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UNIT 1 THE REFORMATION
Western Civilization IIHIS-102
Europe at 1500
By 1500, Europe was on its way to recovery after the terrible 14th century The population was finally starting to increase into pre-
plague levels The economy was expanding, including trade and
colonialism Monarchs had secure holds on their thrones in England,
France, and Spain The Catholic church had survived upheavals by the Lollards
(England) and the Hussites (Bohemia)
What was unexpected were the huge changes that were going to take place: the Protestant Reformation
The Reformation
The Reformation was a movement to reform the Catholic Church Instead, it broke the monopoly the Catholic Church had
on throughout the Middle Ages It led to the rise of Protestantism and bloody wars that
tore Europe apart
The Reformation came about mainly in response to the numerous problems the Church had The clergy were uneducated and often corrupt The popes were unable to provide spiritual leadership There was a rise of popular religion
Problems with the Clergy
While more and more clergy were receiving educations, there was still a large number who were uneducated Many were ignorant and could not read or write
There was an economic dichotomy among the clergy On one hand you had wealthy priests, those in the
highest ranks They led very comfortable lives while not even living in their
assigned areas On the other, you had very poor priests
They did not have enough money to live off of They usually had to take on other positions (i.e. running the
local tavern) to supplant their incomes
Problems with the Clergy
Pluralism was another large problem This is holding of more than one office at a time In order to boost their incomes, clergy would accept
and hold more than one church office at a time This led to absenteeism because the clergy could not
cover the entire areas of the positions they held
Simony was another problem as well This is the buying and selling of church offices This meant that church positions would go to those
who would pay the most money rather than to those who earned it
Problems with the Clergy
Beginning in the 13th century, the Church began to sell indulgences An indulgence is granted by the Church to remove the
punishment associated with sin These would supposedly reduce a person’s time in
purgatory It comes from a treasury of good works committed by Jesus
and the saints Even though the Church put “limits” on the indulgences,
their sale was heavily abused throughout the 14th and 15th centuries
There were monks and priests who did not follow their vows of celibacy
Selling of Indulgences (c. 1530)
Problems with the Popes
The problems did not end with the clergy There were also serious problems with the popes Specifically, the actions of the popes led people to no
longer regard them as the spiritual authorityOver the course of the 14th and 15th
centuries, European kings challenged the absolute authority of the popes
In the 14th century, the French kings moved the papacy to Avignon to have greater control of the popes This was known as the Babylonian Captivity of the
Church
Problems with the Popes
In 1378, an Italian was elected as pope This was for the first time since 1305 The French would not accept an Italian pope so they
elected their ownThis led to the Great Schism (1378-1417)
None of the popes were willing to resign and each called the other the anti-Pope
In 1409, the Council of Pisa met to try to rectify the situation They elected a new pope Since the other two refused to resign, this meant that
their were three popes
Antipope Alexander V (1409-1410) The Pisan Pope
Popular Religion
These problems with the church led to a rise in popular religions People wanted a more meaningful religious experience
than just going to church and “leading good lives” They wanted a more certain guarantee of salvation
One form of popular religion was “Modern Devotion” They believed that to guarantee salvation, you needed
to act like Christ This was dangerous to the Church because all the
people had to do for salvation was read the Bible
Popular Religion
Another form of popular religion was the veneration of holy relics People began to see their salvation (or a reduction of
time in purgatory) guaranteed through the veneration of holy relics
This sort of veneration had been approved by the Catholic church
Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, was a major collector of holy relics By 1509, he had over 5,000 holy relics; these had
indulgences attached to them that would reduce his time in purgatory by 1,443 years
By 1520 he had 19,013 relics worth 5,209 years
Popular Religion
There were many instances of false relics One of the most common relics were pieces of wood
from the “true cross” of Jesus Erasmus once said that there were enough pieces of
wood from the “true cross” to make up “the freight of a large ship”
Luther complained that there were so many fragments of the “true cross” that 300 men could not have carried all of them
Five churches claimed to have the shinbone of the donkey that carried Jesus to Jerusalem
Twelve churches claimed to have the head of John the Baptist
Frederick III of Saxony (1486-1525)
Christian Humanism
The first major reform religious movement during the early part of the 16th century was Christian humanism It had its basis in the Renaissance humanist
movement that began in Italy Studia Humanitatis – These humanists studied the
“liberal arts” including rhetoric, philosophy, history, and poetry
ad fontes (“to the sources”) - They based their studies on primary sources rather than depending on later interpretations
Christian Humanism
The Christian humanist wanted to solve the problems of the Church by reexamining the early Christian works These included the Bible and the writings of the early
church fathers such as St. Augustine They found that Christianity had been a more simple
religion Over the years, the Catholic Church had altered the
original beliefs of Christianity
Christian Humanism
To fix the problem, they encouraged people to read the original sources From that, they would feel renewed piety and help
bring about reform in the church
They tried to help bring about the reform by publishing new editions of the classics, the Bible, and writings of the church fathers This would make it easier for people to get access to
such works
Erasmus (1469-1536)
Erasmus (1469-1536)
Desiderius Erasmus was one of the most influential Christian humanists of the 16th century He was an ordained priest and had been an
Augustinian monkIn his works, he criticized the abuses of the
church He focused on the classics and he encouraged reform He wanted to show how things were simpler and better
in the pastBut in all cases, he called for reform from within
the church rather than creating a new church
Erasmus (1469-1536)
In The Handbook of the Christian Knight (1503), he stated that the current church was too focused on dogma He believed that the church should be focusing on inner
piety rather than pilgrimages, sacraments, veneration of relics, etc.
In In Praise of Folly (1511), a humorous criticism of society and the church, Erasmus focuses on the human fallibility and the abuses of the church It was a very popular piece of work and is considered
one of the greatest writings to come out of the Renaissance
Erasmus (1469-1536)
In 1516, he issued a new edition of the Greek New Testament He translated it himself into Latin pointing out
problems with the official church translation He even dedicated it to Pope Leo X
Unfortunately, Erasmus’ calls for reform were ignored by the church at this time It did, however, lay the foundation for the next group
of reformers, beginning with Martin Luther
Europe (c. 1519)
The Holy Roman Empire
The Reformation begins in Saxony which was part of the Holy Roman Empire It was a conglomeration of small states under the
control of the Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Empire seems like a very unlikely place for the Reformation to have started It was not a unified country The Renaissance had affected Germans the least and
they remained very religious At the same time, they believed that the were the
greatest victims of Church abuses
The Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was created after the division of the old Roman Empire after the death of Charlemagne in the 9th century It did not become known as the Holy Roman Empire
until the reign of Emperor Otto I in 962With the Golden Bull of 1356, the election of
the Emperor was to be conducted by seven members of the Electoral Council This was made up by three archbishops and four princes
While the Electoral Council did technically elect the Emperor, the position was traditionally hereditary The only time the Council’s vote was important was
when a family no longer had a male heir for the position
The Holy Roman Empire
Because of this, after 1452 the position of the Emperor remained in the hands of the House of Habsburg
When Emperor Maximilian died in 1519, there were two candidates vying for the position Charles I of Spain; Maximilian’s grandson and heir to
the House of Habsburg Francis I of France; House of Valois
Even though Charles was a shoe in for the position, numerous bribes had to be placed to secure a victory
Emperor Charles V (1519-1556)
Emperor Charles V
Charles was elected June 28, 1519 and became Emperor Charles V
Charles had control of a vast empire when he took the position He controlled Spain (and its overseas empire), the
Low Countries, lands in Austria and Hungary, the Kingdoms of Naples and Sardina, and Bohemia
He wanted full control over his lands and wanted to unify it under one faith: Catholicism
Lands Controlled by the House of Habsburg in 1556
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Martin Luther was the first main figure of the Reformation He was born in Saxony in 1483 Under pressure from his parents, Luther attended the
University of Erfurt to study lawIn 1505, on his way home from school, he had his
“spiritual awakening” It supposedly occurred when he was caught in a
thunderstorm He fell to his knees and vowed to St. Anne that if he
survived the storm he would leave the university and become a monk
He joined the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt soon after
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
While at the monastery, Luther was able to reflect on how he was to achieve his own salvation He constantly prayed, fasted, and went on pilgrimages He supposedly went to confession so many times that
his confessor joked that Luther should go out and do something worth confessing
Nothing he did was able to give him the peace he sought after
His superior, Vicar-General Johann von Staupitz, told Luther that he should try an academic career
Luther became ordained as a priest in 1507
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Luther then became a professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg This included studying and lecturing about the Bible
At this time, the Catholic Church strongly believed that in order to be saved, a person needed to do good works as well as have faith However, Luther did not believe any person could do
enough good works to be saved
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
In 1513, he came across the passage “the just shall live by faith alone” in St. Paul’s Letter to the Romans (1:17) In the Catholic faith, “justification” meant God turning
a sinner into a righteous person eligible for salvation In other words, it meant that those who are saved are
done so through faith onlyThis was a huge revelation for Luther
He believed that all human virtue is worthless unless it is sanctified by God’s grace
Since mankind is doomed to commit sin, the only way a person could get into heaven was faith
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Luther believed that you do not receive God’s grace through good deeds nor are you guaranteeing yourself salvation A sign of God’s grace is to perform good deeds
This became the foundation of his doctrine “justification by faith alone” This has the potential of being very dangerous for the
Catholic Church
It was not until 1517, Luther began his attacks on the controversial practices of the Church
Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545)
Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545)
Albert of Hohenzollern was a bishop of two bishoprics: Halberstadt and Magdeburg
There were many who criticized Albert on two main objections: He was a shining example of pluralism and violated
the concept of one man, one job He received these jobs when he was only 23 years old
at the time Legally he was not old enough to be a bishop
Then in 1514, Albert went on to purchase the Archbishopric of Mainz
Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545)
Albert had accumulated significant debt with the purchase of these offices He had to take out a loan to cover them The pope became concerned with this large debt the
young archbishop had
He struck a deal with Pope Leo X to cover his debts Albert would be given permission to sell indulgences Half of his income would be sent to Rome to help pay
the cost of the building of St. Peter’s Basilica The other half would go to paying off his loans
Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545)
Albert hired Johann Tetzel, a Dominican monk, to sell these indulgences throughout northern Germany His slogan was “as soon as the coin in the coffer rings,
the soul from purgatory springs” He was very successful with his sales
Luther finds out about this and is very upset Luther believed people were saved by faith, not good
deeds or by buying indulgences Also, with these purchases, people would no longer
feel the need to confess to a priest
The 95 Theses
October 31, 1517, Luther wrote a letter to Albert condemning him for his sale of indulgences With the letter, he included his "Disputation of Martin
Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences" He then nailed a copy of the same
“Disputation” to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg that same day These become known as the 95 Theses Some students translated them into German and
spread copies throughout Germany
The 95 Theses
82. To wit: -- "Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls that are there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with which to build a Church? The former reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial.“
86. Again: -- "Why does not the pope, whose wealth is to-day greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of poor believers?"
The 95 Theses
Luther did not believe he was not breaking any church laws with his statements He did not consider them to be direct attacks against
the church but rather scholarly debates
The Theses were so popular that the sales of indulgences dropped dramatically in 1518
Albert did not respond to Luther’s letter but forwarded a copy of it to the papacy Pope Leo X actually dismissed Luther as a “drunken
German” in 1518
Luther nailing the 95 Theses to the church door
Break With the Church
Starting in 1520, Luther began to break even more radically from the Catholic Church This was illustrated with three pamphlets he
published in 1520, which also slowly lay the foundation of Lutheranism
Address to the Nobility of the German Nation He wrote that the German people should unite and
abolish papal powerOn the Freedom of a Christian Man –
He argued that every man is his own priest and that it is faith alone that brings salvation
Break With the Church
The Babylonian Captivity of the Church – In it, he said that the church had been hiding the real
meaning of the gospel hostage for 1,000 years He attacked the sacraments He also argued that the clergy should marry since
while virginity was good, marriage is better, and freedom of choice is best
On January 3, 1521, the pope issued the official decree of excommunication This stated that Luther was officially a heretic Technically, Luther should have been arrested and
then burned at the stake
Excommunication
Frederick the Wise, the Elector of Saxony, intervened on Luther’s behalf He requested that Luther be given a fair hearing in
front of the Imperial Diet (parliament of the Holy Roman Empire)
On April 17, 1521, Luther appeared before the Imperial Diet at the city of Worms In attendance was the newly elected Holy Roman
Emperor, Charles V Many expected Luther to recant his writings in order
to avoid persecution
Diet of Worms
Luther did not recant anything He said that if they can find anything in the Bible to
prove him wrong, then he will recant “Since then Your Majesty and your lordships desire
a simple replay, I will answer without horns and without teeth. Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason—I do not accept the authority of popes and councils, for they have contradicted each other—my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen.”
Diet of Worms
May 8, 1521, Charles and the Diet issued the Edict of Worms of 1521 It reaffirmed Luther’s position as a heretic and
political outlaw It stated that all of Luther’s writing were to be burned Luther had left Worms by this point
As he was escaping, he was kidnapped by Frederick the Wise and spent over a year in hiding under his protection Luther spent his time in hiding working on building
a new reformed church
Luther at the Diet of Worms
The New Lutheran Church
Luther based his new church on two things: His “justification by faith” Disregarding anything that was not specifically stated
in the Bible
This meant an even more radical break with the Catholic Church
The main belief was that if it was not in the Bible, it should not be followed This meant he rejected dogma and church decrees as
supplements to the Scriptures
The New Lutheran Church
In the new church, good works do not lead to salvation This got rid of fasts, pilgrimages, and veneration of
relics
He believed that there was no need for a hierarchy of priests If all Christians followed the Word of God, they would
be their own priests This would mean no bishops or popes This would also mean no monasteries or convents
The New Lutheran Church
He rejected the Catholic policy of transubstantiation According to the Catholic Church, priests would
“miraculously” transform the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ
It would literally become the body and blood Instead he believed that it was a representation
(consubstantiation) of the body and blood, although there was some presence of Christ in it
The New Lutheran Church
Luther redefined the Sacraments He believed that only two had support of the
scriptures: baptism and communion The rest were considered “good deeds” and thus
worthless
Mass should be in German, not LatinIn 1525, he married a former nun, Katherina
von Bora This provided a new model of marriage and the family
for future Lutheran ministers
The Rise of Lutheranism
His ideas were popular with the masses Preachers went from town to town spreading his
message His followers also made use of the new printing
presses to help spread his ideas
However, the only way Lutheranism could survive was getting the support of the German princes and free cities No matter how popular it was, the movement could
easily be crushed Luther realized that he needed the help of the princes
if he wanted to succeed
Role of the German Princes
Throughout Europe, many rulers were able to get more control over the churches in their countries Many of these rulers wanted to make themselves the
dominant secular and religious authorities in their states France, England, and Spain were able to use their power
to get the pope to grant them concessions which usually included more control over their churches
The German states were not as lucky They did not have such power Therefore they were not able to get concessions from the
church
Role of the German Princes
This meant that the German princes did not have any say in church affairs The only way they would be able to get this would be
by force and they did not have armies large enough to do so
Luther’s beliefs were popular with the German rulers If there is no church hierarchy, then there are no
church officials to challenge their authority This gave them more power than they ever had before
Role of the German Princes
Luther used this to his advantage He encouraged the princes to confiscate church lands
and its wealth as a way of gaining their support He also got them involved in organizing and guiding
the new Lutheran churches However, they could not just embrace Lutheranism
The princes had to wait to see what Holy Roman Emperor Charles V would do against the Protestants first If Charles took notice, he would send in troops from
all over Europe to crush the movement
Role of Charles V
At the time, Charles was preoccupied with more pressing matters
After Charles was elected emperor, his rivalry with King Francis I of France got worse Francis felt that France was in a position of weakness
since it was surrounded by Habsburg controlled lands Spain was on one side and the Low Countries on the
other Each king laid claims to the other’s lands
This included the Low Countries, southern France, parts of Spain, and Italy
Role of Charles V
From 1521 to 1544 both Francis and Charles were tied up in a series of wars with each other These were collectively known as the Habsburg-Valois
Wars These wars prevented Charles from focusing on the
growing threat of Protestantism in Germany
Charles had hoped the pope, Clement VII, would take care of the Protestant threat in the Holy Roman Empire However, Clement was more fearful of Charles’ growing
power in Italy so he joined the French in against Charles
Role of Charles V
Charles ended up sacking Rome in 1527 and arrested Clement VII This prevented the Pope from annulling Henry VIII’s
marriage to Catherine of AragonOn the eastern front of his empire, Charles
had to deal with the growing power of the Ottoman Turks Under the leadership of Suleiman the Magnificent, the
Turks were able to take Hungary and got as far as Vienna
With all of this, it became quickly evident that Charles V was unwilling to bring troops into the Empire to defend Catholicism
Support for Luther
Because of this, many princes joined the Lutheran movement Some joined for pious reasons Others joined for economic and political ones since they
could now elect church officials and prevent money from going to Rome
Many free cities also converted to Lutheranism They too could now control the politics of their cities
without the interference of bishops or other church officials
This meant that Lutheranism was able to flourish in those areas
Peasants’ Revolt (1524-1525)
Support for Luther
With the support of the princes and free cities, Lutheranism was able to flourish in those areas In areas still held by Catholic princes, Lutherans were
forced to flee for fear of death
Then in 1524, the Peasants’ Revolt broke out This could have drastically altered the course of the
ReformationIts causes were the result of the changing
economy of Germany Princes and nobles were changing over from knights to
mercenaries and the use of artillery in their militaries
Peasants’ Revolt (1524-1525)
As this changeover was expensive, this meant that the princes to levy new taxes against the population
This taxation was both direct and indirect For example in 1514, in Württemberg, the peasants
discovered that the standard weights used to measure their crops were altered against their favor
Those who were hit the hardest were the burghers (merchant class) in the cities and the peasants in the countryside The nobility and the clergy were usually exempt from
taxation
Peasants’ Revolt (1524-1525)
The clergy was also blamed for many of the problems as well They were considered just as bad as the princes because
they collected taxes as well Many also viewed the clergy as “lazy” and “loose” and were
commonly despised by the burghers and peasants
Luther’s work actually added more fuel to the fire By focusing on what was in the Scriptures, the peasants
found that feudalism was not mentioned in the Bible They also read his pamphlet The War on German Liberties
Peasants’ Revolt (1524-1525)
The revolts began near simultaneously in various parts of Germany The peasants drew up lists of grievances and swore an oath
of allegiance to their cause They were armed with usually no more than a pitch fork
Luther had a serious predicament: Does he side with the peasants and thus lose the support of
the princes? Does he side with the princes and thus lose the support of
the masses?While Luther sympathized with the peasants’
grievances, he also realized the importance of secular authority
Peasants’ Revolt (1524-1525)
In 1525, he published Against the Robbing and Murderous Hordes of the Peasants He was particularly upset that they used the scripture
to support their rebellion “…they cloak this terrible and horrible sin with the
Gospel, call themselves ‘Christian brethren’, receive oaths and homage, and compel people to hold with them to these abominations. Thus they become the greatest of all blasphemers of God and slanderers of his holy Name, serving the devil, under the outward appearance of the Gospel, thus earning death in body and soul ten times over. I have never heard of a more hideous sin.”
Peasants’ Revolt (1524-1525)
Luther also encouraged those who could to go and kill the peasants “Stab, smite, slay, whoever can. If you die in doing it, well
for you! A more blessed death can never be yours, for you die obeying the divine Word and commandment in Romans XIII, and in loving service of your neighbor, whom you are rescuing from the bonds of hell and of the devil.”
The revolts were eventually put down Because of Luther’s support of the princes, they gave him
free reign in implementing the Lutheran church in their regions
The peasants no longer supported Luther Some returned to Catholicism while others turned to more
radical protestantism
Spread of Protestantism
Lutheranism was limited to northern Germany and Scandinavia It was not as popular in the rest of Germany The Kings of Sweden and Norway were quick to
embrace Protestantism to give them stronger control over religion
What Luther was able to do was encourage others to stand up against the Church
The term “protestant” came from Luther standing up and “protesting” at the Diet of Worms This term was then applied to other religious groups
who also sought to break with the Catholic Church
Swiss Confederation
Reformation in Switzerland
The Swiss still were part of the Holy Roman Empire In 1499, they were able to defeat Emperor Maximilian
and were able to gain some autonomy They formed the Swiss Confederation which consisted
of six forest cantons and seven urban cantons No one person had control over Switzerland and the
members of the cantons decided what they wanted
In the 16th century, the Swiss were known as the best fighting men in all of Europe They even exported mercenary soldiers
Reformation in Switzerland
The Swiss themselves had strong loyalties to their local governments They deeply resented the papacy getting involved in
Swiss affairsBecause of their autonomy, there was no one
who could tell them what they could or could not do in terms of religion
The Protestant movement came to Switzerland in 1520
By 1550, three forms of Protestantism took root: Zwinglianism, Anabaptism, and Calvinism
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) was the one who brought the Reformation to Switzerland He was born to a prominent middle-class family with
close ties to the church He graduated from the University of Basel with a
Master’s Degree in Divinity
It was at Basel where he was first exposed to the writings of the northern Humanists This has a huge impact on his further religious
development
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
In 1506, Zwingli became a priest in Glarus This was when he was first exposed to the corruption
of the Catholic Church He had to buy off Heinrich Göldi, who was the papal
appointee, to get the positionOn December 11, 1518, he was appointed the
People’s Priest at Great Minster in the city of Zürich His opponent had a concubine, six children, and many
benefices At the time, though, Zwingli had his own female lover The position gave him little income or influence but
gave him many opportunities to preach to the public
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
On January 1, 1519, Zwingli gave his first sermon As part of it, he read from a Greek Bible and gave his
own interpretation of it His speech was entirely based on the scriptures This had a sensational impact on the attendees
With this popularity, he continued on with similar sermons
In 1519, the bubonic plague hit Switzerland and hit Zürich in August Zwingli tended to the sick He eventually caught the plague himself but survived
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Getting the plague had a huge impact on Zwingli’s teachings He became more serious in his reforms of the church It was also at this time that he secretly broke away
from the Roman ChurchIn 1522, he made his next open criticism of
the Catholic Church’s policies He and some followers broke their fast during Lent He said that there was nothing in the Bible that
supported fasting The Bishop of Zürich admonished him saying that he
violated church doctrine
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Zwingli then sent a letter to the Bishop requesting that clergy be allowed to marry It was published as A Friendly Petition and Admonition
to the Confederates Zwingli strongly supported the abolition of celibacy
especially since he secretly wed his lover a few months prior
This was denied
This was a strenuous time for the city There were growing conflicts between the teachings of
Zwingli and the Catholic Church There was also a clash with the forest cantons as well
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
In December 1522, the Swiss Diet prohibited any radical religious teachings throughout the cantons This ruling was specifically aimed at Zwingli and the
city of Zürich
The city council of Zürich decided to hold a public debate on religious teachings to decide what its position would be In January 1523, the first disputation took place
between Zwingli and representatives of the Bishop of Zürich, led by Johannes Fabri, the Vicar General of Constance
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Zwingli’s platform during the debates were published as the Sixty-Seven Articles He knocked down many of the practices of the Church
including fasting, pilgrimages, monastic vows, celibacy, penance, and purgatory
The main point of his argument was that the church needed to be restored to its ancient purity based on the scriptures
Zwingli won the debate and gained the support of the city council The council then ordered that all priests inside the
canton would preach Zwingli’s teachings The council did not do this solely for religious purposes
as this gave them more authority over their city
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
During 1524 and 1525, Zwingli’s reforms were put into place These included removing all statues and images from
the churches, music was eliminated, and papal authority was abolished
He even was publically married in 1524Zwinglism spread to other cities throughout
Switzerland by 1529However, it faced its most serious resistance
in the forest cantons that remained Catholic
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
In 1529, Zwingli attempted to create an alliance of the Swiss and German reformed churches However, other Protestant leaders, including Martin
Luther, could not agree on the Lord’s SupperIn October 1531, war broke out between the
Protestant and Catholic Cantons Zwingli was injured in battle His enemies found him, killed him, and then cut up his
body and burned the pieces When Luther found out about this, he said that Zwingli
got what he deservedWith the Peace of Kappel (November 16, 1531),
each canton was permitted to choose its own religion
John of Leiden (c.1509-1536)
Anabaptists
The Anabaptists were a group of radical reformers in Switzerland and northern Germany “Anabaptism” means “rebaptism” The Anabaptists were originally part of Zwingli’s
movement in Zurich but broke off because they argued against infant baptism
Their main ideas included: The church community should elect its own ministers
since anybody could be a priest Adult Baptism – They believed that only adults could
make the true decision on whether they should be baptized or not
Pacifism – They would not bear arms because of the commandment “Thou shall not kill”
Anabaptist Troubles
After leaving Zurich, the Anabaptists moved around from city to city They were kicked out from cities because of their
revolutionary ideas and their uncompromising leadersThey were able to settle in Münster
They became so influential there that they were able to obtain a majority on the city’s council
This was followed shortly thereafter with the expulsion of all the non-Anabaptists
On January 5, 1534, the Anabaptists took full control of the city One of the leaders, John of Leiden, took the title of
“King of the New Temple”
Anabaptists in Münster
Reforms were instituted throughout the city Anabaptist religious practices became mandatory Private property was abolished Common ownership was introduced Polygamy was allowed, as it has precedents in the Old
TestamentSoon after, Franz von Waldeck, the Bishop of
Münster, lay siege to the city with the help of Catholic troops
On June 24, 1535, Waldeck was able to successfully retake the city
Anabaptists in Münster
John of Leiden and two of his lieutenants were tortured to death Their bodies were pulled apart with red-hot pokers
and they were killed with a dagger through the heart Their bodies were then put in cages, which hung from
the steeple of St. Lambert's Church, to rot and were eventually removed 50 years later
After the Anabaptists were put down in Münster, the remain Anabaptists were put down violently throughout Europe Those who survived did band together into a new
groups, including the Mennonites
Cages at St. Lambert’s Church
John Calvin (1509-1564)
John Calvin (1509-1564)
John Calvin was born in Picardie, France His father had very strong ties to the church Many expected Calvin to become a priest He received an MA in theology from the University of Paris
When his father fell out of favor with his church friends, he insisted Calvin to go into law so instead Calvin received his law degree from the University of
OrleansWhen his father died in 1531, Calvin returned to
theology and moved back to Paris While there, he became involved in a reform movement that
was based upon Humanism
John Calvin (1509-1564)
Sometime between 1531 and 1533, Calvin had a “sudden conversion” experience He believed that while he “was too obstinately devoted
to the superstitions of popery” he had a conversion experience which removed him from “so profound an abyss of mire”
He converted to Protestantism
On October 18, 1534, Protestants plastered the city with posters proclaiming the abuses of the Catholic Church This was known as the Day of the Placards In response, the French king, Francis I, executed a
number of Protestants
John Calvin (1509-1564)
Calvin himself was forced to flee Paris After he had left, 24 people were burned at the stake
in France for being heretics
He spent the next two years wandering around France, Italy, and Switzerland He finally settled down in the city of Basel in
Switzerland in 1536
While he was there, he wrote his Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536 It was written in response to the harsh treatment of
the French Protestants by the French king
Institutes of the Christian Religion
Institutes became the foundation of Calvin’s theology He believed that because of Adam’s sin, all men were
born sinners and were doomed to a life of sin He also believed that nothing that we do on earth
affects where we end up in the afterlife Instead, God predestines some humans for salvation
(the Elect) with the rest going to hell From reading the Institutes it is clear that Calvin was
strongly influenced by St. Augustine
It originally was published as a pamphlet but expanded to over four volumes
Institutes of the Christian Religion
He believed that the “elect” will automatically do good because God “programs” them to do so A sign of predestination would be the desire to live a good
Christian life Part of this included being a member of the reformed
church
He also believed it was the duty of all Christians to prevent sin because it diminishes God’s glory
With his ideology laid out in the Institutes, Calvin wanted to put his theories into practice
Calvin in Geneva
In the 1530s, Geneva was in the middle of political and religious turmoil Calvin had visited the city to work on his studies but
was encouraged by a fellow reformer to stay He moved there in 1536 but was expelled in 1538 for
the too radical move of not using unleavened bread in celebration of Communion
Calvin spent the next three years as a minister in Strasbourg During this time, Geneva was being torn apart with
religious and political strife Also, church attendance declined rapidly with Calvin
gone
Calvin in Geneva
In 1540, Geneva’s city council decided they wanted Calvin back However, Calvin did not want to go back because of his
bad experience there “Rather would I submit to death a hundred times than
to that cross on which I had to perish daily a thousand times over”
After more negotiations and prodding by his friends, Calvin did return to Geneva Calvin was well received by the local council who gave
him both an income and a house He remained in Geneva for the rest of his life
Calvin in Geneva
Calvin set up a theocracy in Geneva which was divided into two parts
The “lower house” was the Congregation which included all members of the clergy Their job was to write legislation
The “upper house” was the Consistory It contained twelve elders and the pastors of the city’s
churches They met every Thursday to pass the legislation from
the Congregation
Calvin in Geneva
The Consistory also supervised all public and private morality in the city The city was divided into four districts and members
of the Consistory would visit every house in the city every year, most the time without warning
Any type of dancing, playing, working, card playing, etc. on Sunday was prohibited and a punishable offence
Heresy, adultery, and blasphemy were considered capital crimes
Between 1541 and 1545, 58 people were executed out of 16,000 who lived in the city
Calvin in Geneva
Because of Calvin’s success in Geneva, many Protestants throughout Europe were influenced by him John Knox started his reform movement in Scotland
based on Calvinism (became the Presbyterians) Calvinists started their own movements in Holland
(Dutch Reformed Church), England (Puritans), and France (Huguenots)
Luther versus Calvin
Differences Between Calvin and Luther
While they may seem similar, Calvin and Luther had different views on the church
Luther and Calvin had different views on the path to salvation Luther believed in faith alone while Calvin believed
in predestinationThey also differed on the role of the church
with the state Luther believed that the church should be
depended on the state while Calvin believed that the church should not be regulated by the state
Differences Between Calvin and Luther
Luther kept some ties to Catholic religion while Calvin completely severed all ties Luther did allow for some superintendents to run the
church like the bishops did in the Catholic Church Calvin completely rejected any hierarchy and believed
that the congregation should be led by elders called Presbyters
Luther also kept many of the entrapments of the church including the use of altars, music, vestments, and rituals
Calvin also prohibited music, vestments, processions, any church decorations
Differences Between Calvin and Luther
Calvin was much more legalistic than Luther While Luther believed a person should follow his own
conscience, Calvin believed a person should follow the scriptures
For example, Luther requested that people attend mass but Calvin believed they should also avoid work or pleasure for the remainder of the day
Calvin believed in true consubstantiation Luther believed that there was still some semblance of
Christ in the host and the wine
Differences Between Calvin and Luther
While Luther had a more “relaxed” attitude towards “good Christian behavior,” Calvin believed that it was the duty of all Christians to actively fight against sin For example, Luther felt that people should just
endure the trials of life but Calvin believed they should work for a better world
Calvin relied heavily on the Old Testament while Luther more on the New
Henry VIII King of England (1491-1547)
Reformation in England
The Reformation in England was very different than the rest of Europe England was not affected by the papacy and church
abuses as other countries While many called for reforms for the church, it was
the king’s decision to break from Rome that brought the Reformation to England
There were some religious reasons behind the English Reformation However, the major reason was political
Reformation in England
In London, Luther’s ideas were widely received There was a small group of German merchants living in
London who were spreading Luther’s ideas These ideas were very popular with English youth
Henry VIII wrote an article denouncing the teachings of Luther Because of this, the Pope gave Henry the title “Defender of
the Faith”
The political cause to the English Reformation had its roots in Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon Catherine was the daughter of Ferdinand II and Isabella of
Spain, two of the most powerful monarchs in Europe
Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536) (m. 1509-1533)
Divorced
Henry VIII (1491-1547)
Catherine of Aragon originally was married to Henry’s older brother Arthur, who died soon after the wedding
King Henry VII did not want to lose the alliance with Spain He suggested that his other son, Henry, would marry
Catherine insteadHowever, according to church law, Catherine was
not permitted to marry her dead husband’s brother Catherine said that she never consummated her marriage
with Arthur Thus, they were able to receive a papal dispensation from
Pope Julius II in 1503 and got married in 1509
Henry VIII (1491-1547)
Throughout the course of their marriage, Catherine was unable to give Henry a son She had a number of stillbirths and those that did
survive died shortly after birth Eventually, she did give birth to a daughter, Mary, in
1516
As the years went on, she could still not give birth to a son and the situation grew dim for Henry She eventually got well past the childbearing age She had no pregnancies after 1519
Henry VIII (1491-1547)
Beginning in 1525, Henry began having an affair with Anne Boleyn Anne had been one of Catherine’s Ladies-in-Waiting
He asked Catherine for an annulment so he could marry Anne but she refused
In 1527, he petitions Pope Clement VII for an annulment Henry argued that God was punishing him for
marrying his deceased brother’s wife Annulments had been given to ruling monarchs on
weaker grounds
Pope Clement VII (1523-1534)
The Divorce
Clement had a serious issue if he granted the annulment: He would be admitting the first papal dispensation was
invalid This would then question the validity of all other
dispensations
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V also became involved in this issue He was Catherine’s nephew He had recently invaded Rome and held the pope in captivity
The pope stalled the granting of the annulment because of all of this
The Divorce
Henry’s negotiator with Rome was Cardinal Wolsey Henry told Wolsey that the investigation was not moving
fast enough Since he did not speed things along, Wolsey was fired in
1529
Henry, in the meantime, asked his own chief clergymen to investigate the annulment This included Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of
Canterbury, and Thomas Cromwell
In late 1532, Anne Boleyn finally gave in to Henry and became pregnant soon after
The Divorce
Henry needed to act fast because if the child was a boy, he did not want it to be a bastard He secretly married Anne on January 25, 1533
In May 1533, Archbishop Cranmer in a special court declared Henry’s marriage to Catherine was void This decision could not be appealed by the papacy
because of the Statute of Praemunire (1353) The court also recognized Henry’s marriage to Anne
Anne Boleyn was crowned on June 1, 1533
Anne Boleyn (1501-1536) (m. 1533-1536)
Executed
Official Break With the Church
Pope Clement responded to the divorce by excommunicating Henry
Henry proceeded to have Parliament pass a series of laws cutting off all ties to Rome
Act of Supremacy (1534) The king “justly and rightfully is and ought to be the
supreme head of the Church of England” This created an independent national church which
was now known as the Church of England (Anglicans Ecclesia), or the Anglican Church
Official Break With the Church
Act of Treason (1534) Made it punishable by death to deny that the king was
the supreme head of the churchAct Dissolving the Greater Monasteries
(1539) This act shut down all monasteries and convents in
England All their wealth was then given to the king
These acts asserted that there was no authority in England greater than the king and Parliament The pope no longer had any standing in England
Other Religious Changes
As Henry wanted to break with Rome and not specifically Catholicism, he had Parliament issue the Six Articles of Faith in 1539 It included such ideas as transubstantiation, the celibacy
of the clergy, and the importance of oral confessions These became the basic beliefs of the Anglican church
but at the same time mirrored similar Catholic doctrines
It is not until later monarchs that England becomes a true Protestant state The Reformation does not end in England until the reign
of Elizabeth I
Henry and His Wives
Anne Boleyn (1501-1536)
Anne Boleyn became queen on June 1, 1533She gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, that
September However, she was unable to produce another heir for
Henry She was able to get pregnant but those ended in
either miscarriage or stillbirths
With Anne’s inability to give birth to a son, Henry focused his attentions on his new lover, Jane Seymour She was one of Anne’s ladies-in-waiting
Anne Boleyn (1501-1536)
Henry began saying that he was tricked into marrying Anne
In April 1536, a court musician “confessed” to having an affair with Anne This was followed up with accusations that she had
incestual relations with her brother GeorgeIn May, Anne was put on trial for adultery,
incest, and high treason The high treason was based on the claim that Anne
was plotting to kill the king to marry one of her lovers She was executed at the Tower of London on May 19th
Jane Seymour (c.1508-1537) (m. 1536-1537)
Died
Jane Seymour (c.1508-1537)
Henry proposed to Jane Seymour on May 20, 1536 They were married on May 30th
Jane never had an official coronation Some say that Henry wanted to wait until she gave birth
to a son Others blame a plague that was ravaging London at the
time
She gave birth to a son, a sickly Edward VI, on October 12, 1537 She died shortly after his baptism from puerperal fever,
a form of blood poisoning
Anne of Cleves (1515-1557) (m. Jan.–July 1540)
Divorced
Anne of Cleves (1515-1557)
In order to guarantee that he would have an heir, Henry sought to marry again
It was suggested that he marry Anne of Cleves, the sister of the Protestant Duke of Cleves The Duke of Cleves was a potentially important ally
against the Catholic states The royal painter, Hans Holbein, was sent to paint a
portrait of her When Henry was shown a painting of Anne of Cleves,
he decided to marry her
Anne of Cleves (1515-1557)
However, when she arrived in England, he found her very unattractive He called her his “Flanders Mare”
Since he was an honorable man, he still married Anne on January 6, 1540 However, he was unable to consummate the marriage Also, the Duke of Cleves was on the verge of a war on
the continent against the Holy Roman Empire of which Henry did not want to get involved in
The marriage was annulled on July 9, 1540 Anne was given the title “King’s Sister” and lived in
comfort until her death in 1557
Kathryn Howard (1521-1542) (m. 1540-1542)
Executed
Kathryn Howard (c. 1525-1542)
Kathryn Howard married Henry on July 28, 1540 She had been one of Anne’s ladies-in-waiting who
caught Henry’s eyeShe was beautiful but was also unchaste
At this point, Henry was 49 years old, over 300 pounds, suffered from an oozing ulcer on his leg
She began flirting with the young men in court and appointed one as her personal secretary
When Henry found out about her adultery, she was put on trial for adultery and treason She was beheaded at the Tower of London on February
13, 1542
Katherine Parr (1512-1548) (m. 1543-
1547) Widowed
Katherine Parr (1512-1548)
Katherine Parr had already survived two husbands prior to her catching Henry’s eye in court She was interested in another man, Thomas Seymour,
when Henry proposed to her She broke off that relationship to marry the King on July
12, 1543Her marriage to Henry was a success
Her motto was “To be useful in all I do” She was a highly educated woman and doted on Henry’s
childrenWhen Henry died in 1547, she married Seymour
She died in 1548 shortly after giving birth to a daughter
Edward VI (1547-1553)
Edward VI (1547-1553)
Edward was nine years old when he was crowned king in 1547 Henry had requested that Edward have a Council of
Regency instead of just one regent However, in reality, Edward Seymour, later Duke of
Sommerset, became the most powerful political force during the regency
Many members of his regency were radical Protestants They were Calvinists who used their position of power
to revise church doctrines and ceremonies Edward himself was a devout Protestant as well which
helped in the success of these changes
Radical Protestantism
In 1547, Edward issued a list of injunctions which included: The abolishment of relics in churches The gospel and epistles be read in English The vow of celibacy was removed
Then in 1549, he introduced the Book of Common Prayer This was a prayer book that contained readings for
massMany in England saw these steps as being
too radical
Radical Protestantism
In 1553, his issued the 42 Articles of Faith These moved the Anglican church closer to Calvinism They denied five of the seven sacraments Believed that salvation was through faith alone Denied transubstantiation and accepted consubstantiation
When Edward was dying in 1553, he put in his will that his cousin, Lady Jane Grey, was to be his heir He did not want his half-sister, Mary, to ascend to the
throne as she had been raised Catholic He was afraid that Mary would undo all of the reforms
made during his reignEdward died from tuberculosis on July 6, 1553
Lady Jane Grey (July 10-19, 1553)
Lady Jane Grey (1553)
Lady Jane Grey was declared Queen on July 10, 1553 She had the support of the Earl of Northumberland At this time, Mary had fled London to rally support
Mary returned to London on July 19th with troops This time she had the necessary support to force
Parliament to recognize her as queen
Lady Jane was imprisoned in the Tower of London She was not executed until there was an uprising in her
name in 1554
Mary I (1553-1558)
Mary I (1553-1558)
Mary was the daughter of Catherine of Aragon She was raised as a Roman Catholic She was 37 years old when she was crowned on July 19,
1553
When she took the throne, she vowed to bring Catholicism back to England At the time, a majority of England was still Roman Catholic
and resented the changes brought about under Edward’s reign
She sought to realign England with Rome as well Within a few months, she had arrested most of the
prominent Protestant religious leaders in England and brought back the Catholic bishops
Mary I (1553-1558)
In October 1553, she had Parliament pass the Act of Repeal It undid all the religious changes done during Edward’s
reign
In 1555, she reinstituted medieval heresy laws and began her prosecution of Protestants Over 280 Protestants were burned at the stake for heresy Over 800 Protestants fled England at this time
Some of the other changes she made: Restored the celebration of mass in Latin and clerical
celibacy Forced Parliament to vote for the unconditional return of
England to papal allegiance
Mary I (1553-1558)
After restoring Catholicism, Mary’s next biggest concern was she did not have an heir She wanted an heir to prevent the throne from getting
into the hands of her Protestant sister, ElizabethIn 1554, she married Philip II of Spain
This was only a political marriage for Philip and he left England after a little more than a year
The English did not approve of this marriage They were fearful of Philip attempting to dominate
England As part of the marriage agreement, Philip was named
King of England and all official documents had both their names on them
Mary I (1553-1558)
In 1557, Philip got England involved in the Italian Wars against France The people were strongly against this involvement but
Mary did not stop him England lost its last bit of territory on mainland
Europe (Calais)
Mary died on November 17, 1558, presumably from cancer She left no male heir and made no concessions for a
Catholic ruler to follow her This ended the Catholic Restoration in England
Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
Elizabeth was the daughter of Anne Boleyn She was raised Protestant but was not devout While Mary was Queen, she declared Elizabeth to be
illegitimate
Elizabeth’s main goal was to bring religious peace to England
She came up with a compromise between Catholics and Protestants by “going down the middle” in terms of religion
Elizabethan Compromise
She had the Act of Supremacy of 1559 passed This repealed all of Mary’s legislation Foreign princes were not allowed to exercise any
power in England Elizabeth was declared the spiritual and religious
head of the church It also included an Oath of Supremacy which every
person holding civil or church office must make or else they would be charged with treason
Elizabethan Compromise
Act of Uniformity of 1559 reestablished some of the prayers and doctrines of Edward’s reign She made the 1552 Book of Common Prayer
compulsory She required all English to attend the Anglican church
on Sundays If they did not, they were charged a fine of 12 pence
called recusancy fines She also issued a new Confession of Faith
Elizabethan Compromise
Elizabeth then issued the 39 Articles of Faith She had taken Edward’s 42 Articles of Faith and
removed the three most radical ones The Anglican church now took a closer theological
approach to Luther than to Calvin
By this point in time, a majority of English had accepted the Protestant religion The only ones who did not accept Elizabeth’s
compromise were the Catholics and the radical Protestants (the Puritans)
With the Compromise, the English Reformation was officially over
Pope Paul III (1534-1549)
Counter Reformation
The Catholic Church could not ignore the problems it was facing both internally and externally People inside the Catholic Church not only wanted to
fight the growing threat of Protestantism but to renew the Church from the inside as well
To Catholics, this is called the “Catholic Reformation,” while to non-Catholics is it referred to as the “Counter Reformation”
This Counter Reformation began with the Council of Trent in 1545 and ended with the Thirty Years War in 1648
Counter Reformation
During the period of the Counter Reformation even the position of pope was cleaned up These popes led very pious lives compared to previous
popes The first was Pope Paul III (1534-1549)
Pope Paul III – (1534-1549) He was the first pope to deal with the abuses of the
Catholic Church He sought to convert Protestants back to Catholicism
peaceably His main contribution was the formation of the
Council of Trent
Council of Trent (1545-1563)
Council of Trent (1545-1563) was designed to respond to the challenges of the Protestants The council met three times between 1545 and 1563
in the city of Trent At the beginning, it had hoped to make a compromise
with the Protestants but that failedThe Council reaffirmed many of the Catholic
doctrines All seven sacraments, not just two, were considered
necessary It also stated that both good deeds and faith were
needed for salvation
Council of Trent (1545-1563)
It also reaffirmed transubstantiation, celibacy of the clergy, purgatory, and papal supremacy
Another major issue it faced was dealing with the major problems in the church Bishops and priests were no longer allowed to hold
more than one office Indulgences were to be earned, not sold They abolished certain popular religious cults and
replaced them with “approved” ones such as the Cult of the Virgin Mary
Pope Paul IV (1555-1559)
Pope Paul IV (1555-1559)
Pope Paul IV – (1555-1559) He was known for being very orthodox and demanded
reform in the church Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus ("Outside the Church
there is no salvation“) He brought back the Inquisition throughout Europe to
fight Protestants and Jews; he thought the Jews were involved in the Reformation somehow
He also set up the first ghettos for Jews
Pope Pius IV (1559-1565)
Pope Pius IV was best known for issuing the Index Librorum Prohibitorum in 1564 This was a list of books that could be “dangerous” to
Catholics It was an accepted form of censorship since the
purpose of the Church is to save souls Books were categorized into three categories:
Absolutely prohibited as they preached immorality or misrepresented Catholicism
Books that were acceptable with certain passages removed
Books that were safe for Catholics to read
Pope Pius V (1566-1572)
Pope Pius V (1566-1572)
Pope Pius V was another major reformerHe fought against the Huguenot movement in
France He fired clergy who converted and reformed the
churchHe issued the Tridentine Mass in 1570
It was a standardized Latin mass that was to be used in all Catholic churches
This was to prevent any “heretical” ideas from being put into Catholic masses
He also was the pope who excommunicated Elizabeth I
Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)
Society of Jesus (aka the Jesuits)
The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1540 It was a very militant society whose purpose was to
fight heresy and bring back the “lost souls” to Catholicism
It was also one of the major role players in the Counter Reformation
Ignatius Loyola – (1491-1556) He had been a solider in the Spanish army when he
got hit in the leg with a cannonball
Society of Jesus (aka the Jesuits)
His injury was very difficult to heal The doctors kept on setting the leg bones incorrectly
and had to reset it twice After the first reset, there was a bend in his leg so the
doctors decided to saw off the protruding bone Unfortunately, this left one leg shorter than the other A leg stretcher was then used to lengthen the leg
While Loyola was recuperating from the procedures he read the “Life of Christ” by Rudolf of Saxon It was at the time that he made the decision to be a
solider of Christ
Society of Jesus (aka the Jesuits)
In 1534, together with six friends, he formed the Society of Jesus In 1540, they received papal approval for the Society
to be an official order of the church
The Society played many roles in the Counter Reformation
They were able to regain territory lost to the Protestant movement They did this through rhetoric and persuasion rather
than force
Society of Jesus (aka the Jesuits)
They developed some of the best schools in the world to help educate Catholic children This had the effect of “indoctrinating” future
generations of CatholicsThey became confessors to the nobility
Because of this they also gained influence on the nobility
Due to their education and training, they were in demand to hold government positions They were then able to use their positions to keep
governments favorable to the Church and the pope
Society of Jesus (aka the Jesuits)
They also acted as missionaries to help convert new areas to Catholicism By the time of Loyola’s death, there were over 1,000
members of the Society Over the next century, the Society spread to Asia
(India and China) and South AmericanThe Jesuits, like the Reformation Popes and the
Council of Trent, helped the Catholic church survive during the course of the Reformation