility and absorption rates.
· Plants may be crushed and applied to skin (e.g. Witchetty
grubs for burns), drunk, inhaled, mashed up and ingested (e.g. clay
to deactivate gastrointestinal toxins).
· Tea tree oil: Traditionally brewed/consumed -> antiseptic
properties. Now used as a household cleaner, to treat fungal
infections and skin issues.
· Kakadu plum: Richest vitamin C source in the world.
Traditionally used as antiseptic and healing agent. Today known to
contain phytochemicals that work as antimicrobials/inflammatories,
and now used in cosmetics, vitamins, pharmaceuticals and food.
· Emu Bush: Traditionally used to treat wounds, ailments,
infections, etc. Now known to have antibiotic properties equal in
strength to antibiotics -> trialled for use as a sterilisation
medium for prosthetic implants.
Cultural/intellectual property
· Indigenous cultural heritage needs to be protected from
commercialisation and exploitation.
· Australian laws do not adequately recognise/protect this.
· Many pharmaceutical companies have exclusive rights to native
Australian plants -> Indigenous people cannot use them.
· 1933—Julayinbul Statement on Indigenous Intellectual Property
Rights -> insisted that ATSI property be acknowledged.
· Ongoing concerns -> Australian Government Intellectual
Property legislation, 2015; Nagoya protocol—official agreement to
protect ATSI biological resources.
Smokebush in Western Australia
· Grow in SW Western Australia, NSW, TAS.
· Often have big, woolly white flowers, member of Protaceae
family.
· Currently investigated for potential use against cancer and
HIV/AIDS due to chemical concurovone.
· 1990s—WA gave Amrad (VIC biotech company) the rights to
smokebush to develop an anti-aids drug. There were projected
royalties of $100 million per year by 2002, but Indigenous people
weren’t recognised and would receive no profit, even though
Nyoongah people had used smokebush for centuries.
