What influence do work-life situations and vocational ...doku.iab.de/zaf/2007/2007_2-3_zaf_krekel_walden.pdf · What influence do work-life situations and vocational orientation measures

What influence do work-life situations andvocational orientation measures exert onindividual commitment to continuing training?*

Elisabeth M. Krekel and Günter Walden

Continuing vocational training is considered to play an important role in both social andoccupational inclusion. The present paper will analyse influencing factors on participationin continuing vocational training and on private expenditure, the latter being measured interms of the costs borne by the trainees themselves and the amount of free time invested.Consideration needs to be accorded to the fact that individual social groups enjoy differentlevels of access to continuing training and to the circumstance that their commitment tocontinuing training is influenced by varying prevailing general conditions. For this reason,the principle focus of the paper will be on the question of how these general conditions orwork-life situations can be described and on whether it is possible to identify variousgroups. The main features of vocational orientation measures will also be included in theanalysis. The basis for the study is the data collected by an expert commission set up tolook into the financing of lifelong learning and the participation or non-participation incontinuing training and the results of an investigation conducted by the Federal Institutefor Vocational Education and Training into the costs and benefits of continuing vocationaltraining for individuals. These two studies are based on the same statistical population andrender it possible to observe aspects of both continuing training participation and privateexpenditure in terms of how these relate to continuing training. It becomes readily appar-ent that persons may be allocated to groups in accordance with the work-life situationcharacteristics they display, these groups exhibiting differences in terms of inclusion andinvestment in continuing vocational training. Although gender is revealed to exert no sig-nificant individual influence on commitment to continuing training, women in particularform a group which has its basis in their work-life situation, the fact that the latter tends topresent some difficulties meaning that a lower level of commitment to continuing trainingmay be exhibited. In addition to the above, vocational orientation measures exert a clearinfluence on commitment to continuing training.

* This paper was released for publication in August 2007.

Contents

4.2 Dimensions of vocational1 Introduction: “voluntary” compulsionorientationto undertake continuing training?

4.3 Regression analyses on continuing2 Company and individual continuingtraining commitmenttraining participation

4.4 Formation of work-life situation2.1 Status of researchclusters

2.2 Research approach and theoretical4.5 Continuing training commitmentpre-considerations

within the three clusters3 Database and analytical procedure

4.6 Vocational orientation within the3.1 Database three clusters

3.2 Analytical procedure 5 Discussion and conclusions

4 Empirical results Literature

4.1 Descriptive results: data on thework-life situation and on individualcontinuing training commitment

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What influence do work-life situations and vocational orientation . . . Elisabeth M. Krekel and Günter Walden

1 Introduction: “voluntary” compulsionto undertake continuing training?

Both general and vocational education are of partic-ular importance in terms of affording people inclu-sion opportunities within modern societies. In a soci-ety which is ever-changing, individual readiness toseek further development, learn new things, engagein self-improvement and pursue “lifelong learning”is an essential prerequisite, the significance of whichis by no means confined to occupational aspects oflife. Both lifestyle and social inclusion alongside theoccupation exercised are affected. This makes bothgeneral and vocational education important criteriafor wealth distribution mechanisms as these operatewithin modern societies. Although they at least havethe potential to erase long-standing inequalities aris-ing from such aspects as social origin, they alter thenature and causes of inequality rather than provid-ing any direct route to the abolition of class and lev-els within society (Beck 1986: in particular ChapterIII; Hradil 2005: in particular Chapter 5.1).

Compulsory schooling stipulates participation in gen-eral educational processes until the age of 18 in Ger-many. After this point, continuation of individualeducational activities and participation in continuingtraining in adulthood is largely voluntary. The in-creasing importance of lifelong learning caused bythe constant processes of societal change is, how-ever, causing a growth in “compulsion for the indi-vidual person to plan his or her (continuing) educa-tion and training within a life context” (Friebel 1993:471). The “revaluation of educational qualifica-tions” (Hradil 2005: 174), educational qualificationshaving become an important prerequisite for obtain-ing an occupational position, is also increasing thepressure individuals are under to supplement thequalifications they have already gained on an ongo-ing basis via further educational processes, addi-tional qualifications or the acquisition of social com-petences in the interests of not losing out in the“cut-throat competition” amongst those with ahigher level of education, in which “those with alower level of education draw the short straw”(Hradil 2005: 174). In this respect, continuing train-ing exercises an important career function and is, forexample, accorded particular attention within thescope of personnel selection processes whilst alsobeing of relevance for carer advancement within acompany.1

1 Cf. here the results of the study of 300 heads of human resour-ces in German companies conducted by the Society for SocialResearch and Statistical Analysis (FORSA) (http://www.ils.de/files/forsa-Studie_des_ILS_02Ð2006.pdf, German language re-source).

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Although collective wage agreements containingstipulations in respect of such aspects as continuingtraining activities may offer a vehicle by which em-ployees can access additional training pathways andopportunities,2 not everyone enjoys equal access tocontinuing training. Life events such as unemploy-ment or child rearing phases (Schröder/Schiel/Aust2004) or a lack of integration into company struc-tures (Friebel 1993; Baethge/Baethge-Kinsky 2002)may also impede such access. In such cases, individ-ual participation in continuing training tends to rep-resent more of an expression of “discrimination”(Friebel 1993: 474) than a decision made on a volun-tary basis between two alternatives of equal value.

The factors influencing individual commitment tocontinuing training related to inclusion and the ex-penditure involved (investment of money and freetime) and the role played by the work-life situationand subjective evaluations of an individual’s own oc-cupational and life goals will form the object of thepresent paper. An initial documentation of the cur-rent status of continuing training research will beprovided together with a presentation of the re-search approach and theoretical pre-considerationsadopted (Chapter 2). This will be followed by an ex-planation of the present authors’ own investigativeapproach and an introduction to the database form-ing the basis of the present study (Chapter 3). Pres-entation of the empirical results (Chapter 4) will befollowed by a discussion of these results and thedrawing of possible conclusions (Chapter 5).

2 Company and individual continuingtraining participation

2.1 Status of research

Company and individual continuing training partici-pation have formed the subject of various investiga-tions. Some studies on individual participation incontinuing training (such as the Continuing TrainingReporting System) differentiate between general andoccupational continuing training, company trainingforming part of occupational continuing training.The present paper focuses on occupational continu-ing training.3

2 Only a small number of collective wage agreement provisionsof this nature are currently in place, an exemplary function beingprovided by the Collective Wage Agreement on Skills for theFederal State of Baden-Württemberg of 19 June 2001, whichprovides a point of orientation for other social partners. Cf.http://www.igmetall.de/cps/rde/xchg/SID-0A456501Ð1A0E54D8/internet/style.xsl/view_english.htm.3 For detailed information, see Chapter 3.1.

Elisabeth M. Krekel and Günter Walden What influence do work-life situations and vocational orientation . . .

Participation in company continuing training is reg-ularly investigated within the scope of the IAB Es-tablishment Panel, European continuing trainingsurveys and the company study conducted by theCologne Institute for Economic Research, this beingsupplemented by studies on a range of researchthemes. Company costs per employee for 2004showed a rise compared to 2001 (Werner 2006), andcosts incurred by German companies are high in Eu-ropean comparative terms. Notwithstanding this, op-portunity for a German employee to take part incompany courses is low (Grünewald/Moraal/Schön-feld 2003). Major companies in particular hedgeagainst the risks of unprofitable investment in con-tinuing training caused by employees’ leaving thecompany at a later date by entering into repaymentagreements with their staff to cover this eventuality(Leber 2000).4

In respect of the factors influencing participation incompany continuing training, aspects revealed in-clude the following.

� Participation in company continuing training va-ries widely depending on the size of the company.98 % of West German and 94 % of East Germancompanies employing 500 staff or more take partin continuing training. By way of contrast, theWest German and East German figures for com-panies with fewer than 10 employees are 33 %and 37 % respectively (Leber 2006).

� Company investment in continuing training de-pend on such factors as investment policy and thequality of labour relations (Neubäumer/Kohaut/Seidenspinner 2006) and prove particularly worth-while if integrated into the overall company struc-ture and strategy (Backes-Gellner 2006).

As far as the participation or integration of variousgroups within the workforce is concerned, particularemphasis needs to be accorded to the fact that em-ployees with higher qualifications are more likely toparticipate in company continuing training thanthose who are qualified at a lower level. The rate ofparticipation amongst qualified salaried staff is, forexample, frequently three times higher than that ofunskilled/semi-skilled hourly paid workers (Leber2006; Bellmann/Leber 2003a).

Data on individual participation in continuing train-ing is regularly collected within the scope of theContinuing Training Reporting System and the So-

4 For problems and models related to recording costs, see Weiß(2006).

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cio-Economic Panel, this information also beingsupplemented by individual studies on various re-search issues. Recent years have once again seen adecline in the participation of the German popula-tion in both occupational continuing training in-struction and courses and in informal company con-tinuing training. In terms of instruction and courses,the continuing training rate for 2003 was 26 %, rep-resenting a fall compared to previous years (1997:30 %). Taking all forms of learning into account, therate for 2003 was 68 % (Federal Ministry of Educa-tion and Research 2006).5 In terms of significancefor participation in occupational continuing trainingand the major motives underlying this, the followingaspects in particular readily become apparent.

� Growing requirements in the workplace are alsobringing about an increase in individual continu-ing training needs, meaning that workers in Ger-many are frequently unable to fulfil these require-ments without specific specialist knowledge (Ul-rich 2000).

� Private persons are prepared to invest in theirown occupational continuing training on a largescale (Beicht/Krekel/Walden 2006), these individ-ual investments particularly taking place in situa-tions where those taking part in continuing train-ing believe that commensurate benefit will accruefor them (Beicht/Krekel/Walden 2006; Timmer-mann/Ehmann 2004).

� A significant differentiation may be made be-tween the group of non-participants and the groupof participants, there being a greater incidence ofthe unemployed or economically inactive and lowskilled persons performing simple occupationalactivities amongst the non-participating group(Expert Commission on the Financing of LifelongLearning 2004; Schröder/Schiel/Aust 2004).6

� Although not participating in continuing trainingis the result of unequal access opportunities(Brüning/Kuwan 2002), it is perfectly possible forsuch non-participation to be “voluntary” in nature

5 A discussion of the problems in interpreting rates of continuingtraining would exceed the remit of the present paper. It shouldbe stressed that the recording of continuing training activities hadnot thus far taken place in a standardised form, “always beingindividually defined by the designer of the questionnaire. Thisseems to render it difficult to compare such statistics as participa-tion in continuing training between different databases” (Büchel/Pannenberg 2004: 77). For further debate on this issue, see:Büchel/Pannenberg 2002, Seidel 2006, Beicht/Krekel/Walden2006 and others.6 For more information on the non-participant group, see alsoBackes-Gellner/Mure/Tuor (included in the present volume).


and to have its basis in rational calculation (nobenefit from continuing training being expected)(Bolder/Hendrich 2000; Hendrich 1996).

In respect of identifying the determining factors forparticipation in occupational continuing training, re-search agrees that such participation is largely de-pendent on both the respective skills level and thework position or nature of the employment statusof the person in question. Full-time employees andemployees on unlimited contracts are more likely totake part in continuing training (Wilkens/Leber2003; Pannenberg 1998). As far as the influence ex-erted by age and gender is concerned, the status ofresearch is unclear. Although younger persons tendto participate in continuing training more frequentlythan older persons (Federal Ministry of Educationand Research 2006), multivariate continuing train-ing analyses have concluded that age is not in itselfa decisive factor (Schröder/Schiel/Aust 2004), themain thrust of the results suggesting a descriptivecorrelation comprising dependency on level of skills(Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citi-zens, Women and Youth 2005: 143). By the sametoken, older people are mostly less well qualifiedon average and tend to hold less continuing trainingintensive jobs (Expert Commission on the Financingof Lifelong Learning 2004: 110). As far as obtaina-ble continuing training benefits are concerned, sig-nificant age-based differences appear to be present.By taking part in continuing training, young employ-ees are able to achieve “individual (net) gains”(such as a higher level of income or job security), aneffect which could not be demonstrated for olderemployees (Büchel/Pannenberg 2004).

In terms of the influence exerted by gender, somestudies have shown differing rates of participationby men and women, although Wilkens/Leber (2003:335, 336) are unable to identify any significant ef-fects for gender as a determining factor. Notwith-standing this, gender specific differences in benefitsobtainable from participating in continuing trainingappear to be present. Whereas men tend to achievecontinuing training related income returns in theform of inner-company mobility, women are morelikely to achieve such benefits by moving to anothercompany (Becker/Schönmann 1999).

In overall terms, existing investigations show thatparticipation in continuing training by both compa-nies and individuals is influenced by a range of fac-tors. Structural factors such as company size and so-cio-demographic features like skills level both exertan influence on individual continuing training par-ticipation. The various studies thus provide confir-mation of the so-called “Matthew effect” (“For unto

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every one that hath shall be given . . .” from theBook of Matthew; cf. Merton 1985; Düll/Bellmann1998; Bellmann/Leber 2003b), those who have al-ready achieved a higher level of formal educationqualifications and enjoy a wide degree of access tocompany continuing training by dint of their occupa-tional status being the principal participants in con-tinuing training (Wilkens/Leber 2003; Loeber 1996et al.). The first point here is that those who havealready pursued continuing training constitute themain group of persons engaging in continuing train-ing, thus reinforcing the differences arising frompreceding educational processes. Secondly, those whoenjoy greater ease of access to continuing training,such as via their company or by dint of the fact thatthey are involved in a continuing training intensiveoccupational activity, are the very people who par-ticipate in such training.

Existing research findings have been unable tothrow full light on the significance to be accorded togender in respect of the differences in continuingtraining participation. Another question to be posedwithin this context would be the possible underlyingreasons for the differences in participation rates be-tween men and women.

Although the analyses which have been conductedon continuing training participation have producedimportant findings on the significance of individualfactors, the current status is insufficient to enablethe pursuit of continuing training research which as-pires to lay the foundations for the development ofeducational strategies to influence or promote con-tinuing training participation. Both the determina-tion of possible causal factors and the identificationof groups differing in respect of the commitmentthey display towards continuing training and de-scribed in terms of combinations of characteristicswould be required for this to take place. The ques-tion may be posed here whether delimitable groupsin terms of low or high continuing training participa-tion, towards which continuing training supportcould be aligned, actually exist. One example ofsuch a group formation is the differentiation of “so-cial milieus”, derived from variables relating to liv-ing conditions and attitudes towards life and used toexplain continuing training participation. A furtheraim should be to use this research approach as avehicle for the refinement of the main preferencesof providers of continuing training (Barz/Tippelt2004; Tippelt 2006; Tippelt/Hippel 2005), althoughin terms of its suitability as a foundation for generalways of providing support adopting such an ap-proach gives rise to the problem of the identifiabilityof the relevant constructs within educational policypractice.


2.2 Research approach and theoreticalpre-considerations

The results of existing investigations to which refer-ence has hitherto been made make it clear that aseries of characteristics has exerted a direct influ-ence on participation in company continuing train-ing. The aim of the present paper is to deepen thestate of knowledge of factors affecting individualcommitment to continuing training. Information willbe included both on the continuing training partici-pation of individuals and on the readiness of theseindividuals to invest in such training (in the form ofcosts borne themselves and free time spent).

Existing investigative results on continuing trainingparticipation have often produced a lack of clarityin terms of the decisive effect of individual charac-teristics (Schemmann 2006: 28). Observing combina-tions of characteristics or groups of persons maylead to a better understanding of the differing levelsof individual continuing training commitment. Theinfluence exercised by age could, for example, varyaccording to the level of educational qualificationheld by the person in question. The combination ofgender and educational status may also be of differ-ing significance to individual continuing trainingcommitment in each respective case. The main hy-pothesis forming the basis of the present paper isthat commitment to continuing training is materiallyaffected by the conditions under which individualscarry out their occupational activities. The followingwill refer to these conditions collectively as “work-life situation”.

Relations to life situation terminology and such con-cepts as “social condition” or “life condition” arepresent here (Hadril 2005: 36Ð46 and 362Ð376;Barz/Tippelt 2005). Life situation studies (such asthat conducted by Voges et al. 2003) take placewithin the context of addressing forms of social ine-quality. As well as merely describing the diversity oflife conditions, such an approach may also be usedas a vehicle for explaining social behaviour. Not-withstanding the frequent use of the term in socio-scientific studies, no clear and generally recogniseddefinition exists (cf. Voges et al. 2003: 37). Otto Neu-rath (working before the Second World War) andGerhard Weisser (post-war) played a particular partin drawing up the basic theoretical principles (cf.Voges et al. 2003: 37 ff.). The life condition approachcame to especial prominence as a result of the workof Wolfgang Zapf (1984). At a European level, aconcept for a system of social indicators has recentlybeen drawn up (Noll 2002). What these differing ap-proaches have in common in the way they character-ise life situation or life condition is the emphasis

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placed on multi-dimensionalism and the linking ofindividual characteristics to form specific constella-tions. Complexes which constitute particular focusesof life situation studies are income, gainful employ-ment, education, lifestyle and health, these being in-vestigated in conjunction with such individual char-acteristics as age and gender (cf. Voges et al. 2003: 31).

The intention is for the work-life situation to com-prise the element of the life situation which may beallocated to the occupational sphere. Particularlyrelevant characteristics in this regard would be thenature of the occupational activity pursued, voca-tional skills and qualifications, employment status,income, company characteristics, workload and suchsocio-demographic features as gender and age. It islikely that clear differentiation of work-life situationand general life situation will not always be possible.

Work-life situation characteristics and their rele-vance to explaining the differing level of commit-ment to continuing training form the object of inves-tigation of the present paper. The starting point ofthe analysis undertaken is the assumption that thework-life situation materially affects access to con-tinuing training. Notwithstanding this, the mecha-nisms determining this correlation in individualterms have not been explicitly stipulated. The work-life situation may influence scopes of action as wellas impacting on the deployment of resources for arange of alternative actions and on the perception,or in some cases the distorted perception, of socialreality. To this extent, the work-life situation couldact as an explanatory variable and be linked withvarious theoretical approaches relating to providingexplanations for human behaviour. The object of thepresent paper is the empirical question of the corre-lation between relevant characteristics and commit-ment to continuing training.

The available data records7 contain a broad section ofindividual and company related characteristics rele-vant to the description of the work-life situation. Aninitial analytical step will, in line with the approachadopted by preceding investigations, observe the in-fluence of individual characteristics within the work-life situation on individual commitment to continuingtraining. As well as independent variables in the formof continuing training participation, investments arealso available for this purpose, something which hasnot been the case in studies hitherto conducted. In or-der to accord due consideration to the multi-dimen-sional character of the work-life situation, the aim isto conduct a second analysis to investigate whether

7 The available variables will be described in more detail below.


individual characteristics can be combined to formspecific constellations within the work-life situationrelevant to continuing training behaviour. The objec-tive is therefore to amalgamate persons displayingsimilar characteristics into groups and analyse thesein respect of the commitment to continuing trainingthey demonstrate.

Alongside the work-life situation, personal attitudesalso influence readiness to participate in companycontinuing training. Evidence for this comes in suchforms as the fact that non-participants frequently donot recognise any necessity for continuing trainingand adopt the assumption that the knowledge theypossess is sufficient to enable them to carry out theirwork duties (Schröder/Schiel/Aust 2004: 63 ff.). Toaccord due consideration to this aspect, factors re-lating to vocational orientation were observed along-side the work-life situation, although as subjectivecharacteristics these should be separated from theobjective features of the work-life situation.

In overall terms, the analysis takes the followinghypotheses as its starting point.

� Characteristics of the work-life situation exert aninfluence on the level of continuing training com-mitment of individuals.

( )

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� Combining various characteristics to form groupsoffers a route to providing explanations for differ-ing levels of participation and investment in com-pany continuing training which supplement or ex-tend beyond the observation of individual charac-teristics.

� Vocational orientation provides independent as-sistance in explaining different continuing trainingbehaviours.

3 Database and analytical procedure

3.1 Database

The basis of the present analyses is the survey data ofthe Expert Commission on the Financing of LifelongLearning on the “Reasons and motives of non-partic-ipation in company continuing training” (Schröder/Schiel/Aust 2004; Expert Commission on the Financ-ing of Lifelong Learning 2004) and of the Federal In-stitute for Vocational Education and Training(BIBB) on “Costs and benefits of continuing trainingfor individuals” (Beicht/Krekel/Walden 2006).

Although the Expert Commission and BIBB studiesare independent investigations, they are both basedon the same statistical population. A screening pro-


cess has been used to identify the relevant group ofpersons and align it to the circle of participants ornon-participants.

Although separate designs were used to conduct thesurvey of the two groups, both were posed a seriesof questions on social and occupational alignmentwithin the joint screening process. This made it pos-sible to record both participants and non-partici-pants simultaneously within a survey for the firsttime. The joint screening process involved inter-views with more than 5,000 German speaking per-sons between the ages of 19 and 64 with close con-nections to employment. As well as those in work,the survey also included unemployed persons, per-sons undertaking advanced training and retrainingand persons not in employment who intended totake up a job within the next two years.8 Personswho had taken part in at least one of 13 stipulatedtypes of continuing training9 within the referenceperiod (1 September 2001 to 31 August 2002, theperiod also covered by the Survey on ContinuingTraining 2002) were classified as participants, the re-mainder being deemed non-participants. Alignmentto vocational continuing training took place on aself-assessment basis, the assumption being that in-dividual persons were in the best position to judgewhether a measure was of occupational relevance orpursued an occupational objective or not.

The Expert Commission conducted interviews witha total of 1,264 non-participants. 2,000 people tookpart in the BIBB survey, brief interviews with 792non-participants also being available. The followinganalyses are based on the BIBB survey of partici-pants and non-participants in continuing vocationaltraining who were in employment at the time theywere interviewed. Unemployed persons and thegroup of those persons who wished to re-enter em-ployment within the following two years are not in-cluded in the following analyses, since they repre-sent a special case, not least by dint of the differentlystructured public funding for the unemployed. Thefollowing analyses on the influence of the work-lifesituation and vocational orientation on continuing

8 The representative surveys were conducted by infas, the Insti-tute for Applied Social Sciences in Bonn.9 The following types of continuing training were stipulated: con-gresses, conferences, specialist trade fairs; courses a participant’sown company and at manufacturers; courses in an institute ofcontinuing training; self organised continuing training using textbooks, specialist literature; company support measures; organisedinduction training, instruction at the workplace; self organisedcontinuing training using computers; continuing training in theacademic research sector; vocational orientation measures; train-ing at a trade and technical school; company exchange schemes;distance learning courses; self organised continuing training usingtelevision, radio, video.

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training commitment relates to employed persons(2,472 cases).

3.2 Analytical procedure

An initial description will be provided of the essen-tial characteristics indicating the work-life situationwith regard to the major indicators for participationin continuing vocational training (participation,costs borne by the participants themselves, amountof free time invested). This will be followed by thepresentation of the results of a factor analysis to de-termine the main dimensions of vocational orienta-tion. For the purpose of analysing the significanceof individual characteristics for participation in con-tinuing vocational training, three regression analyseswill be conducted on basic participation in continu-ing training, on costs borne by the trainees them-selves and on the amount of free time invested.These will integrate all the variables also includedin the descriptive analysis. Consideration will be ac-corded both to the variables relating to the work-life situation and the factor values in respect of theessential characteristics governing the attitudinal di-mensions.

Finally, a cluster analysis will be conducted to formhomogeneous groups via the individual characteris-tics, thus enabling an investigation which work-lifesituation characteristics may be combined to pro-vide a description of various types. The results willbe presented and differences in the continuing train-ing commitment and in the vocational orientation ofindividual groups will be elaborated.

This will be followed by a discussion on whether andwhich additional findings could be gathered via thecluster analysis procedure.

4 Empirical results

4.1 Descriptive results: data on thework-life situation and on individualcontinuing training commitment

The following characteristics, surveyed within thescope of the BIBB study, may be included in thedescription of the work-life situation: gender, age,employment status, school qualification, vocationalqualification, occupational activity, personal incomeand size of company. These characteristics provideindications of individual determining factors orwork-life situations, these in turn exerting a poten-tial influence on continuing training commitment.


Socio-demographic, educational and company re-lated characteristics are all included.

With regard to the definition of individual continu-ing training commitment, three variables are in-cluded: participation in continuing vocational train-ing in 2002 and expenditure on continuing voca-tional training comprising the average costs borneby the trainees themselves and average amount offree time invested.10

According to the available results, 68 % of the pop-ulation with close connections to employment tookpart in continuing training in 2002,11 spending anaverage of € 502 of their own money. Extrapolatingthis figure across Germany means that a total ofaround € 13.8 billion was invested by private personsin their own continuing vocational training (cf. Beicht/Krekel/Walden 2006). Table 1 shows that there is aconsiderable difference in continuing training commit-ment between persons displaying different socio-de-mographic characteristics.12 In 2002, employed mentook part in continuing training significantly morefrequently than women in employment, the figuresbeing 74 % and 64 % respectively.

Participation according to educational qualificationsevinces even greater differences. 87 % of personswith a higher level formal school leaving qualifica-tion had attended a continuing training scheme,more than 30 % percentage points more than wasthe case for those with a lower level school leavingcertificate (lower secondary school, completion ofclass 8 of the Polytechnic Secondary School of theformer East Germany: 56 %). Vocational qualifica-

10 Computer aided telephone interviews (CATI) were used tocollect data (for more information on the survey concept seeBeicht/Krekel/Walden 2006). In order to survey characteristics re-lating to the work-life situation, interviewee responses were allo-cated to relevant categories or categories were pre-stipulated.Both the continuing training participation results and the resultsfor costs and free time invested relate to the period of investiga-tion (1 September 2001 to 31 August 2002). The procedure in-volved recording total costs and free time invested and subse-quently apportioning these across the period of investigation andthe contribution made by trainees themselves (funding from em-ployers or the Federal Employment Agency was, for example,taken into consideration).11 This figure is significantly above the level stated in such studiesas the Continuing Training Reporting System IX (Federal Minis-try of Education and Research 2006: 38Ð42). The reasons for thisare firstly the broader definition of continuing training used inthe BIBB study (the continuing training quota used by the Con-tinuing Training Reporting System being restricted only to for-malised course and instruction based continuing training) and sec-ondly the targeted inclusion only of persons with a close connec-tion to employment. See also Chapter 2.1 and footnote 5.12 In the interests of greater legibility, only whole percentageswill be stated in the text, although the table will include decimalplaces.

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tions and occupational activity also displayed greatereffects.

The analysis of the expenditure of time and moneyon continuing vocational training produces a similarpicture. Persons in possession of the university en-trance qualification or University of Applied Scien-ces entrance qualification invest more in their con-tinuing vocational training than persons with a lowersecondary school leaving certificate, persons with ahigher education qualification more than personswho have completed in-company vocational educa-tion and training and persons in management posi-tions more than persons performing an operativerole.13 Those with university entrance qualificationinvested a total of € 595 (including participants andnon-participants) and € 705 (taking only participantsinto account), the corresponding figures for thosein possession of a lower secondary school leavingcertificate being € 178 and € 333 respectively. Al-though full-time employees invested more thanthose in part-time work, the difference is signifi-cantly lower if only participants are taken into ac-count and persons employed in small companies (es-pecially those with between 1 and 10 employees)paid considerably more for their continuing voca-tional training than those working for large compa-nies.

Consideration of expenditure of time reduces thesedifferences slightly. Persons in possession of the uni-versity entrance qualification spend an average of123 hours of their free time pursuing continuing vo-cational training, 146 hours if only participants areincluded. Although those with the intermediate sec-ondary school leaving certificate spend a total ofonly 83 hours of free time, this figure rises to 121hours if only participants are considered. Those car-rying out operative activities (142 hours) and thosewith a low income (147 hours) also invest a consid-erable proportion of their free time in continuingvocational training once they have taken the deci-sion to participate.

These results indicate firstly that there is a signifi-cant correlation between individual socio-demo-graphic characteristics and participation in continu-ing vocational training and secondly that peopleshow a high degree of motivation to invest moneyand free time in their only continuing vocationaltraining.

13 The reason for the high values for freelance or self-employedworkers is the fact that such persons normally need to finance thewhole of their continuing vocational training themselves.


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4.2 Dimensions of vocational orientation

Alongside the characteristics relating to the descrip-tion of the work-life situation, ten questions wereposed on occupational and life goals.14 A factor anal-ysis was used to compact these to three factors (cf. Ta-ble 2). Career and advancement orientation is repre-sented by five items, the aims being strong alignmentto an occupational career, occupational performanceand a high income. The three items under family andprivate orientation represent an alignment towardsfamily and partnership. The factor of personal devel-opment/social commitment is based on two items.

The three vocational orientation factors are in-cluded in the further analyses together with the ob-jective factors relating to the work-life situation andsubjective estimations.

4.3 Regression analyses on continuingtraining commitment

Participation in continuing training

A logistic regression model was estimated. Signifi-cant values in relation to participation in continuingtraining are produced for a series of the variables

14 The question was: “To which extent do you personally pursuelife and occupational goals?” (1 = very strongly . . . 4 = not at all);cf. Table 2.

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included, the direction of the respective influencesgenerally following the descriptive differentiations(cf. Table 3).

No significant influences were present for age andgender, although gender influence was at the limitof significance and displayed a positive coefficientfor women. The reverse case was true for the de-scriptive representation, women displaying an over-all level of continuing training participation aroundten percentage points lower than men. The resultsof the regression analysis suggest that this is due toother factors.

School qualifications produce the expected influ-ence. Participation in continuing training by lowersecondary school leavers is significantly lower. Thecorrelation between continuing training and qualifi-cation is also in evidence with regard to vocationalqualifications, the higher the level attained in thelatter the greater the participation in continuingtraining tends to be. This also corresponds with thecoefficients for the various categories relating to oc-cupational activity. Participation in continuing train-ing increases in line with the level of vocationalqualification achieved.

Employment status and the size of the companyproviding employment also have a significance onthe decision to pursue continuing training, those infull-time employment mainly tending to participatein continuing vocational training, the larger a com-pany, the greater the probability that an employeewill take part in continuing training.


With regard to income, persons with a very low levelof personal income display significantly lower con-tinuing training participation, although in contrast

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to the descriptive observation the middle class andhigher classes of income no longer show any signifi-cant deviations. The clear descriptive differences in


the continuing training rates between the middleclass and higher classes of income may be due toother characteristics remaining constant in the re-gression analysis.

Alongside the characteristics included for the de-scription of the work-life situation, the attitudinalvariables taken are also shown to exert clear influ-ences on continuing training participation. This ap-plies especially in respect of social commitment orwith regard to persons who wish to pursue furtherdevelopment. The more marked the relevant atti-tude the greater the level of continuing training par-ticipation. A clear positive effect is also demon-strated for career and advancement orientation, al-though the available results show that the extent offamily and private orientation do not exert any in-fluence on continuing training participation.

Amount of the continuing training costsborne by the trainees themselves

In terms of interpretation of the amount of the con-tinuing training costs borne by the trainees them-selves, consideration needs to be accorded to thefact that the amount of costs reflects individual com-mitment rather than being an indicator of absolutecontinuing training intensity. Depending on theamount of continuing training which is financed bythe company providing employment, this individualcommitment may be more or less necessary. To thisextent, factors influencing the amount of continuingtraining costs borne by the trainees themselves mayrepresent a corresponding influence on commitmentat an individual level, although they may also indi-cate compensatory effects from the relevant com-pany providing employment or reflect an individu-al’s ability or readiness to pay.

Given the fact that continuing training costs for non-participants are virtually zero and that a lower limithas been applied to the variable in this regard, aTobit model was estimated in respect of the amountof continuing training costs. A series of similar direc-tional effects is shown for the variables includedcompared to the logistical regression for continuingtraining participation, although some differences arein evidence.

The first thing to be said is that gender, which was atthe limit of significance in the observation of continu-ing training participation, does not exert any influ-ence on the amount of continuing training costs. A se-ries of significant differences in the amount of contin-uing training costs is shown for the various agegroups, demonstrating a negative influence on con-tinuing training costs above the over 35 age groups.The expected correlation is given in respect of schooland vocational qualifications and with regard to ac-

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tivity carried out, continuing training costs rising inline with the level of vocational qualification.

In contrast to continuing training participation, theform of employment and the size of the company pro-viding employment do not appear to have any signifi-cance for the amount of continuing training costs, al-though a positive significant value emerges for theemployees of SME’s (11 to 50 employees) comparedto those working in large companies. The main likeli-hood is that this represents an indication of the factthat larger companies are more likely to bear thecosts of continuing training for their employees thanis the case with SME’s. The reason for the non-signifi-cance of values relating to the form of employment islikely to be overlapping effects resulting from individ-ual continuing training commitment and the level ofcommitment on the part of the company in respect ofthe various groups of employees. The higher level ofcontinuing training participation by full-time employ-ees thus seems to be more frequently financed by thecompany, whereas part-time employees and thoseworking a small proportion of a full-time equivalentposition have more frequent recourse to their own fi-nancial means if they take part in continuing training,although they show a lower level of continuing train-ing participation.

The expected effects are demonstrated in respect ofincome, persons with a very low level of personalincome expending lower levels of costs and thosewith a very high income spending more.

As is the case in continuing training participation, theattitudinal variables also demonstrate considerablesignificance for the amount of continuing trainingcosts, higher continuing training costs being associ-ated with a marked social orientation as well as a cor-responding career and advancement attitude. Highlevels of family and private orientation, on the otherhand, tend to result in lower continuing training costs.

Expenditure of free time

The interpretation of expenditure of free time pro-duces a similar picture to the amount of costs borneby the trainees themselves, the compensation pro-vided by the company also playing a role alongsideindividual commitment. A Tobit model was estimatedfor expenditure of free time in the same way as forcontinuing training costs. The analytical results dem-onstrate similarities with the continuing trainingcosts in many areas, although the picture is not fullyconsistent.

Again, no significant difference for gender is shownin the expenditure of free time. The significance ofqualification is less marked than is the case for the


continuing training costs. Significant values in theexpected direction are only demonstrated for schoolqualifications and occupational activity, but not forvocational qualifications. Expenditure of free timetends to fall in the case of older persons (those aged35 and above).

No significant effects are shown in respect of formof employment and the size of the company provid-ing employment. Employees in small companies,who tend to display a lower level of expenditure offree time, constitute the only exception to this. Asfar as income is concerned, a significant negative ef-fect on the level of expenditure of level time is onlyshown for those drawing a very low level of income.

The attitudinal variables produce similar results tothose shown in the continuing training costs. Socialcommitment and a carer and advancement orienta-tion have a positive significance for expenditure offree time. A marked family and private orientationis, on the other hand, associated with lower expendi-ture of free time.

In overall terms, the results of the regression analy-ses both confirm the findings of other investigationsin respect of the influence exerted by such individ-ual characteristics as vocational qualifications on in-dividual participation in continuing vocational train-ing whilst also showing that financial investmentsand expenditure of free time are also dependent onthe characteristics of vocational qualification, thesize of the company providing employment and thelevel of personal income. Notwithstanding this, dif-ferences contained within the descriptive represen-tation (such as in respect of gender) are no longervisible in the regression analysis.

4.4 Formation of work-life situationclusters

The aim now is to supplement the observation of theinfluence of individual characteristics by combining

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these to form specific constellations. To this end, theobjective is to create groups particularly typical to cer-tain specificities of the characteristics or in which per-sons display a greater level of similarity with regardto individual characteristics than is the case in othergroups. The cluster analysis is a recognised explora-tory procedure for the grouping of cases in respectof the similarities they display (Backhaus/Erichson/Plinke/Weiber 2006: 489 ff.). In the following clusteranalysis, the eight characteristics relating to the work-life situation (Table 1) will be used to form relevantgroups. Compared to procedures previously used, theTwoStep cluster analysis provided by SPSS fromVersion 11.5 onwards (SPSS 2001) offers a processlargely suitable for data records with high levels ofcase study figures, takes categorial data into accountand enables the automatic determination of the num-ber of clusters. The first step (“pre-cluster”) involvesthe initial structuring of cases and the formation of alarge number of sub-clusters. In the second stage(“group”), a step-by-step process is undertaken viawhich the sub-clusters are combined to form clustersolutions. The maximum number of clusters is deter-mined via the BIC values, the optimum numberof clusters being produced by the maximum ratio ofdistance measures. The highest value of the ratio ofdistance measures was achieved for a three-cluster so-lution, meaning that this may be viewed as the opti-mum model. For the evaluation criteria used, pleasesee Table 4.15

The clusters identified display the following typicalcharacteristics (Table 5):

15 Since this procedure reacts sensitively to the order of caseswithin the data record, cases were subjected to multiple randomsorting and several solutions were calculated. All calculations re-sulted in the identification of a model featuring three clusters asthe optimum solution. Cross-validation was also used to checkthe extent of correlation between the solutions which had beenidentified and to align the cases equally to the individual clusters.The following analysis is based on a total of around 2,400 casesof participants and non-participants. Due to missing values, thecluster analysis was calculated on the basis of 2,154 cases.


284 ZAF 2 und 3/2007


Cluster 1: Full-time and part-time employed womentending to have a low income

The first cluster contains around 95 % of all thosein part-time employment and almost 70 % of thosewith a personal income of under € 1,500. In addition,88 % of women are included here. The dispropor-tionately large alignment of female employees(97 %) and of persons with a low income (75 %) isalso clear in the internal distribution of the first clus-ter, which also encompasses 89 % of those workinga small proportion of a full-time equivalent position,although the low proportion of the last-namedgroup in overall terms means it constitutes only13 % of persons within this cluster.16 Not such aclear profile is discernable as far as age structureand school education are concerned, however, per-sons in possession of the university entrance qualifi-cation, intermediate secondary school leaving certi-ficate and lower secondly school leaving certificatebeing equally represented. In terms of the highestlevel of vocational qualification achieved, most havecompleted in-company vocational education andtraining.

Cluster 2: Men in full-time employment with a highlevel of qualification

Nearly all persons within this cluster are in full-timeemployment, more than half being in possession ofuniversity entrance qualification or an higher educa-tion degree, and 43 % have a personal income of€ 2,500 or more. 50 % are in a management position,and 79 % of persons represented here are men, con-stituting 30 % of the total number of men.

Cluster 3: Men in full-time employment with a middlelevel of qualification

A further 68 % of men are included within Cluster3 and represent 98 % of all persons in the cluster.The proportion of those within Cluster 3 who arein full-time employment is also 98 %. Compared toCluster 2, however, persons with a middle level ofqualification tend to be represented here. Most holdthe intermediate secondary school leaving certifi-cate or lower secondary school leaving certificate(including completion of class 8 of the PolytechnicSecondary School of the former East Germany),

16 Both column and line percentages are included in the descrip-tion of the cluster, the line percentages providing information asto the extent of the proportion of persons within the respectivecluster evincing the relevant characteristics. The column percenta-ges, on the other hand, indicate distribution within a cluster. Theclusters were formed with unweighted data, weighted data beingused for the description.

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have completed in-company training, carry out aqualified activity and have a personal monthly in-come of between € 1,500 and € 2,499.

4.5 Continuing training commitmentwithin the three clusters

An analysis of continuing training participation ac-cording to clusters produces considerable differen-ces (cf. Table 6). The highest level of participation isin Cluster 2 at 90 %, the participation rate in Clus-ters 1 and 3 being significantly lower at 60 % and65 % respectively. The high rate of participation inCluster 2 shows that particularly men in full-timeemployment with a high level of qualification fre-quently took part in continuing vocational trainingduring the year 2002.

They were the main beneficiaries of company train-ing provision. 66 % of this cluster had participatedexclusively in company continuing training, only7 % taking part in privately organised continuingtraining and 17 % having pursued both companyand privately organised continuing training.17

Cluster 1, principally represented by full-time andpart-time employed women tending to have a lowincome, shows a significantly lower level of companycontinuing training participation (40 %), althoughthis cluster also achieves the highest level, 13 %, forprivately organised continuing training. The lowerlevel of participation in overall terms may be due tolack of access to company continuing training, sincethe level of private commitment is as high if noteven higher than that displayed by the other groups.

Persons in Cluster 2 bear the highest levels of coststhemselves, paying € 699 on average, although 20 %have very high costs (defined as € 870 and upwards)and 37 % have no costs.18 Average costs borne by

17 The differentiation between company continuing training andprivately organised continuing training depends on such factorsas the financing of the schemes, the venue of the continuing train-ing and the amount of free or working time invested (Beicht/Krekel/Walden 2006: 78 ff.).18 The percentages stated refer to both participants and non-par-ticipants, meaning that of the persons in Cluster 2 37 % (of partic-ipants and non-participants) had no costs and 20 % had very highcosts (taking only participants into consideration would result ina figure of around 31 %). For the categorisation of expenditure(costs borne by the trainees themselves and free time invested),the relevant information (in respect of participants only) was di-vided into quartiles. For costs borne by the trainees themselves,the classification was as follows: very low (up to € 80), low (€ 81Ð€ 250), high (€ 251Ð€ 870), very high (over € 870).The classifica-tion produced for free time invested was: very low (up to 14hours), low (15Ð45 hours), high (46Ð135 hours), very high (over135 hours).


trainees themselves in Clusters 2 and 3 are signifi-cantly lower, the proportion of those with no costsbeing in turn significantly greater.

In respect of free time invested, participants fromCluster 1 and Cluster 2 spend virtually the samenumber of hours, although the overall proportion ofthose investing no free time (including both parti-cipants and non-participants) is 47 % in Cluster 1,around three times higher than in Cluster 2 (15 %).

4.6 Vocational orientation within thethree clusters

Career and advancement orientations also showconsiderable differences between the clusters (cf.Table 7). In line with expectations, persons fromClusters 2 and 3 (men with a medium or high level

286 ZAF 2 und 3/2007

of qualification), demonstrate a high level of careerand advancement orientation.

In comparison to this, the career and advancementorientation in Cluster 1 is significantly less marked,only 40 % showing a high to very high career andadvancement orientation (Cluster 2: 61 %).

The level of family and private orientation is partic-ularly low in Cluster 2, meaning amongst menmostly in full-time employment and with a highlevel of qualification.

5 Discussion and conclusions

In terms of the influence exerted by various per-sonal characteristics on commitment to continuingtraining, the essential aspects of the two analytical


procedures, regression analysis and cluster analysis,produce similar results. Level of education and oc-cupational status combined with the form of em-ployment thus principally constitute the main fac-tors influencing continuing training events. Irrespec-tive of the objective factors related to the work-lifesituation, vocational orientation exerts a major in-fluence on continuing training participation. Theresults of the regression analysis and cluster analy-sis demonstrate, however, a significant difference.Whereas no influence or only a very small influencecould be derived for gender in the regression analy-sis,19 women virtually formed their own cluster inthe cluster analysis. The cluster analysis particularlycombines women also demonstrating the character-istic of part-time employment to form a women’sgroup, this characteristic, like gender, not havingbeen significant in the regression analysis. Thisgroup differs considerably from the other groups in

19 Wilkens/Leber (2003) were also unable to confirm the genderspecific differences shown in other studies within the scope oftheir multi-variant analyses.

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terms of the continuing training participation andcontinuing training commitment indicators. Genderdoes not play a role if individual characteristics areinvestigated whilst other characteristics are heldconstant, as in the regression analysis. Women donot, therefore, evince any different kind of continu-ing training behaviour as long as similar conditionsapply in respect of other characteristics as apply tomen. The empirical reality is, however, that women’sand men’s work-life situations differ. The clusteranalysis thus directs attention to a group not previ-ously identified in this form, making clear the partic-ular nature of the work-life situation in respect ofthe analysis of continuing training behaviour.Women in particular are dependent on their owncommitment and benefit to a lesser extent fromcompany continuing training, the high proportion ofpart-time employment and personal levels of in-come which tend to be lower not being the leastof the factors in providing them with unfavourablegeneral conditions.

One analytical procedure is not, of course, the onlyway of mapping the aspect of the particular work-


life situation of women and the significance of thisfor continuing vocational training. The relevant as-pects could, in principle, also be included in a regres-sion analysis via the formation of interactive varia-bles. Nevertheless, the exploratory approach adoptedby the cluster analysis, which features the groupingof persons on the basis of similar characteristics, isparticularly helpful in reducing the complexity of so-cial reality and identifying empirical groups. Thisrenders the interplay of different characteristics orbundles of characteristics visible. To this extent, thegroups thus formed provide starting points for pol-icy or target oriented action. In specific terms, theissue of how participation in continuing training canbe increased can be linked with the level of commit-ment within the individual groups, thus enabling aparticular connection with the situation of womenin part-time employment to be established.

In overall terms, the results of the analyses enablethe deduction to be made that existing inequalitiesare reproduced in reference to participation in con-tinuing training. Those with a better level of traininghave better opportunities compared to those whoare less well trained, men have greater chances thanwomen, persons with a high income enjoy more ac-cess than those with lower incomes and, not least,full-time jobs and higher occupational positionsbring more in the way of continuing training, partic-ularly company continuing training. Respective work-life situations exert a high degree of influence oncontinuing training commitment. Men in full-timeemployment with a high level of qualification bothtake part in continuing training on a more frequentbasis and invest more in their own continuing voca-tional training. This is mostly associated with a cer-tain level of career aspiration and (particular) accessto company continuing training. Ongoing participa-tion in continuing training appears to form an inte-gral part of the daily working lives of this group.

Alongside the importance of education already ac-quired for participation in continuing training, how-ever, it is also apparent that the degree of occupa-tional integration provided by the nature of the em-ployment relationship exerts a considerable influ-ence on continuing training commitment, given thefact that mainly those in part-time employment(women) are less well integrated into companytraining processes and, irrespective of their level ofeducational attainment, participate in continuingtraining on a less frequent basis. Although women inparticular consider the overall benefit of continuingtraining to be high (cf. Beicht 2005), they seem tofind the hurdle separating them from continuingtraining participation to be especially difficult to sur-mount. The comparatively high degree of private

288 ZAF 2 und 3/2007

commitment they display is unable to compensatefor the disadvantages they encounter in companypractice. A combination of financial and time re-strictions and the permanent and sometimes exces-sive burden of coordinating the various areas oftheir lives (Ehrenberg 2004) means that women inparticular (are not able to) show the same degree ofcontinuing training activities. Practice hithertoleaves important potential untapped, simply becausewomen first and foremost still bear the responsibil-ity of combining career and family.

Although many studies have failed to show that gen-der is a significant individual characteristic, it hasbeen possible to demonstrate that the work-life situ-ation of women hampers their continuing trainingcommitment, a lower level of qualification not con-stituting a sufficient reason in overall terms for theirlower level of commitment to continuing vocationaltraining. Continuing training support concepts, suchas the training saving plans forming the focus of cur-rent attention, should accord particular considera-tion to the various occupational as well as socialconditions under which people live their lives. Thisis ultimately the only way of fostering lifelong learn-ing and occupational commitment on the part of dif-ferent societal groups.

The present analyses have been able to identifygroups exhibiting specific continuing training behav-iours, for which it is, for example, possible to de-velop specific guidance or support programmesbased on their life situation. One aspect requiringinvestigation would be the extent to which the groupof women identified here would benefit from theproposed training saving model (cf. Rürup/Kohl-meier 2007; Dohmen/de Hesselle/Himpele 2007),another object for study being the degree of changeoccurring in men’s continuing training behaviour ifthey focus more on childcare as a result of the newParental Benefits Law. Limitations in the availabledata have, however, not rendered it possible to ex-plore fully the benefit of an approach which inte-grates the life situation. Further research activitiesare required, particularly in connection with themore recent approaches adopted in respect of con-tinuing training support.

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