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Western Civilization IIHIS-102
Unit 6 - The Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution One of the great revolutions of mankind
First being the Neolithic (agricultural) revolution Last of Great Revolutions that shaped modern Europe
After the Enlightenment and the French Revolution Importance
Radically changed the methods of production Before, humans were limited to human and animal power Now, humans were able to harness the power of machines Also able to mass produce goods Leads to a changes in lifestyles (e.g., workplaces and free
time) Supported Western expansion into other countries
The Industrial Revolution Began in Britain around 1750
By 1830, it had spread to the continent Causes of the Revolution go back to the
Glorious Revolution (1688) Wealthy landowners took control of Parliament From this point until 1832, this “squirearchy” was in
control Their focus was to make more money
How do landowners make more money? Need to increase the production of the land that
they had Done by increasing crop yields and raising fatter
sheep and cattle The question became “how to do it?”
Dutch Agricultural Revolution Dutch Agricultural Revolution (c. 1650)
Dutch population was increasing too rapidly for food supplies to keep up with
In Amsterdam alone, the population shot up from 30,000 to 200,000 over the course of the century
Needed to drastically increase agricultural production
Focused their efforts on increasing crop yields How?
Enclosing the fields, raising new crops, and crop rotation
Heavy fertilization using manure They also did not have serfdom so the
peasantry could move where necessary
Protests Against Enclosure
Agricultural Revolution in Britain British wanted to adopt many of the Dutch
techniques However, some are not going to be as easy as others
Biggest controversy: enclosure Sectioning off of land by the use of a fence, wall, or
hedge Old medieval laws allowed peasants to use the open
fields to graze their own animals on During the early Tudor dynasty, there were attempts by
the landowners to enclose their lands This was mainly to allow them to graze sheep as the
cost of wool was skyrocketing at the time Peasants revolted and monarchy took the side of the
peasantry
Agricultural Revolution in Britain With the squirearchy, enclosure was going to be
pushed Parliament passed hundreds of enclosure acts Peak between 1760 and 1832 By the end of this, most of the land in England was
enclosed Enclosure hurt the small landowner and farmer
No longer had a place to graze their animals Many were forced to sell what land they had
Enclosure may have been beneficial to the landless Would be hired on as farmhands with wages There was also an increase in tenant farmers
Charles “Turnip” Townshend (1674-1738)
Agricultural Revolution in Britain Another method adopted was crop rotation Charles “Turnip” Townshend (1674-1738)
Introduced the four-field crop rotation that was used in the Netherlands
It was the system of planting wheat, barley, turnips, and clover in the fields The clover would help replenish the nutrients in the fields The clover and turnips also produce feed for
domesticated animals year round With more domesticated animals, there is more manure
that could be used for the crops He also introduced turnips as a major crop in
England
Crop Rotation
Agricultural Revolution in Britain Jethro Tull (1674-1741)
His contributions included the introduction of the seed drill
This replaced hand planting of seeds This meant less waste and more crop growth He also encouraged the use of horses instead of
oxen for plowing Innovations were also made to improve the
raising of domesticated stock like cattle and sheep Better breeding practices were brought over to
breed bigger animals
Tull’s Seed Driller (c. 1752)
Effects of the Agricultural Revolution Short term effects
From 1700 to 1760, bountiful crops Better quality of life for most British Focus no longer on survival Could spend income on things other than food Better quality of life in all Europe outside Holland More productive land meant less labor required to
cultivate the same amount of food This freed up labor for other pursuits, including
entering the cottage industry of weaving or spinning wool
Rise in the number of wage laborers People would go where the jobs were
Effects of the Agricultural Revolution Long term effect:
Less people were involved in agriculture By 1870, England produces 300% more than in
1700 Only 14% of the population worked on the land Larger percentage is free to engage in industrial
work Creates a new type of economy that was
impossible in a purely agricultural economy
Flatford Mill (c. 1816)
Why Britain? Had a stable government
Large landowners (Whigs) were in charge of Parliament Numerous economic freedoms
Businessmen and landowners did what they wanted No internal trade barriers, like tariffs, to hinder
domestic trade A tremendous amount of available capital
Part was due to the growing cottage industry Another part was due to the profits made off the
colonies Many entrepreneurs who were willing to take the
necessary risks to make a profit Well developed and central banking system
With this it also had a well developed credit system
Why Britain? Mobile population
No large privileged "feudal" class to hold back change or population movements
Population not tied to the land and could move wherever necessary
Was a large landless population who was eager to find work wherever possible
Easy access to water Full of natural waterways to provide transportation
for trade You were never more than 20 miles from water In the 1770s, built up a canal system which
improved the waterways even more
Why Britain? Rich with coal and iron ore
Coal was used as a source of power Iron was used in the building of machines
Plenty of colonies Provided plenty of markets to sell its goods Navigation Acts gave full trade monopoly with its colonies From 1660 to 1760, exports quadrupled
Control of the seas No competition from Europe, especially in the 19th century
Damp climate Cotton goods were more desirable than the traditional
wool
Extent of the British Empire
What Is the Industrial Revolution? The name “Industrial Revolution” did not
come about until the latter part of the 19th century
It was broken down into three phases: The birth and growth of mills and factories Urbanization of the population Massively increased production
The Revolution was actually a series of processes based on demand One invention lead to another This lead to new situations which call for even
more changes
Industrialism in Britain After the Agricultural Revolution, focus
became making even greater profits The best way to do so was to increase the
speed of production More goods could be made to meet the worldwide
demand The first modern factories were created in
1770s and 1780s Made for cotton textile industry This was where the greatest demand occurred Ushered in the Industrial Revolution
Industrialism in Britain Industrial Revolution was a process
New inventions led to new challenges which led to even more inventions
The textile industry was the first affected Growth of this industry was based on demand As production increased, it led to the need for both
power and iron Led to movement of both industry and population to
the northern England Investment in industries
Desire for increasing profit led to new methods and inventions
First started by merchant capitalists Britain could afford industrialization
The Spinning Mule
The Cotton Industry Cotton industry was first affected
Britain tried to compete with Asia for cotton goods Growing demand for cotton goods
British industries could not keep up with demands The whole process—spinning, weaving, and
printing—was done by hand Need led to improve the processing of cotton goods
Fly Shuttle (1733) Invented by John Kay It allowed one person to weave cloth instead of two Increased output of weaving dramatically Also led to a large demand for yarn
The Cotton Industry Spinning Jenny (c. 1764)
Invented by James Hargreaves Mechanized spinning wheel that increased the
production of yarn Both perfect for the home (cottage) industry
Too slow for mass production Water Frame (1769)
Invented by Richard Arkwright This allowed for not only the spinning of multiple
threads, but was powered by water instead of human power
The Cotton Industry Spinning Mule (1779)
Invented by Samuel Crompton (1753-1827) Combined the spinning Jenny and the water frame Produced high quality thin yarns that could be
used in multiple textile industries, not just cotton Too big to be placed in a private home
Power Loom (1785) Invented by Edmund Cartwright Changed the design of the water frame by
allowing it to be powered by steam engine instead of water
Between 1770 and 1790, production of yarn increased ten fold
The Cotton Industry Now there was an increased demand for cotton
Cotton picking and removal of seeds were all done by hand
Cotton Gin (1793) Invented by Eli Whitney Automatically removed the seeds from the cotton Processing of cotton was sped up to meet the demand
Birth of Cotton Mills Moving equipment into large buildings allowed cotton
yarn could be massed produced From 1813 to 1850, number of power looms
increased from 2,400 to over 250,000 Hand-loom weavers dropped from 250,000 in 1820 to
only 3,000 in 1860
1830s British Cotton Mill with a Power Loom
The Power Crisis The power crisis began around 1700
Government realized that the country was running out of its lumber supply
Impacted every aspect of life No lumber meant no charcoal which meant no
smelting of iron Lord Nelson worried about the impact on the navy
(he walked around with acorns in his pockets) Many began turning to coal for a power source
People had already been using coal for heating since 1700 in London
Coal was very hard and expensive to extract Did not stop demand because coal was the only
viable source
The Power Crisis As the demand for coal increased, new
problems emerged Mines had to be dug deeper, below the water table This meant that they quickly filled up with water At first, horses were used to power mechanical
pumps to help bring the water out of the mines but they were not effective
Deeper mines could not be dug without some effective way of pumping water out of them Inventors turned to a new source of power: steam
Steam had powered small items since 1600 It was not until the 18th century that a large scale
and efficient steam engine was created
Newcomen Steam Engine (c. 1712)
The Steam Engine Newcomen Steam Engine (1712)
Built by Thomas Newcomen An “atmospheric engine” designed to run a more
efficient water pump While it was the first economically significant
steam engine, it was still too ineffective It consumed too much fuel for the amount of
power it was producing In 1763, James Watt was asked to repair a
Newcomen engine He spent the next 12 years devising a way to
improve it
The Steam Engine Watt Steam Engine (1775)
First true steam engine It had a rotary engine that could turn a shaft This meant that it could run machinery as well
Watt partnered up with Matthew Boulton and began selling the engine to the textile industry Up until this point, the textile industry was limited
to hand-looms and water-powered looms Used this technology to improve the output of
textiles In 1785, Cartwright took Watt’s engine to create
the power loom
The Steam Engine Many cotton mills then began adopting the
steam engine as a power source By 1850, 7/8’s of the power for the cotton industry
came from the steam engine This had a huge impact on production of cotton
In 1760, Britain produced 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton
By 1787, this jumped to 22 million By 1840, this skyrocketed to 366 million pounds
Price of cotton goods dropped to 1/20th their value Asia could not compete with Britain in cotton
Puddling furnace (c. 1881)
The Iron Industry The iron industry was also affected Britain stilled used old medieval style methods of
processing iron Charcoal was used to provide the intense heat source
required for smelting With the shortage of lumber, this could no longer be
used Henry Cort improved the process of making clean
iron in the 1780s known as “puddling” Mixed used coke (a derivative of coal), pig iron, and
iron bars As they were mixed, they were exposed oxygen The oxygen burned off the excess carbon off the pig
iron This method was later used to create modern steel
The Iron Industry Led to a major boom in the iron industry
In 1740, over 17,000 tons of iron were produced in Britain
In 1788, jumped to 68,000 tons in 1788 In 1840, skyrocketed to over 3 million tons
The center of the iron industry was Manchester The coal and iron mines were located nearby along
with a ready water supply Steel was important because it led to:
Machines Development of railroad Ships Larger buildings
Illustration of the 1804 Pen-y-Darren Locomotive
Revolution of Transportation Steam engine led to advancements in the
transportation industry In order to make profits, one had to get goods
from one place to another more cheaply and quickly While waterways were good, there was a demand for
an even more effective method of transportation With this, there is the development of the railway Railways had been around since 1500
They were first developed for use in mines throughout Germany
The idea was later adapted to British coal mines around 1600
Revolution of Transportation These “railways” were carts that ran along wooden
rails Used to move coal and ore from deep within the mines They were powered by humans or horses Around 1700, wooden rails were replaced with cast iron
ones Pen-y-Darren Locomotive (1804)
Invented by Richard Trevithick in south Wales First steam-powered locomotive First trip was on February 21, 1804 For just over four hours, it carried ten tons of iron on five
wagons with 70 men at an average speed of close to 5 mph
Named after the ironworks company it was used for
Revolution of Transportation For the next few decades, the steam engine was
improved upon Numerous inventors worked on ways to carry larger
loads faster over longer distances The Rocket (1830)
Built by George Stephenson Included the first public rail line It traveled 32 miles from Liverpool to Manchester at
16mph By 1840, Britain had almost 2,000 miles of
railroads By 1850, that was up to 6,000 miles with trains that
reached speeds of 50mph
Revolution of Transportation Changed not only the face of Britain but it was
also key to the expansion of the Industrial Revolution
Many investors put money into the ever-growing railway industry Railroad companies were able to hire a lot of
peasants and laborers, creating new jobs The most important impact was to reduce the
costs in shipping Lower overall cost of manufacturing and thus lower
prices This led to increased demand, which created more
jobs and factories
Manchester in 1840 Known as “Cottonopolis” for its booming cotton industry
Social Consequences Industrialization had a huge social impact on
Britain in the 19th century Increased population
From 1750 to 1850, the population jumped from 10 million to around 30 million
Many moved into the cities throughout the country Factory system that changed the way of life for
the British Industrialization led to a new type urbanization
Originally factories were in the country near water sources
However, with steam power, they needed to be near large work forces
Social Consequences The factory owners were the first industrial
capitalists They were the first people to think of themselves as a
class in the modern sense They participated in a highly competitive system They believed they were doing the workers a favor by
giving them jobs They also did not like any type of business regulations
The working conditions of the factories were harsh Employed women and children if it gave them the
edge in business While adult workers could be threatened with
dismissal, children were regularly beaten if they did not follow the tough rules of the workplace
Social Consequences Factory work brought in a new time-work
discipline With agriculture and the cottage industry, people
set their own hours In the factories, owners wanted to keep the
machines going at a steady pace This way they could produce as much as possible Workers had to work regular hours and in shifts The shifts were long, usually 14 or more hours a
day The work was also repetitive and boring. Only Sundays were given off and very few holidays
were celebrated
Social Consequences There were calls to improve the working
conditions of the factories Parliament was willing to do something about it These were known as the Factory Acts
Factory Act of 1802 This prevented children under the age of 9 from
working in the factories It also limited the amount of hours children could
work to no more than 12 hours a day Provided some education for children
Labor in Cotton Mills Act of 1831 Prohibited night work for anyone under the age of
21
Social Consequences Labor of Children in Factories Act of 1833
Limited the amount of hours a child could work and included an hour lunch break
Required a minimum of two hours of education a day for children between 9 and 13
Factory Act of 1844 It limited the daily hours of children between the
ages of 9-13 to six hours a day Women were not allowed to work more than 12
hours a day Factory Act of 1847 – “Ten Hour Bill”
This limited the work days to 10 hours for women and children under 18
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
Classical Economics: Laissez-Faire Laissez-Faire Economics
Emerged during the Enlightenment Name came from the opponents of this theory Pushed no government interference in economics Included free markets, very little taxation, and no
legal restrictions on business Businesses would regulate themselves
Promoting self interest Individual interests would add up to the general
welfare of society Poor relief and charity should come from the
individual not the government
Classical Economics: Laissez-Faire “Iron Law of Wages”
Workers should make only as much as was necessary to live
If they don’t, they will have more children Too large populations can hurt the economy
Britain spearheaded the laissez-faire movement Adam Smith (1723-1790)
Laid down the foundation with Wealth of Nations (1776)
The Manchester School Economic school of thought centered in Manchester It promoted free trade and an end to tariffs on corn Believed mercantilism hurt the lower classes as they
could not afford the basic necessities
Classical Economics: Laissez-Faire Thomas R. Malthus (1766-1834)
Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) Human population growth was kept in check with war,
famine, and disease Agricultural revolution would lead to a population boom Industrialism would aggravate this as there were more
jobs Believed in regulating marriages and promoting
celibacy Wanted abolition of poor laws as they hurt the overall
economy Taxes needed for them resulted in prices being too high He called for private charity instead
Classical Economics: Laissez-Faire David Ricardo (1772-1823)
Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock (1815)
He wanted to get rid of the tariffs placed on imported grains
Tariffs artificially inflated the price of grains and hurt the lower classes
Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817) With population increases, rents went up but wages
went down Called for population controls because too many
people were living on wages that barely provided subsistence
Richard Cobden (1804-1865) Manchester
School
Industrialization after 1850 Individual British factories remained small but
output was tremendous Iron industry the largest in the world
Continental changes Mostly in transport, commerce, and government
policy Free trade and the removal of trade barriers Guild controls relaxed or abolished Communications
Transatlantic cable (1865) Telephone (1876) New chemical processes, dyestuffs, and pharmaceuticals
New sources of energy Electricity and oil
Industrialization after 1850 Internal combustion engine
Invented by Carl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler in the 1880s
Eastern Europe Developed into concentrated, commercialized
agriculture The persistence of serfdom
The industrial core Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands,
and Switzerland The industrial periphery
Russia, Spain, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Romania, and Serbia
Industry and Empire European nations begin to control the national
debts of other countries First Europeans would attempt trade agreements When those could not be made, they turned to
force New networks of trade and interdependence The world economy divided into two groups:
Producers of manufactured goods (Europe) Suppliers of raw materials and buyers of finish
goods (everyone else) There was a move towards a global economy
Breakdown of populations living in cities
Social Consequences Population of Europe
205 million in 1800 274 million in 1850 414 million in 1900 480 million in 1914
Explanations for dramatic increase Fatal diseases became less virulent Edward Jenner invented the smallpox vaccination
(1796) Improved sanitation Governments became more concerned with
improving the lives of their people Less-expensive foods of high nutritional value Rising fertility
“Searching for Potatos”
Social Consequences Peasantry during industrialization
Lived in rural poverty Harsh conditions of the countryside Millions of tiny farms produced a bare subsistence Rising population put pressure on the land Unpredictability of weather and the harvest
Great Famine of 1845–1849 Potato blight
No alternative food source At least one million Irish died of starvation Forced 1.5 million people to leave Ireland for good
Social Consequences The role of the state
Became more sympathetic to commercialized agriculture
Encouraged the elimination of small farms and the creation of larger farms
Serfdom Land owners and serfs had little incentive to
improve farming or land management Made it difficult to buy and sell land freely Was seen as an obstacle to the commercialization
and consolidation of agriculture Industrialization in the countryside
Improved communication networks Government intervention in the countryside
Social Consequences Centralized bureaucracies
Made it easier to collect taxes and conscript soldiers from peasant families
Rural violence “Captain Swing” protesters in southern England
(1820s) Protesting against threshing machines; burned barns and
haystacks Insurrections against landlords, taxes, and laws
curtailing customary rights Russian serf uprisings as a result of bad harvests and
exploitation Governments seemed incapable of dealing with rural
discontent
Homeless people huddling together
Social Consequences The urban landscape
Growth of cities Urbanization moved from northwest Europe to the
southeast London’s population grew from 676,000 (1750) to 2.3
million (1850), Paris from 560,000 to 1.3 million Overcrowding and poor sanitation Construction of housing lagged well behind population
growth Governments passed some legislation to rid cities of slums
Environment Air pollution Water pollution Fertile breeding grounds for cholera, typhus, and
tuberculosis
Social Consequences Sex in the city
Prostitution Seen as one of the dangers and corruptions of urban life
The problems of the cities posed dangers that were not just social but political
Time period of social surveys and studies Trying to
Critics of the urban scene Victor Hugo (1802–1885) Charles Dickens (1812–1870) Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850)