Website: Studying the Word of GodAuthors: Brian K. McPherson and Scott McPhersonWeb Address (URL): biblestudying.net

Why Christianity Discussion Points – Part 2

Articles:Propositional Religions 3 - Jainism, Taoism p. 35-49, Propositional Religions 4 - Shintoism, Confucianism, p. 50-59, Propositional Religions 5 – Sikhism, p. 60-71Propositional Religions 6 - Babism and Baha'ism, Zoroastr’nism, p. 72-86TOTAL = 51 pages

Discussion Points:

Propositional Religions 3 - Jainism, Taoism

III. JainismA. Origin and History of Jainism

1. "Jainism - religious system of India practiced by about 5,000,000 persons. Jainism, Ajivika, and Buddhism arose in the 6th cent. B.C. as protests against the overdeveloped ritualism of Hinduism, particularly its sacrificial cults, and the authority of the Veda. Jaina tradition teaches that a succession of 24 tirthankaras (saints) originated the religion. The last, Vardhamana, called Mahavira [the great hero] and Jina [the victor], seems to be historical." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

2. "Jainism - a religion of India originating in the 6th century B.C. and teaching liberation of the soul by right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct." - Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary

3. "Jainism - An ascetic religion of India, founded in the sixth century B.C., that teaches the immortality and transmigration of the soul and denies the existence of a perfect or supreme being." - The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.

4. "Jainism - Beginning in the 7th-5th century BCE, Jainism evolved into a cultural system that has made significant contributions to Indian philosophy and logic, art and architecture, mathematics, astronomy and astrology, and literature. Along with Hinduism and Buddhism, it is one of the three most ancient Indian religious traditions still in existence." - Britannica.com

5. "Jainism - While often employing concepts shared with Hinduism and Buddhism, the result of a common cultural and linguistic background, the Jain tradition must be regarded as an independent phenomenon. It is an integral part of South Asian religious belief and practice, but it is not a Hindu sect or Buddhist heresy, as earlier scholars believed." - Britannica.com

6. "Jainism - Jainism originated in the 7th-5th century BCE in the Ganges basin of eastern India, the scene of intense religious speculation and activity at that time. Buddhism also appeared in this region, as did other belief systems that

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renounced the world and opposed the ritualistic Brahmanic schools whose prestige derived from their claim of purity and their ability to perform the traditional rituals and sacrifices and to interpret their meaning. These new religious perspectives promoted asceticism, the abandonment of ritual, domestic and social action, and the attainment of gnosis (illumination) in an attempt to win, through one's own efforts, freedom from repeated rebirth." - Britannica.com

7. "Jainism - The first Jain figure for whom there is reasonable historical evidence is Parshvanatha (or Parshva), a renunciant teacher who may have lived in the 7th century BCE and founded a community based upon the abandonment of worldly concerns. Jain tradition regards him as the 23rd Tirthankara (literally, "Ford-maker," i.e., one who leads the way across the stream of rebirths to salvation) of the current age (kalpa). The 24th and last Tirthankara of this age was Vardhamana, who is known by the epithet Mahavira ("Great Hero") and is believed to have been the last teacher of "right" knowledge, faith, and practice. Although traditionally dated to 599-527 BCE, Mahavira must be regarded as a close contemporary of the Buddha (traditionally believed to have lived in 563-483 BCE but who probably flourished about a century later). The legendary accounts of Mahavira's life preserved by the Jain scriptures provides the basis for his biography and enable some conclusions to be formulated about the nature of the early community he founded. Mahavira, like the Buddha, was the son of a chieftain of the Kshatriya (warrior) class. At age 30 he renounced his princely status to take up the ascetic life. Although he was accompanied for a time by the eventual founder of the Ajivika sect, Goshala Maskariputra, Mahavira spent the next 12 1/2 years following a path of solitary and intense asceticism. He then converted 11 disciples (called ganadharas), all of whom were originally Brahmans. Two of these disciples, Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharman, both of whom survived Mahavira, are regarded as the founders of the historical Jain monastic community, and a third, Jambu, is believed to be the last person of the current age to gain enlightenment. Mahavira is believed to have died at Pavapuri, near modern Patna." - Britannica.com

A. Conclusions about the Origin and History of Jainism/Similarities with Buddhism1. Similarities between Jainism and Buddhism.

a. Both religions were started by men who left positions of prominence in their families and in society at around the age of 30

b. Both religions were started by men who lived during the same century of Indian history.

c. Both religions were reactions against similar aspects of Hinduism, including the authority of the Veda (Hindu's sacred scripture).

d. Both founders Vardhamana (Jainism) and Gautama (Buddhism) are said to have achieved enlightenment (Vardhamana at approximately 42, Gautama at 35.)

e. Both religions center on the liberation of the soul from the process of rebirth.

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f. Both religions hold that the world is eternal and uncreated and repeats in a cyclical manner.

i. "Jainism - The Jain world is eternal and uncreated. Its constituent elements, the five basics of reality (astikayas), are soul, matter, space, the principles of motion, and the arrest of motion; for the Digambaras there is a sixth substance, time. These elements are eternal and indestructible, but their conditions change constantly, manifesting three characteristics: arising, stability, and falling away. On this basis, Jainism claims to provide a more realistic analysis of the world and its complexities than Hinduism or Buddhism." - Britannica.com

ii. "Jainism - Time, according to the Jains, is eternal and formless. It is understood as a wheel with 12 spokes (ara), the equivalent of ages, six of which form an ascending arc and six a descending one. In the ascending arc (utsarpini), humans progress in knowledge, age, stature, and happiness, while in the descending arc (avasarpini) they deteriorate. The two cycles joined together make one rotation of the wheel of time, which is called a kalpa. These kalpas repeat themselves without beginning or end." - Britannica.com

iii. "Jainism - Jaina tradition teaches that a succession of 24 tirthankaras (saints) originated the religion. The last, Vardhamana, called Mahavira [the great hero] and Jina [the victor], seems to be historical. He preached a rigid asceticism and solicitude for all life as a means of escaping the cycle of rebirth, or the transmigration of souls. Thus released from the rule of karma, the total consequences of past acts, the soul attains nirvana, and hence salvation." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

B. Jainist Scripture and Historicity of Vardhamana1. "Prakrit literature - The sacred texts (Siddhanta or Agama) of the two main

sects of the Jains employed three types of Prakrit. The oldest sutras of the Svetambara sect are written in Ardha-Magadhi, while later books are in Maharastri. The Svetambara canon, written in verse and prose, received its final form in A.D. 454. The sacred books of the Digambara sect are written in Savraseni. An important source of knowledge of Prakrit is the Sanskrit drama. Kalidasa is included among many dramatists, who, in order to obtain a realistic effect, had the common people in their plays speak in Prakrit. See Sanskrit literature." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

2. "Jainism - The Jains developed their own legendary history, the Deeds of the 63 Illustrious Men, which Western scholars call the Universal History. The most important figures in this history are the 24 Tirthankaras, perfected human beings who appear from time to time to preach and embody the faith." - Britannica.com

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3. "Jainism - Jain canonical scriptures do not belong to a single period, nor is any text free from later revision or additions. The sacred literature, transmitted orally, was first systematized in a council at Patna about the end of the 4th century BCE, of which little can be said, and again in two later councils at Mathura (early 3rd century CE) and Valabhi. The fourth and last council, at Valabhi in the mid-5th century, is considered the source of the existing Shvetambara canon, though some commentators insist that the present version comes from the Mathura council." - Britannica.com

4. "Jainism - The Shvetambaras embrace an extensive agama (Sanskrit: "tradition," or "received teachings"; i.e., collection of canonical texts) as the repository of their tradition. Based upon what are believed to be discourses by Mahavira that were compiled by his disciples, this canon preserves his teachings in an imperfect way, since it has been subject to both interpolation and loss throughout the ages." - Britannica.com

5. "Jainism - The Bhadrabahu, traditionally recognized as the last Jain sage to know the contents of the Purvas, is thought to be the author of the Niryuktis, the earliest commentaries on the Jain canonical texts. These concise, metrical commentaries, written in Prakrit, gave rise to an expanded corpus of texts called Bhashya s and Curnis. Composed between the 4th and the 7th century, these texts contain many ancient Jain legends and historical traditions and a large number of popular stories that support Jain doctrine...Later commentaries by Virasena (in the 8th century) and his disciple Jinasena (in the 9th century) on the Kashayaprabhrita are also highly respected by Digambaras." - Britannica.com

6. "Jainism - The consolidation of the Shvetambara-Digambara division was probably the result of a series of councils held to codify and preserve the Jain scriptures, which had existed as oral tradition long after Mahavira's death. Of the councils recorded in Jain history, the last one, held at Valabhi in Saurashtra (in modern Gujarat) in either 453 or 456 CE, without Digambara participation, codified the Shvetambara canon that is still in use. The Digambara monastic community denounced the codification, and the schism between the two communities became irrevocable." - Britannica.com

B. Conclusions about Jainist Scripture and Historicity of Vardhamana1. Historical sources on the origin, founder, and teachings of Jainism date from the

5th century A.D., nearly 1000 years after Vardhamana's life (6th century B.C.)2. These are adequate qualifications within our requirements for historicity. 3. We can accept Vardhamana was as an actual figure who lived and taught from

roughly the 6th century B.C.4. Jainist teaching will become completely lost

a. according to Jains:i. Jainist teaching may already lost and thoroughly corrupted

ii. our understanding of the world must become less and less reliable and accurate as we proceed away from the origin of Jainism in this cycle – we are now 2500 years removed from the origin of the supposed authentic Jainist teaching.

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1. "Jainism - The original, unadulterated teachings of the Tirthankaras , the Purvas, are said to have been contained in 14 ancient, or "prior" (purva) texts, which are now lost. Shvetambaras and Digambaras agree that a time will come when the teachings of the Tirthankaras will be completely lost; Jainism will then disappear from the earth and reappear at an appropriate point in the next time cycle (kalpa). The two sects disagree, however, about the extent to which the corruption and loss of the Tirthankaras' teachings has already occurred. Consequently, the texts for each sect differ." - Britannica.com

iii. We must use a method of knowing to remain in correct understanding

1. "Jainism - For the Jains all knowledge short of omniscience is flawed. Because reality is characterized by arising, change, and decay, as opposed to simple permanence (for the Hindus) and impermanence (for the Buddhists), the Jains developed an epistemological system based on seven perspectives (naya). This system, anekanta-vada, "the many-pointed doctrine," takes into account the provisional nature of mundane knowledge. To gain some approximation to reality, a judgment must ideally be framed in accord with all seven perspectives." - Britannica.com

2. given the Jainist view that as the cycle progresses Jainism will ultimately be lost, it seems that this system is destined to fail.

3. because Jains are not certain how far we are into this impending corruption we currently are, it is possible that Jainist epistemology is already be past the point of being able to provide a reliable approximation of reality.

C. Jainism and Subjectivity1. "Jainism - Jaina tradition teaches that a succession of 24 tirthankaras (saints)

originated the religion. The last, Vardhamana, called Mahavira [the great hero] and Jina [the victor], seems to be historical. He preached a rigid asceticism and solicitude for all life as a means of escaping the cycle of rebirth, or the transmigration of souls. Thus released from the rule of karma, the total consequences of past acts, the soul attains nirvana, and hence salvation." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

2. "Jainism - a religion of India originating in the 6th century B.C. and teaching liberation of the soul by right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct." - Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary

3. "Jainism - An ascetic religion of India, founded in the sixth century B.C., that teaches the immortality and transmigration of the soul and denies the

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existence of a perfect or supreme being." - The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.

4. "Jainism - a religion of India that teaches a path to spiritual purity and enlightenment through a disciplined mode of life founded upon the tradition of ahimsa, nonviolence to all living creatures." - Britannica.com

5. "Jainism - The name Jainism derives from the Sanskrit verb ji, "to conquer." It refers to the ascetic battle that it is believed Jain renunciants (monks and nuns) must fight against the passions and bodily senses to gain omniscience and purity of soul or enlightenment. The most illustrious of those few individuals who have achieved enlightenment are called Jina (literally, "Conqueror"), and the tradition's monastic and lay adherents are called Jain ("Follower of the Conquerors"), or Jaina. This term came to replace a more ancient designation, Nirgrantha ("Bondless"), originally applied to renunciants only." - Britannica.com

6. "Jainism - Even though Jain doctrine holds that no one can achieve liberation in this corrupt time, the Jain religious goal is the complete perfection and purification of the soul. This, they believe, occurs only when the soul is in a state of eternal liberation from corporeal bodies. Liberation of the soul is impeded by the accumulation of karmans, bits of material, generated by a person's actions, that attach themselves to the soul and consequently bind it to physical bodies through many births. This has the effect of thwarting the full self-realization and freedom of the soul. As a result, Jain renunciants do not seek immediate enlightenment; instead, through disciplined and meritorious practice of nonviolence, they pursue a human rebirth that will bring them nearer to that state. To understand how the Jains address this problem, it is first necessary to consider the Jain conception of reality." - Britannica.com

7. "Jainism - Because of karman a soul is imprisoned in a succession of bodies and passes through various stages of spiritual development before becoming free from all karmic bondage. These stages of development (gunasthanas) involve progressive manifestations of the innate faculties of knowledge and power and are accompanied by decreasing sinfulness and increasing purity." - Britannica.com

8. "Jainism - In Jain thought, four stages of perception Ñobservation, will to recognize, determination, and impressionÑlead to subjective cognition (matijnana), the first of five kinds of knowledge (jnana). The second kind, shrutajnana, derives from the scriptures and general information. Both are mediated cognition, based on external conditions perceived by the senses. In addition there are three kinds of immediate knowledgeÑavadhi (supersensory perception), manahparyaya (reading the thoughts of others), and kevala (omniscience). Kevala is necessarily accompanied by freedom from karmic obstruction and by direct experience of the soul's pure form unblemished by attachment to matter. Omniscience, the foremost attribute of a liberated jiva, is the emblem of its purity; thus, a liberated soul, such as a Tirthankara, is called a kevalin ("possessor of omniscience"). However, not all kevalins are Tirthankaras: becoming a Tirthankara requires the development of a particular type of karmic destiny. For the Jains all knowledge short of omniscience is flawed. Because reality is characterized by arising, change,

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and decay, as opposed to simple permanence (for the Hindus) and impermanence (for the Buddhists), the Jains developed an epistemological system based on seven perspectives (naya). This system, anekanta-vada, "the many-pointed doctrine," takes into account the provisional nature of mundane knowledge. To gain some approximation to reality, a judgment must ideally be framed in accord with all seven perspectives. According to Jainism, yoga, the ascetic physical and meditative discipline of the monk, is the means to attain omniscience and thus moksha, or liberation. Yoga is the cultivation of true knowledge of reality, faith in the teachings of the Tirthankaras, and pure conduct; it is thus intimately connected to the Three Jewels (ratnatraya) of right knowledge, right faith, and right practice (respectively, samyagjnana, samyagdarshana, and samyakcaritra)." - Britannica.com

C. Conclusions about Jainism and Subjectivity1. Jainism depends upon subjective experience as a key part of the process by which

one comes to acquire enlightenment. 2. Like Hinduism and Buddhism, Jainism focuses on the transcendence of the soul

from the material world through the process of enlightenment. 3. Note the dependence upon "subjective cognition" and personal meditation

through yoga as an essential means of achieving enlightenment and the liberation of the soul from the material world.

D. Ajivika and Buddhism and Jainism1. "Ajivika - religious sect of medieval India, once of major importance. The

Ajivikas were an ascetic, atheistic, anti-Brahmanical community whose pessimistic doctrines are related to those of Jainism. Its founder, Gosala (d. c.484 B.C.), was, it is said, a friend of Mahavira, the founder of Jainism. Gosala denied that a man's actions could influence the process of transmigration, which proceeded according to a rigid pattern, controlled in the smallest detail by an impersonal cosmic principle, Niyati, or destiny. After a period of prosperity under Asoka, the sect rapidly declined and only retained local importance in SE India, where it survived until the 14th cent." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

2. "Jainism - Mahavira, like the Buddha, was the son of a chieftain of the Kshatriya (warrior) class. At age 30 he renounced his princely status to take up the ascetic life. Although he was accompanied for a time by the eventual founder of the Ajivika sect, Goshala Maskariputra, Mahavira spent the next 121/2 years following a path of solitary and intense asceticism. He then converted 11 disciples (called ganadharas), all of whom were originally Brahmans. Two of these disciples, Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharman, both of whom survived Mahavira, are regarded as the founders of the historical Jain monastic community, and a third, Jambu, is believed to be the last person of the current age to gain enlightenment. Mahavira is believed to have died at Pavapuri, near modern Patna." - Britannica.com

E. ASSESSMENT OF JAINISM

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1. religious movements lead by men of upper class status who left their estates and became enlightened at around the ages of 30-40 years old were not even unique in India during the 6th century B.C.

2. (NOTE: Vardhamana either being Gautama's contemporary or just preceeding him.)

3. the beginnings of three religions within India under similar circumstances, with similar beliefs, from the same parent religion, at the same time indicates that their origination are more likely the result of cultural trends than the coincidental acquisition of higher spiritual truths by several people at virtually the same time.

4. It is impossible to objectively verify in any reasonable manner whether the claims of Vardhamana are at all accurate.

a. his views are highly dependent upon subjective, personal experience rather than objective evidence.

a. In fact, to illustrate the impossibility of determining if either Buddhism or Jainism is a correct view of God and the universe, we can ask which one we should accept?

i. both are syncretistically connected through Hinduism, ii. they do maintain their distinction from one another so we cannot

make the mistake that they are really the same religion and attempt to accept them both.

iii. we could simply choose one. But what means would we employ to determine which one we should choose?

1. There is nothing in the history of the lives and deaths of either Gautama or Vardhamana that would point to one over the other.

2. Both religions have devoted followers who subjectively discern through spiritual insight the correctness of their respective views of reality.

3. how could we know if one of these groups is more correct in their subjectively experience?

b. Though Jainism, like Buddhism, can be considered historical in origin, must ultimately be rejected because it provides no objective evidence by which we might reasonably be able to verify the accuracy of its claims.

IV. TaoismA. Origin and History of Taoism

1. "Taoism - 1: a Chinese mystical philosophy traditionally founded by Lao-tzu in the 6th century B.C. that teaches conformity to the Tao by unassertive action and simplicity 2: a religion developed from Taoist philosophy and folk and Buddhist religion and concerned with obtaining long life and good fortune often by magical means." - Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary

2. "Taoism - indigenous religio-philosophical tradition that has shaped Chinese life for more than 2,000 years." - Britannica.com

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3. "Taoism - More strictly defined, Taoism includes: the ideas and attitudes peculiar to the Lao-tzu (or Tao-te Ching; "Classic of the Way of Power"), the Chuang-tzu, the Lieh-tzu, and related writings; the Taoist religion, which is concerned with the ritual worship of the Tao; and those who identify themselves as Taoists." - Britannica.com

4. "Taoism - There is also a tendency among scholars today to draw a less rigid line between what is called Taoist and what is called Confucian. The two traditions share many of the same ideas about man, society, the ruler, Heaven, and the universeÑideas that were not created by either school but that stem from a tradition prior to either Confucius or Lao-tzu." - Britannica.com

5. "Taoism - Behind all forms of Taoism stands the figure of Lao-tzu, traditionally regarded as the author of the classic text known as the Lao-tzu, or the Tao-te Ching ("Classic of the Way of Power"). The first mention of Lao-tzu is found in another early classic of Taoist speculation, the Chuang-tzu (4th-3rd century BC), so called after the name of its author. In this work Lao-tzu is described as being one of Chuang-tzu's own teachers, and the same book contains many of the Master's (Lao-tzu's) discourses, generally introduced by the questions of a disciple. The Chuang-tzu also presents seven versions of a meeting of Lao-tzu and Confucius. Lao-tzu is portrayed as the elder and his Taoist teachings confound his celebrated interlocutor. The Chuang-tzu also gives the only account of Lao-tzu's death. Thus in this early source, Lao-tzu appears as a senior contemporary of Confucius (6th-5th century BC) and a renowned Taoist master, a curator of the archives at the court of the Chou dynasty (c. 1111-255 BC) and, finally, a mere mortal." - Britannica.com

6. "Taoism - The first consistent biographical account of Lao-tzu is found in the 'Historical Records' (Shih-chi )ÑChina's first universal history (2nd century BC)Ñof Ssu-ma Ch'ien. This concise rÎsumÎ has served as the classical source on the philosopher's life. Lao-tzu's family name was Li, his given name Erh; and he occupied the post of archivist at the Chou court. He is said to have instructed Confucius on points of ceremony. Observing the decline of the Chou dynasty, Lao-tzu left the court and headed west. At the request of Yin Hsi, the guardian of the frontier pass, he wrote his treatise on the Tao in two scrolls. He then left China behind, and what became of him is not known. The historian quotes variant accounts, including one that attributed to Lao-tzu an exceptional longevity; the narrative terminates with the genealogy of eight generations of Lao-tzu's supposed descendants. With passing references in other early texts, this constitutes the body of information on the life of the sage as of the 2nd century BC; it is presumably legendary (see also Lao-tzu)." - Britannica.com

7. "Taoism - Pseudohistorical knowledge of the sage Chuang-tzu is even less well defined than that of Lao-tzu. Most of Ssu-ma Ch'ien's brief portrait of the man is transparently drawn from anecdotes in the Chuang-tzu itself and as such has no necessary basis in fact. The Chuang-tzu, however, is valuable as a monument of Chinese literature and because it contains considerable documentary material, describing numerous speculative trends and spiritual practices of the Warring States period (475-221 BC)." - Britannica.com

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8. "Taoism - Whereas Lao-tzu in his book as well as in his life (in legend) was concerned with Taoist rule, Chuang-tzu, some generations later, rejected all participation in society." - Britannica.com

9. "Taoism - For the individual, wisdom is to conform to the rhythm of the universe. The Taoist mystic, however, not only adapts himself ritually and physiologically to the alternations of nature but creates a void inside himself that permits him to return to nature's origin. Lao-tzu, in trance, 'wandered freely in the origin of all beings.' Thus, in ecstasy he escaped the rhythm of life and death by contemplating the universal return. 'Having attained perfect emptiness, holding fast to stillness, I can watch the return of the ever active Ten Thousand Beings.' The number 10,000 symbolizes totality." - Britannica.com

10. "Taoism - Lieh-tzu was a legendary Taoist master whom Chuang-tzu described as being able to 'ride the wind and go soaring around with cool and breezy skill.' In many old legends Lieh-tzu is the paragon of the spiritual traveller. The text named after him (of uncertain date) presents a philosophy that views natural changes and human activities as wholly mechanistic in their operation; neither human effort nor divine destiny can change the course of things." - Britannica.com

11. "Taoism - Religious Taoism appropriated earlier interest and belief in alchemy and the search for the elixir of life and the philosopher's stone. By the 5th cent. A.D., Taoism was a fully developed religious system with many features adopted from Mahayana Buddhism, offering emotional religious satisfaction to those who found the largely ethical system of Confucianism inadequate. Taoism developed a large pantheon (probably incorporating many local gods), monastic orders, and lay masters. Heading the commonly worshiped deities is the Jade Emperor. Directly under him, ruling from Mt. Tai, is the Emperor of the Eastern Mountain, who weighs merits and faults and assigns reward and punishment in this and future existences. An ecclesiastical hierarchy was founded in the 8th cent., headed by the T'ien Shih [master of heaven]; he claimed succession from Chang Tao-lin, an alchemist of the 2d cent. who was reputed to have discovered the elixir of immortality after receiving magical power from Lao Tzu. Throughout its history Taoism has provided the basis for many Chinese secret societies; in the 1950s, after the establishment of the Communist regime, Taoism was officially proscribed. Taoism is still practiced to some degree in modern China, as well as in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao and in communities of Chinese who have emigrated." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

12. "Taoism - A principal philosophy and system of religion of China based on the teachings of Lao-tzu in the sixth century B.C. and on subsequent revelations. It advocates preserving and restoring the Tao in the body and the cosmos." - The American Heritage¨ Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.

13. "Lao Tzu - Chinese philosopher who is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism. The Dao De Jing is attributed to him." - The American Heritage¨ Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.

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14. "Lao Tzu - fl. 6th cent. B.C., Chinese philosopher, reputedly the founder of Taoism. It is uncertain that Lao Tzu [Ch.,=old person or old philosopher] is historical. His biography in Ssu-ma Ch'ien's Records of the Historian (1st cent. B.C.) says he was a contemporary of Confucius and served as curator of the dynastic archives until retiring to the mythical K'un-lun mountains. He allegedly transmitted his teachings to a border guard who subsequently compiled the Lao Tzu, also titled the Tao-te ching [Classic of the Way and Virtue]. Scholars date the work in the 4th-2d cent. B.C., with some strata perhaps as old as the 6th cent. B.C. Its parables and verse, written in incantatory language, advocate passive and intuitive behavior in natural harmony with the Tao, a cosmic unity underlying all phenomena. It emphasizes the value of wu-wei, 'nonstriving' or 'non-[purposeful ]action,' by which one returns to a primitive state closer to the Tao, a stage of creative possibility symbolized by the child or an uncarved block. It also promotes a laissez-faire approach to government." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

A. Conclusions about the Origin and History of Taoism1. Taoism either:

a. Began in the 6th century B.C. by Lao Tzu (the same century as Buddhism and Jainism).

b. pre-dated Lao-Tzu, who may merely have reformulated an older existing tradition of which we have no specific historical awareness.

i. similar to Hinduism, whose origins are also beyond historical examination and, therefore, hindering our ability to confirm its reliability or accuracy.

2. the contributions of Lao-Tzu to the development of Taoism are crucial to determining its accuracy.

B. Historicity of Lao Tzu1. "Taoism - Behind all forms of Taoism stands the figure of Lao-tzu, traditionally

regarded as the author of the classic text known as the Lao-tzu, or the Tao-te Ching ('Classic of the Way of Power'). The first mention of Lao-tzu is found in another early classic of Taoist speculation, the Chuang-tzu (4th-3rd century BC), so called after the name of its author. In this work Lao-tzu is described as being one of Chuang-tzu's own teachers, and the same book contains many of the Master's (Lao-tzu's) discourses, generally introduced by the questions of a disciple. The Chuang-tzu also presents seven versions of a meeting of Lao-tzu and Confucius. Lao-tzu is portrayed as the elder and his Taoist teachings confound his celebrated interlocutor. The Chuang-tzu also gives the only account of Lao-tzu's death. Thus in this early source, Lao-tzu appears as a senior contemporary of Confucius (6th-5th century BC) and a renowned Taoist master, a curator of the archives at the court of the Chou dynasty (c. 1111-255 BC) and, finally, a mere mortal." - Britannica.com

2. "Taoism - The first consistent biographical account of Lao-tzu is found in the 'Historical Records' (Shih-chi )ÑChina's first universal history (2nd century

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BC)Ñof Ssu-ma Ch'ien. This concise resume has served as the classical source on the philosopher's life. Lao-tzu's family name was Li, his given name Erh; and he occupied the post of archivist at the Chou court. He is said to have instructed Confucius on points of ceremony. Observing the decline of the Chou dynasty, Lao-tzu left the court and headed west. At the request of Yin Hsi, the guardian of the frontier pass, he wrote his treatise on the Tao in two scrolls. He then left China behind, and what became of him is not known. The historian quotes variant accounts, including one that attributed to Lao-tzu an exceptional longevity; the narrative terminates with the genealogy of eight generations of Lao-tzu's supposed descendants. With passing references in other early texts, this constitutes the body of information on the life of the sage as of the 2nd century BC; it is presumably legendary (see also Lao-tzu)." - Britannica.com

3. "Lao Tzu - fl. 6th cent. B.C., Chinese philosopher, reputedly the founder of Taoism. It is uncertain that Lao Tzu [Ch.,=old person or old philosopher] is historical. His biography in Ssu-ma Ch'ien's Records of the Historian (1st cent. B.C.) says he was a contemporary of Confucius and served as curator of the dynastic archives until retiring to the mythical K'un-lun mountains. He allegedly transmitted his teachings to a border guard who subsequently compiled the Lao Tzu, also titled the Tao-te ching [Classic of the Way and Virtue]. Scholars date the work in the 4th-2d cent. B.C., with some strata perhaps as old as the 6th cent. B.C." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

4. "Taoism - Whereas Lao-tzu in his book as well as in his life (in legend) was concerned with Taoist rule, Chuang-tzu, some generations later, rejected all participation in society." - Britannica.com

B. Conclusions about the Historicity of Lao Tzu1. The Tao-te-ching, the primary work of Taoism, is said to have been written by a

border guard to whom Lao-Tzu had taught. 2. While the teachings of the Tao te-ching are said to have originated with Lao-Tzu,

our knowledge of Lao-Tzu comes from two sources. a. the 4th-3rd century B.C. Taoist work, the Chuang-tzu.

i. In this reference, Chuang-tzu, the author of the book (after whom it is named) claims Lao-Tzu as a teacher.

ii. The first mention from Chuang-Tzu comes only 100-200 years after Lao-Tzu is said to have lived, but is somewhat limited in information

iii. Lao-Tzu is said to have been a teacher of the book's supposed author, Chuang-Tzu, whose existence is also highly dubious according to some historians.

1. "Taoism - Pseudohistorical knowledge of the sage Chuang-tzu is even less well defined than that of Lao-tzu. Most of Ssu-ma Ch'ien's brief portrait of the man is transparently drawn from anecdotes in the Chuang-tzu itself and as such has no necessary basis in fact. The Chuang-tzu, however, is valuable as a monument of

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Chinese literature and because it contains considerable documentary material, describing numerous speculative trends and spiritual practices of the Warring States period (475-221 BC)." - Britannica.com

b. Historical Records (Shih -chi), a Chinese work on the history of China from the 2nd century B.C.

i. provides a more complete biographyii. these records report that Lao-Tzu spent the final years of his life in

some mythical mountain range. iii. Thus, the historicity of Lao-Tzu is undermined by its incorporation

of identifiable mythical elements.3. Conclusions

a. It seems difficult to assert the historicity of one person based upon tenuous evidence offered by another figure whose own historicity is perhaps even more in question.

b. the origin of Taoism remains somewhat obscure. c. It is difficult to conclude whether Lao-Tzu ever lived or even was the first

to propose Taoism. d. Exactly who Lao-Tzu was, how he died, if he died, and even where he

died is disagreed upon by available ancient sources. e. Likewise, the existence of his student, Chuang-Tzu may also be a tenuous

proposal. f. historians consider him to be merely a legend and not a historical figure.g. NOTE: The historical documentation of his life and teachings does meet

the broad criteria for historicity that we developed earlier from commonly accepted, non-controversial historical figures.

C. ASSESSMENT OF TAOISM1. As we have seen Asian religions, developed around the 5th

century B.C., which propose that we must transcend the material world and become one with the All of the universe through magic or meditation are far from common.

2. Taoism incorporates elements of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism

3. Taoism also provides no objective evidence by which we might verify the truth of its claims.

4. Taoism offers only subjective experiences driven from ecstatic states of consciousness and introspective meditation as proof of its truth

a. "Taoism - 1: a Chinese mystical philosophy traditionally founded by Lao-tzu in the 6th century B.C. that teaches conformity to the Tao by unassertive action and simplicity 2: a religion developed from Taoist philosophy and folk and Buddhist religion and concerned with obtaining long life and good fortune often by magical means." - Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary

b. "Taoism - For the individual, wisdom is to conform to the rhythm of the universe. The Taoist mystic, however,

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not only adapts himself ritually and physiologically to the alternations of nature but creates a void inside himself that permits him to return to nature's origin. Lao-tzu, in trance, 'wandered freely in the origin of all beings.' Thus, in ecstasy he escaped the rhythm of life and death by contemplating the universal return. 'Having attained perfect emptiness, holding fast to stillness, I can watch the return of the ever active Ten Thousand Beings.' The number 10,000 symbolizes totality." - Britannica.com

c. "Taoism - Both Western Sinologists and Chinese scholars themselves have distinguishedÑsince Han times (206 BC-AD 220)Ñbetween a Taoist philosophy of the great mystics and their commentators (Tao-chia) and a later Taoist religion (Tao-chiao). This theoryÑno longer considered validÑwas based on the view that the "ancient Taoism" of the mystics antedated the "later Neo-Taoist superstitions" that were misinterpretations of the mystics' metaphorical images. The mystics, however, should be viewed against the background of the religious practices existing in their own times. Their ecstasies, for example, were closely related to the trances and spirit journeys of the early magicians and shamans (religious personages with healing and psychic transformation powers). Not only are the authors of the Tao-te Ching, the Chuang-tzu (book of 'Master Chuang'), and the Lieh-tzu (book of 'Master Lieh') not the actual and central founders of an earlier 'pure' Taoism later degraded into superstitious practices but they can even be considered somewhat on the margin of older Taoist traditions. Therefore, because there has been a nearly continuous mutual influence between Taoists of different social classesÑphilosophers, ascetics, alchemists, and the priests of popular cultsÑthe distinction between philosophical and religious Taoism in this article is made simply for the sake of descriptive convenience." - Britannica.com

d. "Taoism - The work's 81 brief sections contain only about 5,000 characters in all, from which fact derives still another of its titles, Lao Tzu's Five Thousand Words. The text itself appears in equal measure to express a profound quietism and determined views on government. It is consequently between the extremes of meditative introspection and political application that its many and widely divergent interpreters have veered." - Britannica.com

e. "Taoism - Viewed from the single reality experienced in ecstasy, it is just as difficult to distinguish life from death as it is to distinguish the waking Chuang-tzu from the dreaming butterfly. Death is natural, and men ought neither to fear nor to desire it. Chuang-tzu's attitude thus is one of serene acceptance." - Britannica.com

5. We reject the Taoist view of God and the universe because of a lack of objective evidence for the accuracy of its claims.

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Propositional Religions 4 - Shintoism, Confucianism

V. ShintoismA. Shintoism’s Origin

1. "Shinto - Shinto cannot be traced to its beginnings, because until the 5th cent. (when Chinese writing was introduced into Japan) the myths and rituals were transmitted orally. The written record of the ancient beliefs and customs first appeared in the Kojiki [records of ancient matters], prepared under imperial order and completed in A.D. 712. From those first Japanese accounts of the religion of times then already far past, it can be seen that a worship of the forces and forms of nature had grown into a certain stage of polytheism in which spiritual conceptions had only a small place. Nor was there any clear realization of a personal character in the beings held to be divine, and there were practically no images of the deities." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

2. "Shinto - indigenous religious beliefs and practices of Japan. The word Shinto, which literally means 'the way of kami' (kami means 'mystical,' 'superior,' or 'divine,' generally sacred or divine power, specifically the various gods or deities), came into use in order to distinguish indigenous Japanese beliefs from Buddhism, which had been introduced into Japan in the 6th century AD. Shinto has no founder, no official sacred scriptures in the strict sense, and no fixed dogmas, but it has preserved its guiding beliefs throughout the ages." - Britannica.com

3. "Shinto - Broadly speaking, Shinto has no founder. When the Japanese people and Japanese culture became aware of themselves, Shinto was already there. Nor has it any official scripture that can be compared tothe Bible in Christianity or to the Qur'an in Islam. The Kojiki ('Records of Ancient Matters') and the Nihon-gi, or Nihon shoki ('Chronicles of Japan'), are regarded in a sense as sacred books of Shinto. They were written in AD 712 and 720, respectively, and are compilations of the oral traditions of ancient Shinto. But they are also books about the history, topography, and literature of ancient Japan. It is possible to construct Shinto doctrines from them by interpreting the myths and religious practices they describe." - Britannica.com

A. Conclusions about Shintoism’s Origin1. Shinto, or Shintoism. 2. There are many forms of modern Shinto, with some diversity of beliefs.3. Shinto does not going to pass our first criterion of identifiable historical origins.4. The origin of Shinto beliefs is not known, available, or understood. 5. Shinto is similar to Hinduism – without historically identifiable origins. 6. Shinto does not provide any evidence, which can be objectively verified in order

to support its view of God and the universe. 7. We have no reason to accept Shinto's truth claims.

B. Shintoism – Syncretism, Beliefs, and Sacred Texts1. Much of ancient and modern Shinto's beliefs are the result of interaction with

other ancient religions.

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a. "Shinto - Buddhism was officially introduced into Japan in AD 552 and developed gradually. In the 8th century there emerged tendencies to interpret Shinto from a Buddhist viewpoint. Shinto kami were viewed as protectors of Buddhism; hence shrines for tutelary kami were built within the precincts of Buddhist temples. Kami were made equivalent to deva (the Buddhist Sanskrit term for 'gods') who rank highest in the Realm of Ignorance, according to Buddhist notions. Thus kami, like other creatures, were said to be suffering because they were unable to escape the endless cycle of transmigration; help was therefore offered to kami in the form of Buddhist discipline. Buddhist temples were even built within Shinto shrine precincts, and Buddhist sutras (scriptures) were read in front of kami. By the late 8th century kami were thought to be avatars, or incarnations, of buddhas and bodhisattvas. Bodhisattva names were given to kami, and Buddhist statues were placed even in the inner sanctuaries of Shinto shrines. In some cases, Buddhist priests were in charge of the management of Shinto shrines." - Britannica.com

b. "Shinto - ancient native religion of Japan still practiced in a form modified by the influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. In its present form Shinto is characterized less by religious doctrine or belief than by the observance of popular festivals and traditional ceremonies and customs, many involving pilgrimages to shrines. Shinto, a term created to distinguish the indigenous religion from Buddhism, is the equivalent of the Japanese kami-no-michi, 'the way of the gods' or 'the way of those above.' The word kami, meaning 'above' or 'superior,' is the name used to designate a great host of supernatural beings or deities." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

c. "Shinto - A Shinto shrine, unaffected by other religious influences, is a simple unpainted wooden building, having some object within it that is believed to be the dwelling place of the kami. After Buddhism entered Japan in the 6th cent. A.D., it had some influence on Shinto. In many shrines Buddhist priests serve, and worship under their direction is more elaborate than pure Shinto." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

d. "Shinto - Confucianism is believed to have reached Japan in the 5th century AD, and by the 7th century it had spread among the people, together with Chinese Taoism and yin-yang (harmony of two basic forces of nature) philosophy. All of these stimulated the development of Shinto ethical teachings. With the gradual centralization of political power, Shinto began to develop as a national cult as well. Myths of various clans were combined and reorganized into a pan-Japanese mythology with the Imperial Household as its centre. The kami of the Imperial Household and the tutelary kami of powerful clans became the kami of the whole nation and people, and offerings were made by the state every year. Such practices were systematized supposedly around the start of the Taika-era reforms in 645. By the beginning of the 10th

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century, about 3,000 shrines throughout Japan were receiving state offerings. As the power of the central government declined, however, the system ceased to be effective, and after the 13th century only a limited number of important shrines continued to receive the Imperial offerings. Later, after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the old system was revived." - Britannica.com

2. Attempts to remove the contributions of these other religions and discover authentic Shinto beliefs have been a historically recent development.

a. "Shinto - Ise, or Watarai, Shinto was the first theoretical school of anti-Buddhistic Shinto in that it attempted to exclude Buddhist accretions and also tried to formulate a pure Japanese version. Watarai Shinto appeared in Ise during the 13th century as a reaction against the Shinto-Buddhist amalgamation. Konton (chaos), or Kizen (non-being), was the basic kami of the universe for Watarai Shinto and was regarded as the basis of all beings, including the buddhas and bodhisattvas. Purification, which had been practiced since the time of ancient Shinto, was given much deeper spiritual meanings. Shojiki (defined as uprightness or righteousness) and prayers were emphasized as the means by which to be united with kami." - Britannica.com

3. And although Shinto does borrow many beliefs from other ancient Asian religions, its beliefs are not formalized or dogmatically held.

a. "Shinto - A religion native to Japan, characterized by veneration of nature spirits and ancestors and by a lack of formal dogma." - The American Heritage¨ Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.

b. "Shinto - In present-day Shinto there is no dogmatic system and no formulated code of morals. Shinto practices can be found abroad wherever large Japanese communities exist, as in the United States and South America. Some of the newer sects stress world peace and brotherhood as part of their philosophy." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

c. "Shinto - Shinto consists of the traditional Japanese religious practices as well as the beliefs and life attitudes that are in accord with these practices. Shinto is more readily observed in the social life of the Japanese people and in their personal motivations than in a pattern of formal belief or philosophy. It remains closely connected with the Japanese value system and the Japanese people's ways of thinking and acting." - Britannica.com

4. Shinto does not have any ancient sacred text.a. "Shinto - Shinto cannot be traced to its beginnings, because until the

5th cent. (when Chinese writing was introduced into Japan) the myths and rituals were transmitted orally. The written record of the ancient beliefs and customs first appeared in the Kojiki [records of ancient matters], prepared under imperial order and completed in A.D. 712. From those first Japanese accounts of the religion of times then already far past, it can be seen that a worship of the forces and forms of nature had

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grown into a certain stage of polytheism in which spiritual conceptions had only a small place. Nor was there any clear realization of a personal character in the beings held to be divine, and there were practically no images of the deities." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

b. "Shinto - Broadly speaking, Shinto has no founder. When the Japanese people and Japanese culture became aware of themselves, Shinto was already there. Nor has it any official scripture that can be compared tothe Bible in Christianity or to the Qur'an in Islam. The Kojiki ('Records of Ancient Matters') and the Nihon-gi, or Nihon shoki ('Chronicles of Japan'), are regarded in a sense as sacred books of Shinto. They were written in AD 712 and 720, respectively, and are compilations of the oral traditions of ancient Shinto. But they are also books about the history, topography, and literature of ancient Japan. It is possible to construct Shinto doctrines from them by interpreting the myths and religious practices they describe." - Britannica.com

c. "Shinto - The Japanese classics also contain myths and legends concerning the so-called 800 myriads of kami (yao-yorozu no kami; literally, yao equals 800 and yorozu 10,000). Some of them are the tutelary deities of clans and later became the tutelary kami of their respective local communities. Many others, however, are not enshrined in sanctuaries and have no direct connections with the actual Shinto faith." - Britannica.com

C. ASSESSMENT OF SHINTOISM1. Shintoism has:

a. no known historical origins or founder, b. no formal doctrine,c. sacred text written 1,200 years after its inception, d. "Shinto - Shinto has no founder, no official sacred scriptures in the

strict sense, and no fixed dogmas, but it has preserved its guiding beliefs throughout the ages." - Britannica.com

2. Shinto is not only completely devoid of any evidence by which one might attempt to verify its beliefs, but it also has no formally professed beliefs in the first place.

3. We are left without any means whatsoever to verify the accuracy of any Shinto view of God or the universe.

4. We have no reason to accept Shinto beliefs as accurate, but instead, must reject them based on a lack of evidence.

VI. Confucianism1. Origins and History

a. "Confucianism - the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th-5th century BC and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia." - Britannica.com

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b. "Confucius - c.551-479? B.C., Chinese sage. Positive evidence concerning the life of Confucius is scanty; modern scholars base their accounts largely on the Analects, a collection of sayings and short dialogues apparently collected by his disciples, and discard most of the later legends. Confucius was born in the feudal state of Lu, in modern Shandong prov. Distressed by the constant warfare between the Chinese states and by the venality and tyranny of the rulers, he urged a system of morality and statecraft that would preserve peace and provide people with stable and just government. He gathered about him a number of disciples, some occupying high positions, although Confucius himself was at most granted an insignificant sinecure, possibly because of his extremely outspoken manner toward his superiors. From about his 55th to his 65th year he journeyed to several neighboring states, but he was never able to induce any ruler to grant him high office so that he might introduce his reforms. Later tradition depicts Confucius as a man who made special study of ancient books, in an effort to restore an older social order. It is said that he was a minister of state and the author, editor, or compiler of the Wu Ching [five classics] (see Chinese literature). His supposed doctrines are embodied in Confucianism." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001. "Confucianism - In its early form (before the 3d cent. B.C.) Confucianism was primarily a system of ethical precepts for the proper management of society. It envisaged man as essentially a social creature who is bound to his fellows by jen, a term often rendered as 'humanity,' or 'human-kind-ness.' Jen is expressed through the five relationsÑsovereign and subject, parent and child, elder and younger brother, husband and wife, and friend and friend. Of these, the filial relation is usually stressed." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

c. "Confucianism - In its early form...The relations are made to function smoothly by an exact adherence to li, which denotes a combination of etiquette and ritual. In some of these relations a person may be superior to some and inferior to others. If a person in a subordinate status wishes to be properly treated that person mustÑapplying a principle similar to the Golden RuleÑtreat his or her own inferiors with propriety. Correct conduct, however, proceeds not through compulsion, but through a sense of virtue inculcated by observing suitable models of deportment. The ruler, as the moral exemplar of the whole state, must be irreproachable, but a strong obligation to be virtuous rests upon all." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

d. "Confucianism - By Confucius' time, however, the feudal ritual system had been so fundamentally undermined that the political crises also precipitated a profound sense of moral decline: the centre of symbolic control could no longer hold the kingdom from total disintegration." - Britannica.com

e. "Confucianism - Although often grouped with the major historical religions, Confucianism differs from them by not being an organized

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religion. Nonetheless, it spread to other East Asian countries under the influence of Chinese literate culture and exerted a profound influence on spiritual and political life." - Britannica.com

f. "Confucianism - Confucius' hero was Chou Kung, or the Duke of Chou (d. 1094 BC), who was said to have helped consolidate and refine the "feudal" ritual system. This system was based on blood ties, marriage alliances, and old covenants as well as on newly negotiated contracts and was an elaborate system of mutual dependence. The appeal to cultural values and social norms for the maintenance of interstate as well as domestic order was predicated on a shared political vision, namely, that authority lies in universal kingship, heavily invested with ethical and religious power by the mandate of Heaven, and that social solidarity is achieved not by legal constraint but by ritual observance. Its implementation enabled the Chou dynasty to survive in relative peace and prosperity for more than five centuries." - Britannica.com

g. "Confucianism - Law and punishment are the minimum requirements for order; the higher goal of social harmony, however, can only be attained by virtue expressed through ritual performance. To perform rituals, then, is to take part in a communal act to promote mutual understanding." - Britannica.com

h. "Confucianism - Confucianism, a Western term that has no counterpart in Chinese, is a world view, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. Sometimes viewed as a philosophy and sometimes as a religion, Confucianism may be understood as an all-encompassing humanism that neither denies nor slights Heaven. East Asians may profess themselves to be Shintoists, Taoists, Buddhists, Muslims, or Christians, but, by announcing their religious affiliations, seldom do they cease to be Confucians." - Britannica.com

2. General Notesa. Religion or Philosophy or what

i. Confucianism was not so much a religious system, but a social and ethical

ii. Confucius' teaching originated as a means to prevent the continued decline in the social order of ancient Chinese society.

iii. Confucianism incorporated religious elements, but it was not a religious system in and of itself.

b. This system or philosophy did not historically originate with Confucius. i. Confucius merely reasserted an existing social ethic as a dominant

social force in China.ii. Confucian doctrine is founded upon beliefs and traditions, which

actually pre-date Confucius by several centuries or more. iii. Confucius' teachings resulted from his reverence for history and

tradition, which came before him.1. "Confucianism - The story of Confucianism does not

begin with Confucius. Nor was Confucius the founder of

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Confucianism in the sense that Buddha was the founder of Buddhism and Christ the founder of Christianity. Rather Confucius considered himself a transmitter who consciously tried to reanimate the old in order to attain the new. He proposed retrieving the meaning of the past by breathing vitality into seemingly outmoded rituals. Confucius' love of antiquity was motivated by his strong desire to understand why certain rituals, such as the ancestral cult, reverence for Heaven, and mourning ceremonies, had survived for centuries. His journey into the past was a search for roots, which he perceived as grounded in humanity's deepest needs for belonging and communicating. He had faith in the cumulative power of culture. The fact that traditional ways had lost vitality did not, for him, diminish their potential for regeneration in the future. In fact, Confucius' sense of history was so strong that he saw himself as a conservationist responsible for the continuity of the cultural values and the social norms that had worked so well for the civilization of the Chou dynasty." - Britannica.com

2. "Confucianism - The scholarly tradition envisioned by Confucius can be traced to the sage-kings of antiquity. Although the earliest dynasty confirmed by archaeology is the Shang dynasty (18th-12th century BC), the historical period that Confucius claimed as relevant was much earlier. Confucius may have initiated a cultural process known in the West as Confucianism, but he and those who followed him considered themselves part of a tradition, later identified by Chinese historians as the ju-chia, 'scholarly tradition,' that had its origins two millennia previously, when the legendary Yao and Shun created a civilized world through moral persuasion." - Britannica.com

iv. Confucius himself acknowledges that he does not have or offer any special knowledge or understanding.

1. "Confucianism - Confucius, however, made it explicit that he was far from attaining sagehood and that all he really excelled in was "love of learning" (5:27). To him, learning not only broadened his knowledge and deepened his self-awareness but also defined who he was. He frankly admitted that he was not born endowed with knowledge, nor did he belong to the class of men who could transform society without knowledge. Rather, he reported that he used his ears widely and followed what was good in what he had heard and used his eyes widely and retained in his mind what he had seen. His learning

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constituted "a lower level of knowledge" (7:27), a level that was presumably accessible to the majority of human beings. In this sense Confucius was neither a prophet with privileged access to the divine nor a philosopher who had already seen the truth but a teacher of humanity who was also an advanced fellow traveler on the way to self-realization." - Britannica.com

c. According to some sources historical information on Confucius himself is limited.

i. "Confucius - c.551-479? B.C., Chinese sage. Positive evidence concerning the life of Confucius is scanty; modern scholars base their accounts largely on the Analects, a collection of sayings and short dialogues apparently collected by his disciples, and discard most of the later legends...Later tradition depicts Confucius as a man who made special study of ancient books, in an effort to restore an older social order. It is said that he was a minister of state and the author, editor, or compiler of the Wu Ching [five classics] (see Chinese literature). His supposed doctrines are embodied in Confucianism." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

ii. "Confucianism - Confucius' hero was Chou Kung, or the Duke of Chou (d. 1094 BC), who was said to have helped consolidate and refine the "feudal" ritual system." - Britannica.com

d. Confucian textsi. Our understanding of Confucianism comes from the records of

Confucius' teachings (known as the Analects) written by the second generation of his students

1. this would be more than adequate to establish the historicity of Confucius and his teaching according to historical standards.

2. after his death, Confucius’ students splintered off into subgroups and immediately there was disagreement among them as to what exactly Confucius taught.

3. Determining which group is correct is basically impossible4. NOTE: if the original witnesses to the teaching were in

accord with one another and the splitting did not happen until centuries later this would not be a problem

ii. "Confucianism - moral and religious system of China. Its origins go back to the Analects (see Chinese literature), the sayings attributed to Confucius, and to ancient commentaries, including that of Mencius." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

iii. "Confucius - Originally Kong Fuzi. Chinese philosopher whose Analects contain a collection of his sayings and dialogues compiled by disciples after his death." - The American Heritage¨ Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.

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iv. "Confucianism - The Lun-yŸ (Analects), the most revered sacred scripture in the Confucian tradition, was probably compiled by the second generation of Confucius' disciples. Based primarily on the Master's sayings, preserved in both oral and written transmissions, it captures the Confucian spirit in form and content in the same way that the Platonic dialogues embody Socratic pedagogy." - Britannica.com

v. "Confucianism - The Analects has often been viewed by the critical modern reader as a collection of unrelated conversations randomly put together. This impression may have resulted from the mistaken conception of Confucius as a mere commonsense moralizer who gave practical advice to students in everyday situations." - Britannica.com

vi. "Confucianism - The purpose, then, in compiling these distilled statements centering on Confucius seems not to have been to present an argument or to record an event but to offer an invitation to readers to take part in an ongoing conversation. Through the Analects Confucians for centuries learned to reenact the awe-inspiring ritual of participating in a conversation with Confucius." - Britannica.com

vii. "Confucianism - According to Han-fei-tzu (d. 233 BC), shortly after Confucius' death his followers split into eight distinct schools, all claiming to be the legitimate heir to the Confucian legacy. Presumably each school was associated with or inspired by one or more of Confucius' disciples. Yet the Confucians did not exert much influence in the 5th century BC. Although the mystic Yen YŸan (or Yen Hui), the faithful Tseng-tzu, the talented Tzu Kung, the erudite Tzu-hsia, and others may have generated a great deal of enthusiasm among the second generation of Confucius' students, it was not at all clear at the time that the Confucian tradition was to emerge as the most powerful one in Chinese history." - Britannica.com

e. Confucian Religious Elementsi. Confucianism picked up elements from other Asian religious

movements developing at that time or simply added many centuries later

1. "Confucianism - The idea of Heaven, unique in Chou cosmology, was compatible with the concept of the Lord-on-High in the Shang dynasty. The Lord-on-High may have referred to the progenitor of the Shang royal lineage so that the Shang kings could claim their position as divine descendants, as the emperors of Japan later did, but Heaven to the Chou kings was a much more generalized anthropomorphic God. They believed that the mandate of Heaven (the functional equivalent of the will of the Lord-on-High) was not constant and that

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there was no guarantee that the descendants of the Chou royal house would be entrusted with kingship, for "Heaven sees as the people see and Heaven hears as the people hear"; thus the virtues of the kings were essential for the maintenance of their power and authority. This emphasis on benevolent rulership, expressed in numerous bronze inscriptions, was both a reaction to the collapse of the Shang dynasty and an affirmation of a deep-rooted world view." - Britannica.com

2. "Confucianism - Confucianism has often had to contend with other religious systems, notably Taoism and Buddhism, and has at times, especially from the 3d to the 7th cent., suffered marked declines. It enjoyed a renaissance in the late T'ang dynasty (618-906), but it was not until the Sung dynasty (960-1279) and the appearance of neo-Confucianism that Confucianism became the dominant philosophy among educated Chinese. Drawing on Taoist and Buddhist ideas, neo-Confucian thinkers formulated a system of metaphysics, which had not been a part of older Confucianism. They were particularly influenced by Ch'an or Zen Buddhism: nevertheless they rejected the Taoist search for immortality and Buddhist monasticism and ethical universalism, upholding instead the hierarchical political and social vision of the early Confucian teachings." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

3. "Confucianism - The practice of offering sacrifices and other veneration to Confucius in special shrines began in the 1st cent. A.D. and continued into the 20th cent." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

4. "Confucianism - Confucianism, a Western term that has no counterpart in Chinese, is a world view, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. Sometimes viewed as a philosophy and sometimes as a religion, Confucianism may be understood as an all-encompassing humanism that neither denies nor slights Heaven. East Asians may profess themselves to be Shintoists, Taoists, Buddhists, Muslims, or Christians, but, by announcing their religious affiliations, seldom do they cease to be Confucians." - Britannica.com

f. ASSESSMENT OF CONFUCIANISM (Conclusions)g. An evaluation of Confucian religious claims will be nearly impossible for

several reasons (relating to the information available to us about its historical development):

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i. Confucianism is not strictly speaking a religion and began simply as a social ethic.

ii. The ideals upon which Confucianism is founded actually did not originate with Confucius himself, but have their roots hundreds of years before his life.

iii. Confucius does not claim to have or offer any special knowledge or understanding.

iv. The writing that we have about Confucian teaching comes centuries after its origins in ancient pre-Confucian China

v. Confucius’ teaching was recorded by second-generation disciples who disagreed as to the correct understanding of Confucian teaching.

vi. The religious elements that Confucianism does contain are either:1. Not available to us since they began centuries before

Confucius and have origins which are either historically unidentifiable

2. Developed long after its inception, or 3. Incorporated from other religious movements, which we

have already examined and rejected. vii. Confucianism does not offer objective evidence to support its

claims, but relies upon subjective experience and the presupposed allegiance to existing societal traditions.

1. "Confucianism - Confucius' life as a student and teacher exemplified his idea that education was a ceaseless process of self-realization." - Britannica.com

2. "Confucianism - During the Ming dynasty, the idealist school of Wang Yang-ming (1472-1529) stressed meditation and intuitive knowledge." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

viii. ASSESSMENT: Confucianism must be rejected on the grounds that it offers no objectively verifiable reasons for the accuracy of its religious views.

Propositional Religions 5 – Sikhism

VII. SikhismA. Basics on Sikhism

1. Recent religious movements connect themselves to ancient traditions. i. Christianity developed as a sect of ancient Judaism.

ii. Islam claims to continue and complete the Judeo-Christian tradition.

iii. Sikhism accepts both the Hindu and Islamic traditions as predecessors.

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1. two reasons why Sikhism is covered as a Propositional religion rather than an Evidentiary religion.

i. It is an outgrowth of Hinduism, which we have categorized as a Propositional religion.

ii. Sikhism is based upon Islamic Sufism, a mystical sect of Islam.2. Sikhism accepts the accuracy of these unsubstantiated and unverifiable

Hindu truth claims, offering them as its own.3. Sikhism will have to be rejected in part for the same reason that we

rejected its Hindu predecessor and several other religions, which were based upon Hindu teachings.

B. Origins Quotes1. "Sikh - an adherent of a monotheistic religion of India founded about

1500 by Guru Nanak and marked by rejection of idolatry and caste." - Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary

2. "Sikhism - The doctrines and practices of a monotheistic religion founded in northern India in the 16th century and combining elements of Hinduism and Islam." - The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.

3. "Sikhism - The founder and first Sikh guru, the mystic Nanak (c.1469-c.1539), proclaimed monotheism, the provisional nature of organized religion, and direct realization of God through religious exercises and meditation; he opposed idolatry, ritual, an organized priesthood, and the caste system." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

4. "Sikhism - religion centered in the Indian state of Punjab, numbering worldwide some 19 million. Some 300,000 Sikhs live in Britain, and there are smaller communities in North America, Australia, and Singapore. By the late 1990s Sikhism was the world's fifth largest faith and had some 175,000 U.S. adherents and 225,000 in Canada. Sikhism is heterodox, combining the teachings of Bhakti Hinduism and Islamic Sufism." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

5. "Guru - Hinduism and Buddhism, spiritual teacher. The guru gives initiation into spiritual practice and instructs disciples, often maintaining a close relationship with them. Among the Sikhs (see Sikhism) the title guru was given to the 10 leaders of the community from Nanak (c.1469-c.1539), founder of Sikhism, to Govind Singh (1666-1708). Govind appointed no successor, declaring that the Granth (the Sikh scriptures) was the true guru." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

6. "Sikhism - the religion of an Indian group, combining Hindu and Islamic elements, founded in the Punjab (or Pa–jab) in the late 15th century AD by Guru Nanak. Its members are known as Sikhs." - Britannica.com

7. "Sikhism - Sikhs are disciples of their Ten Gurus (religious teachers), beginning with Nanak (1469-1539) and ending with Gobind Singh (1666-1708)." - Britannica.com

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8. "Sikhism - Sikhism was a historical development of the Hindu Vais nava Bhakti movementÑa devotional movement among followers of the god Vishnu Ñthat began in Tamil country and was introduced to the north by Ramanuja (traditionally, 1017-1137). In the 14th and 15th centuries, and after prolonged confrontation with Islam, the movement spread across the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Bhaktas (devotees) maintained that God, though known by many names and beyond comprehension, is the one and the only reality; that all else is illusion (maya); and that the best way to approach God is through repetition of his name (Sanskrit nama), singing hymns of praise (Punjabi kirtan ), and meditation under the guidance of a Guru. Traditional Hindu religion and society were hierarchically structured; the Bhakti movement opposed the Brahmin hegemony over religious ritual and the caste system." - Britannica.com

9. "Sikhism - Kabir (1440-1518), a medieval mystic poet and religious synthesist, was the link between Hindu Bhakti and Islamic Sufism (mysticism), which had gained a large following among Indian Muslims. Sufis (mystics) also believed in singing hymns and in meditation under guidance of a leader. They welcomed non-Muslims in their hospices. Sikhism drew inspiration from both Bhaktas and Sufis." - Britannica.com

10. "Sikhism - Nanak was born in 1469 in the village of Rai Bhoi di Talvan di, 40 miles (65 kilometres) from Lahore (in present-day Pakistan). His father was a revenue collector belonging to the Bedi (conversant with the VedasÑthe revealed scriptures of Hinduism) subcaste of Ksatriyas (Warriors). Nanak received an education in traditional Hindu lore and in the rudiments of Islam. Early in life he began associating with holy men. For a time he worked as the accountant of the Afghan chieftain at Sultanpur. There a Muslim family servant, Mardana, who was also a rebec player, joined him. Nanak began to compose hymns. Mardana put them to music and the two organized community hymn singing. They organized a canteen where Muslims, as well as Hindus of different castes, could eat together. At Sultanpur, Nanak had his first vision of God, in which he was ordered to preach to mankind. He disappeared while bathing in a stream. When he reappeared on the third day, he proclaimed: 'There is no Hindu, there is no Mussulman.'" - Britannica.com

11. "Sikhism - Speculation on the origin of the cosmos is largely derived from Hindu texts. Sikhs accept the cyclic Hindu theory of samsara Ñbirth, death, and rebirthÑand karma, whereby the nature of one's life is determined by his actions in a previous life. Humans are, therefore, equal to all other creatures, except insofar as they are sentient. Human birth is the one opportunity to escape samsara and attain salvation." - Britannica.com

12. "Sikhism - Unity of the Godhead is emphasized in Sikhism. Nanak used the Hindu Vedantic concept of om, the mystic syllable, as a symbol of God. To this he added the qualifications of singleness and creativity

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and thus constructed the symbol ik ("one") om kar ("creator"), which was later given figurative representation as. The opening lines of his morning prayer, Japji, called the Mul Mantra ("Root Belief") of Sikhism, define God as the One, the Truth, the Creator, immortal and omnipresent. God is also formless (nirankar) and beyond human comprehension. Sikh scriptures use many names, both Hindu and Muslim, for God. Nanak's favourite names were Sat-Kartar ("True Creator") and Sat-Nam ("True Name"). Later the word Wah-Guru ("Hail Guru") was added and is now the Sikh synonym for God." - Britannica.com

C. Origins Notes2. Late date

i. Hinduism began in the uncertain past, presumably sometime between 2000-1000 B.C. (approximately 1500 B.C.).

ii. Buddhism, Jainism, Taoism, and Confucianism all began approximately between the 8th and 5th centuries B.C.

iii. Islam began in the 600's A.D. iv. Sikhism, wasn't started until 600 years ago, in the 1400's A.D.

1. 900 years after Islam was proclaimed by Mohammed, 2. 3000 years after Hinduism began to be practiced in India3. 2000 years after the origins of Buddhism, Jainism, Taoism,

and Confucianism.3. Contradiction exists between the two parent religions – Hinduism and

Islam. i. Example: the Koran (or Qur'an) is Islam's authoritative scripture,

which the Vedas are Hinduism’s sacred texts. These two do not recognize one another.

1. "Islam - The Qur'an (literally, Reading, or Recitation) is regarded as the Word, or Speech, of God delivered to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel. Divided into 114 surahs (chapters) of unequal length, it is the fundamental source of Islamic teaching." - Britannica.com

2. "Qur'an - The Qur'an is held in high esteem as the ultimate authority in all matters legal and religious and is generally regarded as infallible in all respects." - Britannica.com

3. "Veda - oldest scriptures of Hinduism and the most ancient religious texts in an Indo-European language. The authority of the Veda as stating the essential truths of Hinduism is still accepted to some extent by all Hindus. The Veda is the literature of the Aryans who invaded NW India c.1500 B.C. and pertains to the fire sacrifice that constituted their religion. The Vedic hymns were probably first compiled after a period of about 500 years during which the invaders assimilated various native religious ideas. The end of the Vedic period is about 500 B.C. Tradition ascribes the authorship of the hymns to inspired

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seer-poets (rishis). - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

ii. the Koran does affirm that Jewish and Christian prophets and scripture are from God and God's Word, it does not bestow this status upon any other religion including Hinduism.

1. "Islam - Jews and Christians were assigned a special status as communities possessing scriptures and called the "people of the Book" (ahl al-kitab) and, therefore, were allowed religious autonomy. They were, however, required to pay a per capita tax called jizyah, as opposed to pagans, who were required to either accept Islam or die. The same status of the 'people of the Book' was later extended to Zoroastrians and Hindus, but many 'people of the Book' joined Islam in order to escape the disability of the jizyah." - Britannica.com

2. We have revealed the Torah, in which there is guidance and light. By it the prophets who submitted to God judged the Jews, and so did the rabbis and the divines, according to God's Book which had been committed to their keeping and to which they themselves were witnesses. (Koran, p. 84, 5:41, 3rd Para. - 5:44, 1st Para.)

a. later Muslim tradition does extend status as a "revealed religion" to Hindus and Zoroastrians just as the Koran gives to Christians and Jews,

b. this modification does not come from the Koran itself but added some time later.

c. NOTE: A complete list of quotes from the Koran, which uphold that Jewish and Christian scriptures are God's Word, is included in our section on Islam – it is too large to reproduce here.

iii. Sikhism venerates its own religious texts, which are not endorsed by either of its parent religions.

1. "Sikhism - The earliest source materials on Nanak are the janam-sakhis ("life stories"), written 50 to 80 years after the death of the Guru. Most Sikh scholars reject them and rely instead on the Guru's compositions incorporated in the Adi Granth and the Vars (heroic ballads) composed by Bha i Gurdas (died 1629). Neither Nanak's hymns nor Gurdas' Vars are specific regarding the events of Nanak's life. Other historical writings date from the 18th and the 19th centuries." - Britannica.com

2. "Sikhism - There is only one canonical work: the Adi Granth ("First Book") compiled by the fifth Guru, Arjun, in 1604. There are at least three recensions (versions) of the Adi Granth that differ from each other in minor detail. The version accepted by Sikhs as authentic

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is said to have been revised by Gobind Singh in 1704. The Adi Granth contains nearly 6,000 hymns composed by the first five Gurus: Nanak (974),Angad (62), Amar Das (907), Ram Das (679), and Arjun (2,218). Gobind incorporated 115 hymns written by his father, Tegh Bahadur, in it. Besides these compositions, the Adi Granth contains hymns of the Bhakta saints and Muslim Sufis (notably Ravidass, Kabir, and Farid Khan), and of a few of the bards attached to the courts of the Gurus." - Britannica.com

3. "Sikhism - The Dasam Granth ("Tenth Book") is a compilation of writings ascribed to Gobind Singh. Scholars do not agree on the authenticity of the contents of this Granth, and it is not accorded the same sanctity as the Adi Granth. Traditions of the Khalsa are contained in the Rahatnamas (codes of conduct) by contemporaries of Gobind Singh." - Britannica.com

4. "Sikhism - A composition about which little is known, but which has played an important role in Sikh affairs, is a collection of prophecies, Sau Sakhi ("Hundred Stories"), ascribed to Gobind Singh. Various versions are known to have been published prophesying changes of regimes and the advent of a redeemer who will spread Sikhism over the globe." - Britannica.com

5. "Sikhism - The sole repository of spiritual authority is the Adi Granth. In the event of disputes, a conclave is summoned to meet at the Akal Takht ("Throne of the Timeless"), a building erected by the sixth Guru, Hargobind, facing the Harimandir temple in Amritsar. Resolutions passed at the Akal Takht have spiritual sanction. Sikh religion and politics have always been intimately connected, and belief in a Sikh state is an article of faith. "Raj karey Ga Khalsa" ("the Khalsa shall rule") is chanted at the conclusion of every service." - Britannica.com

iv. Conclusions1. The Koran affirms Judeo-Christian scripture, but does not

allow for Hinduism. 2. Sikhism incorporates both Hindu and Islamic beliefs and so

therefore violates Islamic teaching in the Koran, which is regarded by Muslims as authoritative.

4. Precursory religions and consistencyi. A religion that presupposes another religion as a basis for its own

views must remain consistent with the views of that other religion. ii. If it does not then it undermines the accuracy of the very beliefs

that its own claims are founded upon.

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iii. Sikhism contradicts three fundamental teachings of Islam 1. The authority of the Koran (discussed above).2. That Mohammed (570-632 A.D.) is the final prophet sent

by God to proclaim His final message to mankind.a. "Muhammad - 570?-632, the name of the

Prophet of Islam, one of the great figures of history, b. Mecca." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

b. "Islam - In Islam Muhammad is considered the last of a series of prophets (including Adam, Noah, Jesus, and others), and his message simultaneously consummates and abrogates the 'revelations' attributed to earlier prophets." - Britannica.com

c. "Islam - At the core of Islam is the Qur'an, believed to be the final revelation by a transcendent Allah [Arab.,=the God] to Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam; since the Divine Word was revealed in Arabic, this language is used in Islamic religious practice worldwide." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

d. "Islam - Islam views the Message of Muhammad as the continuation and the fulfillment of a lineage of Prophecy that includes figures from the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament, notably Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, and Jesus. Islamic law reserves a communal entity status for the ahl al-kitab, People of the Book, i.e., those with revealed religions, including Jews and Christians. Islam also recognizes a number of extra-biblical prophets, such as Hud, Salih, Shuayb, and others of more obscure origin." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

e. No room/time for the corruption of Islamic texts (the Koran, Mohammed’s teaching)

i. Mohammed's message (Islamic teaching) was collected and preserved from the memories and pieces of writings of Mohammed's disciples within a generation (approximately 650 A.D.) after Mohammed initially proclaimed God's message to them.

1. "Muhammad - About 610, as he reflected on such matters, Muhammad had a vision of a majestic being (later identified with the angel Gabriel) and heard a voice

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saying to him, 'You are the Messenger of God.' This marked the beginning of his career as messenger (or apostle) of God (rasul Alla H ), or Prophet (nabi ). From this time, at frequent intervals until his death, he received 'revelations' Ñthat is, verbal messages that he believed came directly from God. Sometimes these were kept in memory by Muhammad and his followers, and sometimes they were written down. About 650 they were collected and written in the Qur'an (or Koran, the sacred scriptures of Islam), in the form that has endured. Muslims believe the Qur'an is divine revelation, written in the words of God himself." - Britannica.com

2. "Qur'an - After the Prophet's death, and especially after the battle of Yamamah (633), in which a great number of those who knew the Qur'an by heart had fallen, fear arose that the knowledge of the Qur'an might disappear. So it was decided to collect the revelations from all available written sources and, as Muslim tradition has it, 'from the hearts [i.e., memories] of people.' A companion of the Prophet, Zayd ibn Thabit, is said to have copied on sheets whatever he could find and to have handed it over to the caliph 'Umar. After 'Umar's death the collection was left in the care of his daughter Hafsah. Other copies of the Qur'an appear to have been written later, and different versions were used in different parts of the Muslim empire. So that there would be no doubt about the correct reading of the Qur'an, the caliph 'Uthman (644-656) is reported to have commissioned Zayd ibn Thabit and some other

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learned men to revise the Qur'an using the "sheets" of Hafsah, comparing them with whatever material was at hand, and consulting those who knew the Qur'an by heart. It was decided that in case of doubt about the pronunciation, the dialect of Quraysh, the Prophet's tribe, was to be given preference. Thus an authoritative text of the Qur'an (now known as the 'Uthmanic recension) was established." - Britannica.com

3. Islam originated as a monotheistic religion with a high level of prohibition against the old pagan religion. Hinduism is the oldest pagan religion.

a. "Islam - Jews and Christians were assigned a special status as communities possessing scriptures and called the "people of the Book" (ahl al-kitab ) and, therefore, were allowed religious autonomy. They were, however, required to pay a per capita tax called jizyah, as opposed to pagans, who were required to either accept Islam or die." - Britannica.com

b. The unbelievers among the People of the Book and the pagans did not desist from unbelief until the Proof was given them: an apostle from God reciting from purified pages infallible decrees. Nor did those who were vouchsafed the Book disagree among themselves until the Proof was given them. Yet they were enjoined only to serve God and to worship none but Him, to attend to their prayers and to render the alms levy. That, surely, is the infallible faith. The unbeliever among the People of the Book and the pagans shall burn for ever in the fire of Hell. They are the vilest of all creatures. (Koran, p. 430, 98:1, 1st Para. - 3rd Para.)

5. does Sikhism offer any objective evidence on its own that can substantiate its claims?

i. Sikhism relies upon personal, subjective experience of the believer as the means by which one realizes and comes to understand the true nature of God and the universe.

1. "Sikhism - The guidance of the Guru toward the attainment of moksa ÑreleaseÑis absolutely essential. The Guru or the SatguruÑtrue GuruÑis accorded a status only a shade below that of God. His function is to point the way to the realization of the truth, to explain the

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nature of reality, and to give the disciple the gift of the divine word (nam-dan). Although the line of Gurus ended with Gobind Singh and Sikhs regard the Adi Granth as their 'living' Guru, the practice of attaching oneself to a sant ('saint') and elevating him to a status of a Guru has persisted and is widely practiced." - Britannica.com

2. "Sikhism - Sikhism is often described as nammarga ('the way of nama') because it emphasizes the constant repetition (jap) of the name of God and the gurbani (the divine hymns of the Gurus). Nama cleanses the soul of sin and conquers the source of evil, haumain ('I am')Ñthe ego. Thus tamed, the ego becomes a weapon with which one overcomes lust, anger, greed, attachment, and pride. Nama stills the wandering mind and induces a super-conscious stillness (divya dr s ti), opens the dasam duar ('10th gate'Ñthe body has only nine natural orifices) through which enters divine light; and thus a person attains the state of absolute bliss." - Britannica.com

ii. the Gurus, who founded and formed Sikhism denied miraculous powers.

1. "Sikhism - Although the Gurus themselves disclaimed miraculous powers, a vast body of sakhis ('stories') recounting such miracles grew up, and with them gurdwaras (temples) commemorating the sites where they were performed." - Britannica.com

2. NOTES:a. Sikh’s have disregarded the Gurus' denial of

miraculous power and later attributed miracles to them.

b. However, as the authority on Sikh teaching, we must take the word of the Gurus' on the subject.

c. Therefore, miracles are not offered as objective evidence that can be verified to prove the accuracy of Sikhism.

iii. miraculous claims are made by Sikhs. 1. One is the belief that the spirit of the Guru is past to their

successor(s).a. "Sikhism - It also became an article of belief that

the spirit of one Guru passed to his successor 'as one lamp lights another.' This notion gained confirmation through the fact that the Gurus used the same poetic pseudonym, 'Nanak,' in their compositions." - Britannica.com

b. NOTES:i. it is not possible to objectively verify that

this actually occurred.

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ii. Successive Guru's use of the same poetic pseudonym in their writings cannot objectively validate that the new Guru has the spirit of the previous Guru.

iii. But even if it could this belief is not offered as proof of the accuracy of Sikh beliefs.

2. the first Guru is said to have disappeared while bathing in a stream and reappeared three days later proclaiming his revelation that there is no Hindu or Mussulman (Muslim).

a. "Sikhism - At Sultanpur, Nanak had his first vision of God, in which he was ordered to preach to mankind. He disappeared while bathing in a stream. When he reappeared on the third day, he proclaimed: 'There is no Hindu, there is no Mussulman.'" - Britannica.com

b. there is no way to objectively verify that this event ever really occurred or, if it did occur, that it was in any way miraculous.

D. ASSESSMENT OF SIKHISM1. Islam's belief that Mohammed is the final prophet of God

prohibits any subsequent prophet or messenger from God from claiming Islam as its predecessor. Since Sikhism commits both of these violations of Islam, it must be found to be self-contradictory and therefore rejected

2. there is no reason to accept the views offered by Sikhism as accurate.

3. We reject Sikhism a. for reasons similar to why we have rejected other

religions in this section including its predecessor, Hinduism

b. we also reject Sikhism for its self-contradicting acceptance of Hinduism, Islam, and its own developed beliefs.

i. Islam's belief that Mohammed is the final prophet of God prohibits any subsequent prophet or messenger from God from claiming Islam as its predecessor

c. Sikhism must also be rejected because both of its parent religions have been rejected.

Propositional Religions 6 - Babism and Baha'ism, Zoroastr’nism

VIII. Babism and Baha’ismA. General

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1. Babism and Baha'ism are two closely related offshoots of Islamic tradition.

2. Baha'ism develops from Babism.3. Very recent - both developed less than or around 150 years ago.

B. Babism1. Babism developed in the mid-19th century from a particular belief of Shi'i

Islam regarding the imams of Islam.i. “Imam – Date: 1613 1 : the prayer leader of a mosque 2 : a

Muslim leader of the line of Ali held by Shiites to be the divinely appointed, sinless, infallible successors of Muhammad 3 : any of various rulers that claim descent from Muhammad and exercise spiritual and temporal leadership over a Muslim region.” – Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary

ii. "Babism - system of doctrines proclaimed in Persia in 1844 by Ali Muhammad of Shiraz. Influenced by the Shaykhi Shiite theology that viewed the Twelve Imams as incarnations of the Divine." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

2. Influenced by the Shi'i expectation of the twelfth imam, Mirza 'Ali Mohammad, declared himself to be the "Bab" (or gateway) to the twelfth and final imam in 1844.

i. "The Bab - Traditionally, the Bab had been considered to be a spokesman for the 12th and last imam, or leader of Shi'i Islam, believed to be in hiding since the 9th century; since that time, others had assumed the title of Bab. Such a proclamation fit in well with the Shaykhis' interest in the coming of the mahdi, or messianic deliverer." - Britannica.com

ii. "Babism - religion that developed in Iran around Mirza 'Ali Mohammad's claim to be a bab (Arabic: 'gateway'), or divine intermediary, in 1844. See Bab, the." - Britannica.com

iii. "The Bab - born Oct. 20, 1819, or Oct. 9, 1820, Shiraz, Iran died July 9, 1850, Tabriz...byname of Mirza 'ali Mohammad Of Shiraz merchant's son whose claim to be the Bab (Gateway) to the hidden imam (the perfect embodiment of Islamic faith) gave rise to the Babi religion and made him one of the three central figures of the Baha'i faith." - Britannica.com

iv. "The Bab - At an early age, 'Ali Mohammad became familiar with the Shaykhi school of the Shi'i branch of Islam and with its leader, Sayyid Ka zim Rashti, whom he had met on a pilgrimage to Karbala' (in modern Iraq). 'Ali Mohammad borrowed heavily from the Shaykhis' teaching in formulating his own doctrine, and they, especially Sayyid Ka zim's disciple Mulla Husayn, seem to have encouraged his proclamation of himself as the Bab." - Britannica.com

v. "The Bab - It was on May 23, 1844, that 'Ali Mohammad, in an inspired fervour, wrote and simultaneously intoned a commentary, the Qayyum al-asma', on the surah ('chapter') of Joseph from the

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Qur'an. This event prompted 'Ali Mohammad, supported by Mulla Husayn, to declare himself the Bab. The same year he assembled 18 disciples, who along with him added up to the sacred Babi number 19, and were called huruf al-hayy ('letters of the living'). They became apostles of the new faith in the various Persian provinces." - Britannica.com

vi. "Baha'i faith - The Baha'i religion originally grew out of the Babi faith, or sect, which was founded in 1844 by Mirza 'Ali Mohammad of Shiraz in Iran...Mirza 'Ali Mohammad first proclaimed his beliefs in 1844 and assumed the title of the Bab (Persian: 'Gateway')." - Britannica.com

3. After proclaiming himself to be the Bab to the hidden imam, Mirza 'Ali Mohammad predicted that the twelfth imam or Promised One would soon come.

i. "The Bab - born Oct. 20, 1819, or Oct. 9, 1820, Shiraz, Iran died July 9, 1850, Tabriz...byname of Mirza 'ali Mohammad Of Shiraz merchant's son whose claim to be the Bab (Gateway) to the hidden imam (the perfect embodiment of Islamic faith) gave rise to the Babi religion and made him one of the three central figures of the Baha'i faith." - Britannica.com

ii. "Babism - system of doctrines proclaimed in Persia in 1844 by Ali Muhammad of Shiraz. Influenced by the Shaykhi Shiite theology that viewed the Twelve Imams as incarnations of the Divine, Ali Muhammad proclaimed himself the Bab, the living door to the twelth Imam and the knowledge of God, and sent missionaries throughout Persia. He also announced a series of revelations, detailing the cosmogonic sequence, abrogating Islamic obligations and replacing them by a new set, structured around esoteric concepts such as the importance of the number 19. The year was hence divided into 19 months of 19 days each; the community was led by a council of 19 members. The movement placed special emphasis on the coming of the Promised One, who would embody all the tenets of the new religion." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

iii. "Baha'i faith - The Baha'i religion originally grew out of the Babi faith, or sect, which was founded in 1844 by Mirza 'Ali Mohammad of Shiraz in Iran. He proclaimed a spiritual doctrine emphasizing the forthcoming appearance of a new prophet or messenger of God who would overturn old beliefs and customs and usher in a new era. Though new, these beliefs originated in Shi'ite Islam, which believed in the forthcoming return of the 12th imam (successor of Muhammad), who would renew religion and guide the faithful. Mirza 'Ali Mohammad first proclaimed his beliefs in 1844 and assumed the title of the Bab (Persian: 'Gateway')." - Britannica.com

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4. Only 6 years after he had declared himself to be the gateway to the twelfth imam, Mirza 'Ali Mohammad was executed in an Iranian prison in 1850. His followers declared a formal break from Islam.

i. "The Bab - Accordingly, his missionaries were arrested and expelled from Shiraz, and the Bab was arrested near Tehran and imprisoned in the fortress of Mahku (1847) and later in the castle of Chehriq (1848), where he remained until his execution. Assembling at the convention of Badasht in 1848, the Bab's followers declared a formal break with Islam." - Britannica.com

ii. "Baha'i faith - Soon the Bab's teachings spread throughout Iran, provoking strong opposition from both the Shi'ite Muslim clergy and the government. The Bab was arrested and, after several years of incarceration, was excecuted in 1850." - Britannica.com

5. Before his death Mirza 'Ali Mohammad provided his followers with the identity of the last imam, who he had predicted would come and whom they were expecting - himself.

i. "The Bab - Late in his active period, 'Ali Mohammad had abandoned the title Bab and considered himself no longer merely the 'gateway' to the expected 12th imam (imam-mahdi ), but to be the imam himself, or the qa'im. Later he declared himself the nuqtah ('point') and finally an actual divine manifestation. Among his followers, Babis and later Azalis, he is known as noqtey-e ula ('primal point'), hazrat-e a'la ("supreme presence"), jamal-e mobarak ('blessed perfection'), and even haqq ta'ala ('truth almighty')." - Britannica.com

6. Babism’s Contradictionsi. Two principle beliefs of Islam:

1. Mohammed was the final prophet in the tradition of messengers from God

2. Mohammed delivered the final revelation of God's Word in the form of the Koran.

ii. These two fundamental tenets of Islam prevent any future Islamic leader from usurping or superceding Mohammed's role and deviating from his message.

iii. Babists deviate from both of the above precepts of Islam.iv. Islam (including Shi'i Islam from, which Babism came) banishes,

imprisons, and executes the Babists as heretics for these very reasons.

1. "Babism - system of doctrines proclaimed in Persia in 1844 by Ali Muhammad of Shiraz. Influenced by the Shaykhi Shiite theology that viewed the Twelve Imams as incarnations of the Divine, Ali Muhammad proclaimed himself the Bab, the living door to the twelth Imam and the knowledge of God, and sent missionaries throughout Persia. He also announced a series of revelations, detailing the cosmogonic sequence, abrogating Islamic obligations

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and replacing them by a new set, structured around esoteric concepts such as the importance of the number 19.

2. "The Bab - Late in his active period, 'Ali Mohammad had abandoned the title Bab and considered himself no longer merely the 'gateway' to the expected 12th imam (imam-mahdi), but to be the imam himself, or the qa'im. Later he declared himself the nuqtah ('point') and finally an actual divine manifestation. Among his followers, Babis and later Azalis, he is known as noqtey-e ula ('primal point'), hazrat-e a'la ('supreme presence'), jamal-e mobarak ('blessed perfection'), and even haqq ta'ala ('truth almighty')." - Britannica.com

3. "The Bab - Accordingly, his missionaries were arrested and expelled from Shiraz, and the Bab was arrested near Tehran and imprisoned in the fortress of Mahku (1847) and later in the castle of Chehriq (1848), where he remained until his execution. Assembling at the convention of Badasht in 1848, the Bab's followers declared a formal break with Islam." - Britannica.com

4. "The Bab - In 1848 the movement declared its complete secession from Islam and all its rites; upon the accession of a new shah, the Bab's followers rose in insurrection and were defeated. Many of the leaders were killed, and the Bab was executed at Tabriz in 1850. Two years later, after an attempt on the life of the shah, there followed more persecutions. In 1863 the Babists were removed to Constantinople and later to Adrianople and Cyprus." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

C. Baha’ism1. General and Origins

i. (NOTE: Since Baha'ism is an outgrowth of Babism all of our criticisms of Babism will also apply to Baha'ism.)

ii. Mirza 'Ali Mohammad's (the Bab's) prediction of the soon arrival of the twelfth imam (the Promised One, mahdi, or messianic deliverer, imam-mahdi) forms the basis of Baha'ist teaching and the connection between these two closely related offshoots of Islam.

iii. Mirza 'Ali Mohammad's declaration before his death in 1850, that he was himself the twelfth imam did not prevent one of his followers, a man named Mirza Huseyn Ali Nuri, from doing the same.

iv. In 1863, denying the proclamation of his teacher, Mirza Huseyn Ali Nuri proclaimed himself (and not Mirza 'Ali Mohammad) as the Promised One that Mirza 'Ali Mohammad had predicted.

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v. Al Nuri (and Baha’i believers) recognized the Bab as a central figure in their beliefs, but reject the Bab's claim to be the Promised One – a manifestation of God (see quotes 4 and 5 below).

1. "The Bab - ...The Baha'is assign him the position of a forerunner of Baha' Ullah the founder of the Baha'i faith but they suppress all his titles except Bab." - Britannica.com

2. "Babism - ...Ali Muhammad proclaimed himself the Bab, the living door to the twelth Imam and the knowledge of God, and sent missionaries throughout Persia...The movement placed special emphasis on the coming of the Promised One, who would embody all the tenets of the new religion...the Bab was executed at Tabriz in 1850...After 1868 one group had its center in Acre under the leadership of Mirza Husayn Ali Nuri (known as Baha Ullah), the originator of Baha'ism, who declared himself the Promised One." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

3. "Baha'ism - religion founded by Baha Ullah (born Mirza Huseyn Ali Nuri) and promulgated by his eldest son, Abdul Baha (1844-1921). It is a doctrinal outgrowth of Babism, with Baha Allah as the Promised One of the earlier religion." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

4. "Baha Allah (or Baha Ullah) - Persian religious leader originally named Mirza Husayn Ali Nuri. One of the first disciples of the Bab (see Babism), he and his half-brother Subhi Azal became the leaders of the Babi faith. In 1863, shortly before being exiled to Constantinople, he declared himself the manifestation of God, the Promised One, as fortold by the Bab. He then founded Baha'ism and wrote its fundamental book, Kitabi Ikan (tr. The Book of Certitude, 1943). He spent most of his adult life in prison or under close surveillance. He died in Acre; his tomb there is one of the monuments of the Baha'i faith." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

5. "Baha'i faith - religion founded in Iran in the mid-19th century by Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri, who is known as Baha' Ullah (Arabic: 'Glory of God'). The cornerstone of Baha'i belief is the conviction that Baha' Ullah and his forerunner, who was known as the Bab, were manifestations of God, who in his essence is unknowable." - Britannica.com

6. "Baha'i faith - The Baha'i religion originally grew out of the Babi faith, or sect, which was founded in 1844 by Mirza 'Ali Mohammad of Shiraz in Iran. He proclaimed a

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spiritual doctrine emphasizing the forthcoming appearance of a new prophet or messenger of God who would overturn old beliefs and customs and usher in a new era." - Britannica.com

7. "Baha'i faith - One of the Bab's earliest disciples and strongest exponents was Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri, who had assumed the name of Baha' Ullah when he renounced his social standing and joined the Babis. Baha' Ullah was arrested in 1852 and jailed in Tehran, where he became aware that he was the prophet and messenger of God whose coming had been predicted by the Bab...Before Baha' Ullah died in 1892, he appointed his eldest son, 'Abd ol-Baha (1844-1921), to be the leader of the Baha'i community and the authorized interpreter of his teachings." - Britannica.com

2. Contradictionsi. Baha'ism is that it undermines the credibility of both of its

predecessors, which it depends upon to substantiate its own claims. 1. Baha'ism contradicts the same two fundament premises of

Islam that Babism does:a. Denying that Mohammed is the last prophet of God.b. Denying the authority of the Koran.

2. Additionally, in proclaiming Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri to be a manifestation of Allah, Baha'ism breaks another fundamental Muslim precept: Allah would never lower himself to become manifest or become incarnate.

a. According to Islam Allah always interacts with mankind through intermediary beings, such as the angel Gabriel or the prophets (such as Mohammed).

b. This tenet is one of Islam's chief reasons for objecting to the divinity of Jesus.

c. Baha’i upholds that all the messengers of God were in fact manifestations of God including Jesus, Mohammed, the Bab, and Baha Allah

3. Besides Islam, Baha'ism holds that, all religions are true and from God.

a. "Baha'ism - Baha'ism holds that God can be made known to man through manifestations that have come at various stages of human progress; prophets include Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, the Bab, and Baha Allah. Baha'ists believe in the unity of all religions, in universal education, in world peace, and in the equality of men and women." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

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b. "Baha'i faith - The cornerstone of Baha'i belief is the conviction that Baha' Ullah and his forerunner, who was known as the Bab, were manifestations of God, who in his essence is unknowable. The principal Baha'i tenets are the essential unity of all religions and the unity of humanity. Baha'is believe that all the founders of the world's great religions have been manifestations of God and agents of a progressive divine plan for the education of the human race. Despite their apparent differences, the world's great religions, according to the Baha'is, teach an identical truth. Baha' Ullah's peculiar function was to overcome the disunity of religions and establish a universal faith." - Britannica.com

ii. Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri (Baha Allah) believed that he was to overcome the disunity of religions and establish and universal faith.

1. "Baha'i faith - The Baha'i religion originally grew out of the Babi faith, or sect, which was founded in 1844 by Mirza 'Ali Mohammad of Shiraz in Iran. He proclaimed a spiritual doctrine emphasizing the forthcoming appearance of a new prophet or messenger of God who would overturn old beliefs and customs and usher in a new era." - Britannica.com

D. ASSESSMENTS1. There are several reasons why Babism and Baha'ism must be rejected.

a. They contradict Islamb. They contradict each other.c. Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri cannot be regarded as the Promised

One proclaimed by both Babism and Baha'ism because:i. Mirza 'Ali Mohammad (the self-proclaimed Bab) also

proclaimed himself to be the Promised One that he had himself predicted.

ii. Since Mirza 'Ali Mohammad was the one to originate the prediction that the Promised One would arrive soon and then proclaimed himself to be this Promised One, Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri cannot be.

iii. In order for Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri to proclaim himself to be the Promised One (and not Mirza 'Ali Mohammad) he had to deny Mirza 'Ali Mohammad's authority on the matter.

iv. Thus, since Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri called into question the authority of Mirza 'Ali Mohammad regarding the Promised One, he cannot then appeal to Mirza 'Ali

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Mohammad prophecy of the Promised One, which he then proclaimed himself the fulfillment of.

v. The purpose of the Promised One was to overcome the disunity of religions and establish a universal religion as both Babism and Baha'ism claim, but in now way has Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri accomplished this task.

1. Significant religious disunity still persists and is rampant worldwide almost a century and a half after his death with no end in sight.

d. No Promised One has come to fulfill Mirza 'Ali Mohammad's prediction in the 1840's that one would come soon.

e. We reject the claims of the Babists and the Baha'ists on the grounds that they are:

i. self-contradictingii. provide evidence, which not only does nothing to

substantiate their claims, but in fact disproves them.

IX. ZoroastrianismA. General

1. Another ancient (central) Asian religion2. Zoroastrian beliefs differ in some ways from the ancient religions that we

have previously looked at. i. Zoroastrianism is basically monotheistic in nature, which stands

out amongst its ancient contemporaries.3. NOTE: Many scholars suppose that Zoroastrianism had an impact on the

development of Jewish, and therefore, Christian theology – we will deal with this later on when we examine Judaism.

B. Historical and Origins Information1. Quotes

i. "Zoroastrianism - a Persian religion founded in the 6th century B.C. by the prophet Zoroaster, promulgated in the Avesta, and characterized by worship of a supreme god Ahura Mazda who requires good deeds for help in his cosmic struggle against the evil spirit Ahriman." - Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary

ii. "Zoroaster - circa 628-circa 551 B.C. founder of Zoroastrianism;" - Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary

iii. "Zoroastrianism - The religious system founded by Zoroaster and set forth in the Avesta, teaching the worship of Ahura Mazda in the context of a universal struggle between the forces of light and of darkness." - The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.

iv. "Zoroaster - c.628 B.C.-c.551 B.C., religious teacher and prophet of ancient Persia, founder of Zoroastrianism. Zoroaster, the name by which he is ordinarily known, is derived from the Greek form

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of Zarathushtra (or Zarathustra) [camel handler?], his Persian name. Zoroaster is believed to have been born in NW Persia. His youthful studies were crowned at the age of 30 by the first of a series of revelations of a new religion. His attempts to proselytize at home failed, and he fled east to ancient Chorasmia (now largely Persian Khorasan), where he converted King Vishtaspa (who may have been Hystaspes, the father of Darius). The religion then spread rapidly through Vishtaspa's domain. The circumstances of Zoroaster's death are not known." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

v. "Zoroaster - born c. 628 BC , probably Rhages, Iran, died c. 551, site unknown. Old Iranian Zarathushtra, or Zarathustra Iranian religious reformer and founder of Zoroastrianism, or Parsiism, as it is known in India." - Britannica.com

vi. "Zoroastrianism - Founded by the Iranian prophet and reformer Zoroaster in the 6th century BC, the religion contains both monotheistic and dualistic features." - Britannica.com

2. Notes:i. Zoroastrianism began like so many other ancient Asian religions

1. It began in the 6th-5th century B.C. 2. It was initially proclaimed by it's namesake, Zoroaster3. In the year 589 B.C., at the age of 30, he is said to have

received a series of divine revelations.4. Compare to Guatama (Buddha), Vardhamana, etc.

ii. After early attempts failed, Zoroaster was finally able to convert King Vishtaspa (who is thought to be also known as Hystaspes, the father of Darius I of Persia).

iii. The religion spread after Zoroaster's death in 551 B.C.iv. Zoroaster's life and the events from which his religion originated is

really only speculation.1. "Zoroaster - A biographical account of Zoroaster is

tenuous at best or speculative at the other extreme. The date of Zoroaster's life cannot be ascertained with any degree of certainty. According to Zoroastrian tradition, he flourished "258 years before Alexander." Alexander the Great conquered Persepolis, the capital of the Achaemenids, a dynasty that ruled Persia from 559 to 330 BC, in 330 BC. Following this dating, Zoroaster converted Vishtaspa , most likely a king of Chorasmia (an area south of the Aral Sea in Central Asia), in 588 BC. According to tradition, he was 40 years old when this event occurred, thus indicating that his birthdate was 628 BC. Zoroaster was born into a modestly situated family of knights, the Spitama, probably at Rhages (now Rayy, a suburb of Tehran), a town in Media. The area in which he lived was not yet urban, its economy being based on animal

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husbandry and pastoral occupations. Nomads, who frequently raided those engaged in such occupations, were viewed by Zoroaster as aggressive violators of order, and he called them followers of the Lie." - Britannica.com

2. "Zoroastrianism - All that may safely be said is that Zoroaster lived somewhere in eastern Iran, far from the civilized world of western Asia, before Iran became unified under Cyrus II the Great." - Britannica.com

v. Zoroaster's teaching are provided to us through the Zoroastrian traditions chiefly contained in the sacred scripture of the religion, known collectively as the Avesta.

1. "Zoroastrianism - The religious system founded by Zoroaster and set forth in the Avesta, teaching the worship of Ahura Mazda in the context of a universal struggle between the forces of light and of darkness." - The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.

2. "Zoroaster - circa 628-circa 551 B.C. founder of Zoroastrianism; reputed author of the GAthAs, oldest and holiest part of the Avesta (Zoroastrian scriptures)." - Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary

3. "Zoroastrianism - a Persian religion founded in the 6th century B.C. by the prophet Zoroaster, promulgated in the Avesta, and characterized by worship of a supreme god Ahura Mazda who requires good deeds for help in his cosmic struggle against the evil spirit Ahriman." - Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary

4. NOTE: The Avesta is the primary source of information about Zoroaster's life.

vi. Zoroastrianism developed from the same obscure, ancient Indo-European roots that also gave birth to Hinduism and its sacred texts (the Vedas).

1. "Zoroastrianism - The religion of Iran before the time of Zoroaster is not directly accessible, for there are no reliable sources more ancient than the prophet himself. It has to be studied indirectly on the basis of later documents and by a comparative approach. The language of Iran is closely akin to that of northern India, and hence the people of the two lands probably had common ancestorsÑthe Indo-Iranians, or Aryans. The religion of the latter has been reconstructed by means of common elements contained in the sacred books of Iran and India: mainly the Avesta and the Vedas. Both collections exhibit the same kind of polytheism, with many of the same gods, notably the Indian Mitra (the Iranian Mithra), the cult of fire, sacrifice by means of a

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sacred liquor (soma in India, in Iran haoma), and other parallels. There is, moreover, a list of Aryan gods in a treaty concluded about 1380 BC between the Hittite emperor and the king of Mitanni. The list includes Mitra and Varuna, Indra, and the two Nasatyas. All of these gods also are found in the Vedas, but only the first one in the Avesta, except that Indra and Nanhaithya appear in the Avesta as demons; Varuna may have survived under another name. Important changes, then, must have taken place on the Iranian side, not all of which can be attributed to the prophet." - Britannica.com

2. "Zoroastrianism - Zoroaster appears to have incorporated in his religion the old Persian pantheon, although very much refined. Instead of tolerating the worship of all the deities, however, he divided them into those who were beneficent and truthful and those whose malevolence and falseness made them abhorrent." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

3. "Zoroastrianism - Zoroastrianism's scriptures are the Avesta or the Zend Avesta [Pahlavi avesta=law, zend=commentary]...it is written in old Iranian, a language similar to Vedic Sanskrit." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

vii. We do not have information about Zoroaster himself or the events that led to his proclaiming Zoroastrianism, from any source besides the Avesta.

1. We do have some historical information about the existence of the religion of Zoroastrianism in the ancient Middle East

a. "Zoroastrianism - Other sources of Zoroastrianism are Achaemenid inscriptions, the writings of Herodotus, Strabo, and Plutarch, and the commentaries on the Avesta written (6th cent. A.D.) in Pahlavi, a Persian dialect used as a priestly language, under the Sassanids." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

2. The information about Zoroaster and the origin of his religion, contained in the Avesta cannot be corroborated from other ancient historical sources.

a. The Gathas, the only part of the Avesta said to be written by Zoroaster himself does not mention any known historical events.

b. Zoroaster himself is not mentioned in the inscriptions of the Achaemenids though it is claimed in the Avesta that Zoroaster converted and came under the protection of the father of the Achaemenid king, Vishtaspa (father of Darius)

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i. "Zoroastrianism - It has not yet been possible to place Zoroaster's hymns, the Gathas, in their historical context. Not a single place or person mentioned in them is known from any other source. Vishtaspa, the prophet's protector, can only be the namesake of the father of Darius, the Achaemenid king. All that may safely be said is that Zoroaster lived somewhere in eastern Iran, far from the civilized world of western Asia, before Iran became unified under Cyrus II the Great. If the Achaemenids ever heard of him, they did not see fit to mention his name in their inscriptions nor did they allude to the beings who surrounded the great god and were later to be called the amesha spenta s, or 'bounteous immortals'Ñan essential feature of Zoroaster's doctrine." - Britannica.com

ii. "Zoroastrianism - Religion under the Achaemenids was in the hands of the Magi, whom Herodotus describes as a Median tribe with special customs, such as exposing the dead, fighting evil animals, and interpreting dreams. Again, the historical connection with ZoroasterÑwhom Herodotus also ignoresÑis a hazy one. It is not known when Zoroaster's doctrine reached western Iran, but it must have been before the time of Aristotle (384-322), who alludes to its dualism." - Britannica.com

3. NOTE: We do not consider it to be problematic that Zoroaster is only known to us by the sacred scripture of his religion, only that even with this record, we don't have much information about Zoroaster and the events, which birthed his proclamation of Zoroastrianism.

a. Zoroastrianism is similar to its fellow religion, Hinduism, which clearly is a historically documented phenomenon, but whose origins remain obscure.

C. Evaluating the Avesta 1. The Avesta is divided into four parts2. The oldest part of the Avesta, known as the Gathas

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i. are the only part that are claimed to have been written by Zoroaster himself.

ii. are considered to be songs or hymns.iii. are not comprehensive presentations of theological

concepts, but are simply liturgical pieces dealing with religious rites or ceremonies (liturgical).

1. "Zoroastrianism - The major sections of the Avesta are fourÑthe Yasna, a liturgical work that includes the Gathas ("songs"), probably the oldest part of the Avesta and perhaps in part written by Zoroaster himself; the Vispered, a supplement to the Yasna; the Yashts, hymns of praise, including the Khurda ('little') Avesta; and the Videvdat, a detailed code of ritual purification, often erroneously called the Vendidad." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

2. "Zoroastrianism - It has not yet been possible to place Zoroaster's hymns, the Gathas, in their historical context." - Britannica.com

iv. The theological concepts of Zoroastrianism predominantly come from the rest of the Avesta.

3. Reliability of the Avestai. "Zoroastrianism -The Avesta consists of fragmentary

and much-corrupted texts;" - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

ii. "Zoroastrianism - The Avesta is, therefore, a collection of texts compiled in successive stages until it was completed under the Sasanians. It was then about four times larger than what has survived. A summary of its 21 books, or Nasks (of which only one is preserved as such in the Videvdat), is given in one of the main treatises written during the brief Zoroastrian renascence under Islam in the 9th century; the Denkart, the 'Acts of the Religion.' It is written in Pahlavi, the language of the Sasanians." - Britannica.com

iii. "Avesta - also called Zend-avesta, sacred book of Zoroastrianism containing its cosmogony, law, and liturgy, the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathushtra). The extant Avesta is all that remains of a much larger body of scripture, apparently Zoroaster's transformation of a very ancient tradition. The voluminous manuscripts of the original are said to have been destroyed when Alexander the Great conquered Persia. The present Avesta was assembled from remnants and standardized under the Sasanian kings (3rd-7th century AD)." - Britannica.com

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iv. "Pahlavi Books - also spelled Pehlevi major form of the Middle Persian language (see Persian language), which existed from the 3rd to the 10th century and was the official language of the Sasanian empire (AD 226-652). It is attested by Zoroastrian books, coins, and inscriptions. Pahlavi books were written in a confusing writing system of Aramaic origin called the Pahlavi alphabet. The major part of Pahlavi literature is religious, including translations from and commentaries on the Zoroastrian sacred book, the Avesta. Little has survived from pre-Islamic times, and the Bundahishn and Denkart, both Zoroastrian religious works, date from the Islamic period. Manuscripts were preserved by the Parsis (Zoroastrians) of Bombay and elsewhere. Pahlavi was superseded by Modern Persian, which is written in the Arabic alphabet." - Britannica.com

4. Conclusions on the reliability of the Avestai. The Avesta is compiled from "fragmented and much

corrupted texts" which were destroyed on two different occassions.

1. Once by Alexander the Great in the 4th century B.C.

2. And again by under Islam in the 7th century A.D.ii. The Avesta was compiled over many centuries and was not

completed until sometime between the 3rd and 7th centuries A.D. during the Sasanian Empire.

1. Almost all of the available text of the Avesta comes from after the onset of Islam in the 7th century A.D.

2. Since Zoroaster was reported to have lived in the 6th century B.C. this makes the primary record of his life and teachings 1,200 years late.

iii. Is Zoroastrianism in fact what Zoroaster taught?1. (NOTE: The huge lapse between origin of

Zoroastrian beliefs and the recording of that origin poses significant problems for assessing and determining any reliable information about Zoroaster or about what he did or did not actually teach.)

2. "Zoroastrianism - religion founded by Zoroaster, but with many later accretions." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

3. "Zoroastrianism - Gradually certain practices that Zoroaster appears to have deplored, such as the use of haoma (a narcotic intoxicant) in prayer and the sacrifice of bulls in connection with the cult of the god Mithra (a lesser god in

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Zoroastrianism), became features of the religion. It is not surprising, however, that former customs should be thus revived, because Zoroaster appears to have incorporated in his religion the old Persian pantheon, although very much refined." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

4. "Zoroastrianism - Heading the good spirits was Ahura Mazdah (also Ormazd or Ormuzd) [sovereign knowledge], in primitive Zoroastrianism the only god. Six attendant deities, the Amesha Spentas, surround him. These abstract representations, formerly the personal aspects of Ahura Mazdah, are Vohu Manah [good thought], Asha Vahista [highest righteousness], Khshathra Vairya [divine kingdom], Spenta Armaiti [pious devotion], Haurvatat [salvation], and Ameretat [immortality]. In time the Amesha Spentas became archangelic in character and less abstract. Opposing the good ahuras were the evil spirits, the daevas or divs, led by Ahriman. The war between these two supernatural hosts is the subject matter of the fully developed cosmogony and eschatology of Zoroastrianism." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

5. "Zoroastrianism - After Zoroaster, considerable changes occurred in the theology he had professed. The entities were reduced to mere deities, which were even separated into male and female. Never again were their names used to designate human faculties. This is probably a consequence of the resurgence of the ancient gods." - Britannica.com

6. "Zoroastrianism - It is not known to what extent Zoroaster's system was meant to be exclusively the cult of Ahura Mazda. In the Later Avesta all the gods he had ignored emerged again, such as Mithra, Airyaman (whom he had replaced by Sraosha), Anahita, Apam Napat, Verethraghna, and Vayu. This vast pantheon, still nominally headed by Ahura Mazda, is similar to the compromise that Darius, according to the interpretation cited above, made between the cult of Auramazda and that of the gods of the nobility." - Britannica.com

7. "Zoroastrianism - Not only did Zoroaster's theology thus lose its exclusive position, but an internal change also modified its equilibrium

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and even threatened its very essence. The Bounteous Spirit was almost completely reabsorbed into Ahura Mazda. Whereas in a Yasht the two Spirits fought each other, in the Videvdat Ahura Mazda and the Destructive Spirit opposed each other by creating, respectively, the good and the bad things. This profoundly affected Zoroaster's system, for Ahura Mazda could no longer be the father of the Twin Spirits; he now faced, on equal terms so to speak, a sort of antigod. This alteration probably dates back at least to the 4th century BC, for Aristotle said in the Peri philosophias ('On Philosophy') that the Magi preached the existence of two principles, Oromasdes and Areimanios." - Britannica.com

8. "Zoroastrianism - In the cosmogony as expounded in the Bundahishn, Ormazd (Ahura Mazda) and Ahriman are separated by the void. They seem to have existed from all eternity, when Ahriman's invidious attack initiates the whole process of creation. The question of their origin is ignored, but it was implied, ever since Ormazd had taken the place of his Bounteous Spirit in the struggle against the Destructive Spirit. Since Ahura Mazda could no longer be the father of the two adversaries, the question of their origin was inevitable." - Britannica.com

a. (NOTE: The Bundahish is the part of the Avesta, which details Zoroastrianism's understanding of the origin and nature of the world (cosmogeny) and man.

b. Our copies of this part of the Avesta date from the 7th century A.D.

9. "Pahlavi Books - The major part of Pahlavi literature is religious, including translations from and commentaries on the Zoroastrian sacred book, the Avesta. Little has survived from pre-Islamic times, and the Bundahishn and Denkart, both Zoroastrian religious works, date from the Islamic period." - Britannica.com

10. "Bundahishn - (Pahlavi: Original Creation), Zoroastrian scripture giving an account of the creation, history, and duration of the world, the origin of man, and the nature of the universe. Written in Pahlavi, it dates from the 9th century AD but is based on ancient material from a lost

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part of the original Avesta and preserves some pre-Zoroastrian elements." - Britannica.com

11. "Zoroastrianism - Only in the Pahlavi books is this theme systematically developed. It is dominated by the idea of a final return to the initial state of things.

12. "Zoroaster - Later forms of Zoroastrianism teach a resurrection of the dead, a teaching for which some basis may be found in the Gathas. Through the resurrection of the dead, the renewal of the world bestows a last fulfillment on the followers of the Wise Lord." - Britannica.com

D. ASSESSMENT and Difficulties1. Zoroastrianism, at least for us is born from uncertain causes, which remain

unavailable to examination.2. Zoroastrian beliefs on even key issues have changed over time and

deviated from Zoroaster's original teaching.3. A critical question cannot be answered:

i. Since the Avesta wasn't completed until approximately 1000 years after Zoroaster lived and taught and since it is the sole source of information about Zoroaster's life and the origin of his teachings how do we know if what the Avesta proclaims is really what Zoroaster taught?

ii. "Zoroaster - The student of Zoroastrianism is confronted by several problems concerning the religion's founder. One question is what part of Zoroastrianism derives from Zoroaster's tribal religion and what part was new as a result of his visions and creative religious genius. Another question is the extent to which the later Zoroastrian religion (Mazdaism) of the Sasanian period (AD 224-651) genuinely reflected the teachings of Zoroaster. A third question is the extent to which the sourcesÑthe Avesta (the Zoroastrian scriptures) with the Gathas (older hymns), the Middle Persian Pahlavi Books, and reports of various Greek authorsÑoffer an authentic guide to Zoroaster's ideas." - Britannica.com

4. We conclude that we have little reason to accept the accuracy of Zoroastrianism's claims. We reject its beliefs due to:

i. A lack of verifiable and reliable information regarding the origin of Zoroastrian teachings.

ii. A lack of verifiable and reliable information regarding the original form of Zoroastrian teachings.

iii. NOTE: Even if we were to accept Zoroastrianism as it is known today, we would have no way of being sure that we were accepting the religion that was originally proclaimed by Zoroaster so long ago.

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