What is consciousness?Our awareness of ourselves and our

environment

If time is nature’s way of keeping everything from happening at once,

then consciousness is nature’s way of keeping us from thinking and doing

everything at once.

Consciousness: it cannot be observed or measured

William James- consciousness is as the stream of thought; James said even though we see people out walking around we cannot actually measure their consciousness

John B. Watson- founder of Behaviorism- questioned studying consciousness, he focused on observable behaviors

Robert Sternberg- cognitive school- consciousness is mental reality that we create in order to adapt to our world

Consciousness

Consciousness was viewed like a car’s speedometer- “It doesn’t make the car go, it

just reflects what’s happening”

Today….

Most psychologists believe consciousness can be studied because it is linked with measurable behaviors, like talking and brain waves.

Consciousness is a psychological construct- like intelligence and emotion; none of them can be seen, touched or measured directly

Meanings of ConsciousnessConsciousness means awareness:• Consciousness as Sensory Awareness- being

conscious of sensations, sights, sounds, and smells, you are conscious of things outside your body (selective attention = focus on a particular stimuli)

• Consciousness as Direct Inner Awareness- being aware of things inside yourself; thoughts emotions, images, memories

• Conscious as Sense of Self- we are aware of ourselves and our existence; we are unique individuals, separate from other people

Levels of Consciousness

• Preconscious Level- ideas not in your awareness right not, but you could recall them if you had to

• Unconscious Level- Sigmund Freud believed we all have this, sometimes called the subconscious, it is unavailable to awareness mostly, information is hidden (Freud thinks we use defense mechanisms to push painful memories into our unconsciousness)

• Nonconscious Level- basic biological functions exist here; you cannot sense your nails growing

Freud’s Levels of Consciousness

CONSCIOUS LEVELPerceptions Thoughts

PRECONSCIOUS LEVELMemories Stored Knowledge

UNCONSCIOUS LEVELSelfish needs Violent motives

Immoral urges Fears Irrational WishesShameful Experiences Unacceptable Desires

Daydreams and Fantasies• Jerome L. Singer- nearly everyone has daydreams or waking

fantasies everyday- on the job, in the classroom- almost anywhere or anytime

• Compared with older adults, young adults spend more time daydreaming

• Mostly familiar details of our lives• Help us prepare for future events by keeping us aware of our

unfinished business and giving us the chance to mentally rehearse• For children- daydreaming of imaginative play nourishes social and

cognitive development• Daydreams may also substitute for impulsive behavior• Daydreams and fantasies are a constructive part of everyone’s

repertoire of behaviors. Daydreams may release tensions, increase creativity, illuminate solutions to problems and even lesson boredom

Sleep and DreamsWe spend about 1/3 of our lives asleep!

• Biological Rhythms- periodic physiological fluctuations: – annual cycles: birds migrate, bears hibernate, humans have

seasonal variations (seasonal affective disorder)– 28-day cycles: female menstrual cycle– 24-day cycles: cycles of varying alertness, body temp. and

growth hormone, even birds need sleep!– 90-minute cycles: we cycle through various stages of sleep

• Circadian Rhythm- biological clocks (circa dies- about a day), regular bodily rhythms (temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24 hour cycle. Most studied circadian rhythm is that of the sleep/wake cycle

It is true that if it were not for cues such as the sunrise and sunset, people would act as if a day were 25 hours long. Because of Earth’s rotation, a day is 24 hours. For reasons not fully understood, however, people bay be more suited for a 25 hour day.

The Stages of SleepWe sleep in cyclical stages, defined in terms of brain-wave patterns , which can be measured by

an EEG. (Beta, Alpha, Theta and Delta). EEG recording confirm that the brain’s auditory cortex responds to sound stimuli even during sleep….

We process most information outside our conscious awareness• Beta Waves- awake and alert, short and quick waves, as we relax beta slower alpha

waves (when we experience visual images such as flashes of color or sensations like we are falling)

• Stage 1- lightest sleep, alpha theta waves, we can awake and recall images, feel like we haven’t fallen asleep. Feel like hallucinations- sensory experiences that occur without sensory stimulus (if not awakened stay in stage 1 for 30-40 min.)

• Stage 2- sleep spindles, bursts of rapid rhythmic brainwave activity, sleep talking can occur here or any other stages

• Stage 3, 4- (slow wave sleep) sleep is deep, brain produces Delta waves (slowest of the 4 patterns), stage 4 is deepest sleep, we would be hard to wake up; end of deep sleep stage 4 when children wet the bed or begin sleep walking (stage 4 for 1 hour or so then back to…3… REM

• After about 90 mins of sleep REM• 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM(sometimes called stage 5)- after REM you either wake up or go in to stage 2-

3-4-3-2-REM …. 90 min. cycle repeats itself about 5 times a night

Sleep Cycle

Brain Waves and Sleep Stages

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep• Brain waves are similar to that of stage 1• Breathing irregularly• Blood pressure rises• Heart beats faster• Eyes move rapidly under our lids• REM sleep is where we dream vividly!• When REM starts, snoring stops!• Sometimes called Paradoxical Sleep- the body is

internally aroused and externally calm• Stages 1-4 are NREM

Why do we sleep?• Not everyone needs 8 hours of sleep• Newborns- 2/3 day asleep, adults 1/3• Having a few 5 hour night sleeps will not be paid off by

one good night’s rest of 10 hours, our brain keeps a sleep debt for at least 2 weeks

• A large sleep debt makes you stupid- 80% of students are sleep deprived!

• Millions are sleep deprived and living less than optimal life and performing at a less than optimal level, causes depress immune stem, impaired concentration, and higher risk for accidents

• People who get enough sleep outlive the sleep deprived

So…what does sleep do?

• Sleep protects (darkness was dangerous-hide in a cave and sleep!)

• Sleep recuperates- restores body tissues, especially the brain. Sleep is food for the brain!

• Sleep helps the growth process-pituitary gland releases growth hormone during sleep. Adults spend less time in deep sleep, thus less growth hormone

• We wont remember taped information played to us during our sleep!

Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia• Narcolepsy• Sleep Apnea• Nightmares and Night Terrors• Sleep Walking

Insomnia

in somnus“not” “sleep”

• Persistent problems in falling, or staying asleep• Quick fixes like sleeping pills and alcohol make

the problem worse and reduce REM sleep (see remedies on p.279)

• Insomnia worsens by trying to fall asleep• Occasional insomnia is common and is not

necessarily a problem, it is a problem when it continues for long periods of time

Narcolepsy

narco lepsy“numbness” “seizure”

• Periodic, overwhelming sleepiness, suddenly fall asleep no matter what time it is or where they are

• A brain disease, rare, sleep problem, one minute awake, next minute immediately in REM sleep

• Lasts about 5 minutes• Cause? Absence of a hypothalmic neural center that

produces a neurotransmitter called hypocretin• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3MBCeKn0Oeo

Sleep Apnea

apnea“with no breath”

• Intermittently stop breathing during sleep• 1 in 20 people (mostly overweight men)• Unaware they have it• Sometimes comes with snoring• Leads to high blood pressure, heart attacks

and strokes

Nightmares & Night Terrors

• Nightmares- products of REM sleep usually during the morning hours, scary dreams

• Night Terrors- (sleep terrors) sever, person might sit up or walk around, talk incoherently, experience a doubling of heart and breathing rates, and appear terrified. NOT nightmares. Usually occur during first few hours of Stage 4 Sleep; mostly happens to children

• Sleep walking and talking- occur in families, stage 4 sleep, young children have the deepest and longest stage 4 sleep, so they have more night terrors and more sleep walking

Sleep Walking/ Sleep Talking

• occur in families• stage 4 sleep• young children have the deepest and longest

stage 4 sleep, so they have more night terrors and more sleep walking

Dreams“hallucinations of the sleeping mind”

• During REM sleep• Black/ white or color; vivid; clear• Lucid dreams- knowing you are in a dream while dreaming, some people are able

to test their state of consciousnessWhy Do We Dream?• Freudian View: “a dream is a wish your heart wants”…Freud thought dreams

reflect a person’s unconscious wishes and urges– “The Interpretation of Dreams”- dreams give us a safe valve for otherwise

unacceptable feelings– Manifest Content- the remembered storyline of a dream, it is the safe

censored, symbolic version of a dream’s latent content – unconscious drives and wishes that would be threatening if expressed directly.

– Freud thought most dreams can be “traced back by analysis to erotic wishes”, dreams = key to understanding our inner conflicts, but sometimes… “a cigar is just a cigar”

• Biopsychological Approach: Dreams may have a Physiological Function: dreams may provide sleeping brain with stimulation; dreams may be because of neural activity that spreads up to brainstem; – Activation-Synthesis Theory- neural activity is random, and dreams are the

brain’s attempt to make sense of it

Altered States of Consciousness

• Altered States of Consciousness= shifts from our normal waking state of consciousness

• Hypnosis, Psychoactive Drugs, Meditation, and Sleep all produce Altered States of Consciousness

• Critical Thinking is impaired (we may perceive something unrealistic as logical)

Hypnosis• Hypnosis= an altered state of consciousness in which the

hypnotized person is very relaxed and open to suggestion, they can be convinced that they may see things that are not there, or that they are having experiences that they are not having

• Hypnotized people can sometimes recall things that they could not recall when they were in a normal state of consciousness

• Usually they will have no recollection of the hypnosis• Posthypnotic Amnesia- a temporary memory loss rather like

being unable to recall a familiar name

Theories of Hypnosis• Some theories say that hypnosis is a state of deep relaxation,• Other theories hold that hypnosis is not a real effect at all, but is

rather a form of the participant’s living up to the expectation of the hypnotist or the researcher…Perhaps hypnotized people are just acting the role of “good hypnotic subjects” (p.291)

• Neodissociative Theory- According to Hilgard’s theory of the hidden observer, hypnosis somehow divides or dissociates the mind into 2 parts. One part obeys the hypnotist, while the other part, referred to as the hidden observer, silently observes everything.

• This theory may explain the phenomenonology of hypnotism, the physiology of hypnotism remains unexplained

• Some people are more susceptible to hypnosis than others

• Post hypnotic suggestion – instructions given to people when they are hypnotized that are to be implemented after they wake– Some success in treating chronic pain, reducing

blood pressure, and even help people quit smoking)

• Can anyone experience hypnosis?…When people standing upright with their eyes closed are told repeatedly that they are swaying back and forth, most will indeed sway a little

• Can hypnosis alleviate pain?…hypnosis relieves pain no better than does merely relaxing and distracting people

Psychoactive Drugs• These are drugs that affect the brain and change consciousness and other

psychological processes.

1. Most affect the brain by altering the interaction between neurotransmitters and receptors

2. Drugs must cross the blood-brain barrier, a feature of the blood vessels in the brain that prevents substances from entering brain tissue

3. Agonists bind to the receptors and mimic effects of normal neurotransmitters

4. Antagonists bind to the receptors and prevent the normal neurotransmitters from binding

5. Other drugs work by increasing or decreasing release of specific neurotransmitters

• Psychopharmacology -study of psychoactive drugs and their effects on behavior and mental processes

• Physical Dependence or Addiction -a physiological state in which drug use is necessary to prevent a withdrawal symptom

• Tolerance - a condition in which increasingly large drug doses are necessary to achieve the same effect

• Psychological Dependence -a condition in which the person continues drug use despite adverse effects, needs the drug for a sense of well being, and is preoccupied with obtaining the drug if it is no longer available

• Learned Expectations Contribute to the Effects of Many Drugs

Categories of drugs

• Depressants - reduce the activity of the central nervous system and increase the activity of the inhibiting neurotransmitter gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA)

• Stimulants -increase behavioral and mental activity• Opiates -relieve pain and cause euphoria and

relaxation• Psychedelics -cause loss of contact with reality; alter

emotions, perception, and thought; and can cause hallucinations

DepressantsDepressants reduce the activity of the central nervous system and increase the activity of the

inhibiting neurotransmitter gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA)

1. Alcohol causes memory problems, poor motor coordination, and can suppress breathing and heartbeat to the point of fatalitya. Genetic factors may contribute to an inhibition of, or predisposition to alcohol dependenceb. High potential for physical and psychological dependence

2. Barbiturates cause relaxation, mild euphoria, loss of muscle coordination, and lowered attentiona. Withdrawal symptoms can be severeb. Examples include sleeping pills and "downers"c. High potential for physical and psychological dependence

3. Anxiolytics cause relaxation, anxiety reduction, or sleepa. They cause GABA to bind more effectively to receptorsb. They can result in severe withdrawal symptomsc. With long-term use they can cause panic, confusion, anger, and memory lossd. Examples include Librium, Valium, and other tranquilizerse. A high potential exists for physical and psychological dependence

StimulantsStimulants increase behavioral and mental activity

1.Amphetamines- stimulate the brain and the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system, raise heart rate and blood pressure, constrict blood vessels, shrink mucous membranes, reduce appetite, and increase alertness and response speeda. Amphetamines increase the release and decrease the removal of norepinephrine and dopamine at synapses, increasing activity at these receptors

2. Cocaine causes euphoria, self-confidence, and optimisma. It increases norepinephrine and dopamine activity similar to amphetaminesb. Its use can lead to nausea, overactivity, insomnia, paranoia, hallucinations, sexual dysfunction, seizures, heart attack, stroke, and behavior problems in babies exposed to cocaine during mother's pregnancyc. It includes derivatives such as crack, which is a purified, fast-acting, potent, smokeable formd. A high potential exists for physical and psychological dependence

Stimulants3. Caffeine reduces drowsiness, improves problem-solving ability, increases capacity for

physical work, raises urine production, induces anxiety, and causes tremorsa. Caffeine is found in coffee, tea, chocolate, some soft drinks, and may be the world's most popular drugb. Withdrawal symptoms include headaches, fatigue, anxiety, shakiness, and cravingc. A moderate potential exists for physical and psychological dependence

4. Nicotine causes elevated moods, improved memory, and an increase in attentiona. It works as an acetylcholine agonist and increases the release of glutamateb. It is a major ingredient in tobaccoc. Withdrawal symptoms include craving, anxiety, irritability, and lowered heart rated. Its use constitutes a major risk for cancer, heart disease, and respiratory disorders

5. MDMA (methylenedioxymethamphetamine), or "Ecstasy", causes visual hallucinations, dry mouth, hyperactivity, muscle aches, fatigue, depression and poor concentrationa. It increases activity of dopamine-releasing neurons, and is a serotonin agonistb. Its negative effects include permanent brain damage and development of panic disorderc. A low potential for physical and psychological dependence

OpiatesOpiates relieve pain and cause euphoria and relaxation

1. Opium relieves pain and causes relaxation and feelings of well-beinga. It is derived from the poppy plantb. It carries a high potential for physical and psychological dependence

2. Morphine relieves pain and causes euphoriaa. It is derived from opiumb. A high potential exists for physical and psychological dependence

3. Heroin relieves pain and causes euphoriaa. It is derived from morphine, but 3 times as powerfulb. A high potential exists for physical and psychological dependence

PsychedelicsPsychedelics cause loss of contact with reality; alter emotions, perception, and thought; and can cause hallucinations

1. LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), or "acid", causes hallucinations, short-term memory loss, paranoia, violent outbursts, nightmares, flashbacks, and panic attacksa. It is a serotonin agonistb. It was developed by Swiss chemist Albert Hoffman in 1938c. Users develop a tolerance for itd. A low potential exists for physical and psychological dependence

2. Marijuana causes euphoria, relaxation, food craving, time distortion, and an increase in vivid sensationsa. Its active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which accumulates in fatty deposits in organs and the brain, affecting receptors sensitive to anandamideb. It originates from the hemp plant (Cannabis sative)c. Negative effects include disruption of memory formation and muscle coordination, motor skills impairment, lowered academic achievement, confused reasoning skills, and harm to a developing fetusd. A low potential exists for physical dependence, moderate potential for psychological dependence

3. PCP (Phencyclidine piperidine), also known as "Angel Dust," causes euphoria, halluci- nations, distorted sensations, violent tendencies, and a masking of paina. Negative effects include respiratory depression, generalized seizure activity, pulmonary edema, and self-inflicted injury due to the complete masking of pain and tendency to violent activityb. A high potential for physical and psychological dependence