FOOD HABITS, FEEDING SEASONALITY AND ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGE INFLICTED

BY THE INDIAN CRESTED PORCUPINE, Hystrix indica, IN DIFFERENT AGRO-FORESTRY

SYSTEMS OF THE PUNJAB, PAKISTAN

By

SHAHID HAFEEZ M.Sc (Hons) Forestry

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree

OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

IN

FORESTRY

Department of Forestry, Range Management and Wildlife FACULTY OF AGRICULTUTRE,

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, FAISALABAD

2011

To The Controller of Examination, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad.

“We, the Supervisory committee, certify that the contents and form of thesis

submitted by Shahid Hafeez 94-ag-1244 have been found satisfactory and recommend

that it be processed for evaluation by the External Examiner (s) for the award of degree”.

Supervisory Committee:

1. Chairman ----------------------------------------- Dr Ghulam Sarwar Khan

2. Member ----------------------------------------- Dr Zahoor Hussain Khan 3. Member -----------------------------------------

Dr. Muhammad Ashfaq (T.I. )

IInn TThhee NNaammee OOff

AAllllaahh TThhee MMoosstt BBeenneeffiicceenntt,,

TThhee MMeerrcciiffuull

DEDICATED To

Master in the field of Vertebrate Pest Management and caring person

Abdul Aziz Khan

i

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the contents of the thesis “FOOD HABITS, FEEDING

SEASONALITY AND ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGE INFLICTED BY THE INDIAN

CRESTED PORCUPINE, Hystrix indica, IN DIFFERENT AGRO-FORESTRY

SYSTEMS OF THE PUNJAB, PAKISTAN” are the product of my own research and no

parts has been copied from any published source (except the references, standard

mathematical of genetic/ equations/ formulate/ protocols etc). I further declare that this

work has not been submitted for awards of any other diploma/degree. The University may

take action if the information provided is found inaccurate at any stage. (In case of any

default the scholar will be proceeded against as per HEC plagiarism policy).

Signature of the Student Shahid Hafeez

Regd. No. 94 -ag-1244

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All “Praises (belong) to ALLAH alone, the Cherisher and sustainer of the worlds” (1:6).

I have the pearls of my eyes to admire countless blessings of ALLAH. It is the one

of his infinite blessings that he bestowed me with potential and ability to complete the

present research program and to make a material contribution to deep oceans of knowledge

already existing.

Then the trembling lips and wet eyes praise the greatest man of universe, the last

messenger of ALLAH, Hazarat Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him), whom ALLAH has

sent as mercy for worlds, the illuminating torch, the blessing for the literate, illiterate, rich,

poor, powerful, weaker, able and disabled.

I deem it my utmost pleasure to avail an opportunity to express my heartiest

gratitude and deep sense of obligation to my honorable supervisor Professor Dr. Ghulam

Sarwar Khan, Departsment of Forestry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, for his kind

behaviour, generous transfer of knowledge, moral support and enlightened supervision

during the whole study period. His valuable words will always serve as a beacon of light

throughout my life.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to my Supervisory Committee Dr. Zahoor

Hussain Khan and Professor Dr. Muhammad Ashfaq (T.I.) for their kind, sincere and

unprecedented guidance.

My sincere thanks are for a very hardworking, master in his field and caring person

Abdul Aziz Khan, Ex. Senior director (Plant protection) Pakistan Agriculture Research

Council, without his keen interest and positive criticisms I would not be able to complete

this work.

I am thankful to Professor Dr. M. Tahir Siddiqui, Chairman of Departsment of

Forestry, Range Management & Wildlife for his highly appreciable practical and

productive guidance and discussion throughout my research work.

No acknowledge could ever adequately express my obligation to my affectionate

parents Mr. and Mrs. Professor Dr. Muhammad Hafeez Khan whose hands always raised

in prayers for me. They always acted as a light house for me in the dark ocean of life path.

I also express my thankful feelings for my wife Dr. Hina for her cooperation and

guidance and all my brothers Dr. Tahir Hafeez Khan, Ahmad Waheed Khan, Tariq Hafeez

Khan and Qasir Hafeez Khan for their prayers and cooperation.

May ALLAH bless all these people with long, happiness & peaceful lives (Ameen)

(SHAHID HAFEEZ)

CONTENTS

Sr. No. TITLE Page No

i. Declaration i

ii. Acknowledgements ii

iii. List of Tables iii

iv. List of Figures v

v. List of Map viii

vi. List of Plates ix

vii. List of Appendix x

viii. Abstract xi

1. INTRODUCTION 1-4

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5-19

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 20-25

4. RESULTS & DISCUSSION 26-142

5. SUMMARY 143-144

6. LITERATURE CITED 145-154

7. APPENDIX 155-156

iii

LIST OF TABLES

Table No TITLE Page No

1. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Faisalabad.

33

2. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Faisalabad.

34

3. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Qadirabad Ballokey Canal.

44

4. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Qadirabad Ballokey Canal.

45

5. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Rakh Chobara.

55

6. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Rakh Chobara.

56

7. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Rakh Goharwala, Bakher.

66

8. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Rakh Goharwala, Bakher.

67

9. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Quaidabad.

77

10. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Quaidabad.

78

11. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Shorkot Plantation.

88

12. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Shorkot plantation.

89

13. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Dapher plantation.

99

14. Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Dapher Plantation

100

iv

15. Percentage Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

109

16. Percentage Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

110

17. Analysis of Variance of Different Parameters. 123

18. Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the stomach contents of Hystrix indica in irrigated forest habitat.

127

19. Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica in irrigated forest habitat.

127

20. Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the stomach contents of Hystrix indica in Sandy habitat.

128

21. Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica in Sandy habitat.

128

22. Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the stomach contents of Hystrix indica in Agriculture habitat.

129

23. Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica in Agriculture habitat.

129

24. Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the stomach contents of Hystrix indica in link canal habitat.

130

25. Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica in link canal habitat.

130

26. Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the stomach contents of Hystrix indica in Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

131

27. Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica in Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

131

28. Estimates of Indian crested porcupine, Hystrix indica, damage to the crops in different area, Punjab, Pakistan.

136

29. Estimates of Indian crested porcupine, Hystrix indica, damage to nursery plants in man-made irrigated forest plantations and range areas, Punjab, Pakistan.

136

30. Estimates of Indian crested porcupine, Hystrix indica, damage to trees in man-made irrigated forest plantations and range areas, Punjab, Pakistan.

136

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No TITLE Page No

1. Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Faisalabad.

35

2. Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Faisalabad.

35

3. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Faisalabad.

37

4. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Faisalabad.

37

5. Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Qadirabad Ballokey Canal.

46

6. Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Qadirabad Ballokey Canal.

47

7. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the Stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Qadirabad Ballokey Canal

48

8. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Qadirabad Ballokey Canal

48

9. Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Rakh Chobara

57

10. Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Rakh Chobara.

58

11. Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Rakh Chobara.

59

12. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Rakh Chobara.

59

13. Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Rakh Goharwala, Bakher.

68

14. Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Rakh Goharwala Bakher.

69

15. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Rakh Goharwala, Bakher.

70

16. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Rakh Goharwala, Bakher.

70

vi

17. Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Qaidabad.

79

18. Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Qadabad.

80

19. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Qadabad.

81

20. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Qadabad.

81

21. Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Shorkot Plantation.

90

22. Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Shorkot Plantation.

91

23. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Shorkot plantation.

92

24. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Shorkot plantation.

92

25. Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Dapher Plantation.

101

26. Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Dephar Plantation.

102

27. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Dapher plantation.

103

28. Percentage of plant’s parts recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Dapher plantation.

103

29. Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

111

30. Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

112

31. Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

113

32. Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

113

33. Relative Frequency of Feeding among Locations. 115

34. Relative Frequency of Food among the Seasons. 116

vii

35. Relative Frequency of Stomach Contents and Fecal Pellets. 116

36. Relative Frequency among Food Items. 119

37. Relative Frequency of Fecal Pellets Contents With Respect to Seasons.

120

38. Relative Frequency of Stomach Contents With Respect to Seasons.

121

39. Classification Tree of Total Food Items Analyzed with Respect to Seasons.

124

40. Classification Tree of Total Food Items with Respect to Locations.

125

41. Classification Tree of Comparison Fecal Pellets and Stomach Contents.

126

viii

LIST OF MAP

Map. No TITLE Page No

1.

Map of Punjab with indicate study areas.

142

ix

LIST OF PLATES

Plates No TITLE Page No

1. A porcupine trapped in a live trap. 25

2. Fresh faeces of porcupine in the field. 25

3. Complete girdling of Ziziphus jujube. 114

4. Porcupine damage to seedling of Alibizzia procera. 114

5. Porcupine damage to seedling of Dalbergia sissoo. 140

6. Typical porcupine diggings in Range areas. 140

7. Porcupine damage to onion. 141

8. Porcupine damage to groundnut. 141

x

LIST OF APPENDIX

Appendix No TITLE Page No

1. List of Vegetation. 155

2. Correlations Between Plant’s Parts Consumed by Porcupine. 156

xi

ABSTRACT

In Pakistan, Hystrix indica is abundant and distributed all over the country. It has been identified as a serious pest of traditional as well as non-traditional crops, trees and shrubs. The prospective porcupine belt of the Punjab has been divided into four ecological zones i.e., rainfed Pothowar belt; irrigated forest plantations and embankment of link canals, desert lands and agricultural lands. The fecal pellets and stomach contents of H. indica were collected from the randomly selected sites. An analysis of 131 stomachs contents and 480 fecal pellets revealed that 44 species of different plants were consumed by the porcupine as food. H. indica mainly likes to consume agricultural crops including vegetables and fruits rather xeric vegetation. It is analysed that the diet of the porcupine comprised of vegetable matter, roots, seeds, leaves, stems, spikes, tubers, flowers and pods. Maximum food diversity was found in irrigated forest plantations. The data collected on tree debarking in plantations revealed serious damage to different tree species. The incidence of damage to Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Dalbergia sissoo, Morus alba and Albizzia procera averaged 15.16±2.04, 15.18±1.79, 12.38±1.86 and 3.44±0.04% respectively. However, the degree of damage to different tree species among the plantations showed highly significant difference. Damage to mature tree of Acacia modesta, Populus deltoides and Tamarix aphylla was not recorded. On an average, plant nursery of Bombix ceiba, Dalbergia sissoo and Alibizzia procera received 58.4±4.00, 9.81±2.69 and 6.79±2.23% damage respectively. Up rooting stumps of Dalbergia sissoo, Bombix ceiba and Eucalyptus camaldulensis after transplanting is a characteristic behaviour of Indian crested porcupine that was commonly observed in the plantations or on farms visited. Necessary control measures are also suggested.

1

Chapter - I

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture sector provides 44.65% employed labour force in Pakistan and

contributes 21.8% to gross domestic production (GDP), and is the largest source of foreign

exchange earnings. It also plays a major role for obtaining high yield of crops and fruits on

sustained basis. The forest cover ensures regular supply of clean water in rivers by protecting

watershed areas of northern regions. The development of forestry and agriculture sectors is

like a base stone in the development of industry, education, health and defense etc. The

construction material, pulp, paper produce and various industrial uses of timber are forest-

based (GOP, 2010).

Every country of the world is suffering from the destruction of vertebrate pests,

specifically rodents. Sometimes, the damage caused by them results in extreme scarcity of

food and malnutrition. Research and studies have proved that amount of food from the crops

planted throughout the world do not yield what is expected because of severe damage caused

by these pests, ultimately resulting in huge financial losses both on micro and macro levels

(Singleton, 2003; Stenseth et al., 2003; Khan, 2010).

The Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica) is a large herbivore rodent and

is considered to be a serious economic pest of crops and forest plantations (Ahmad and

Chaudhry, 1977; Greaves and Khan, 1978; Roberts, 1997; Khan et al., 2000, 2010). Indian

crested porcupine belongs to the order Rodentia of the class Mammalia. There are two

families of porcupines: Hystricidae (Old World porcupines) and Erethizontidae (New World

porcupines). The Old World porcupines comprise four genera, namely, Thecurus, Hystrix,

Atherurus and Trichys. Of these, genus Hystrix is characterized by its large size, quilled fur,

hairless sole and short limbs with five strong toes. The skull is massive with pronounced

infra-orbital foramen, broad chisel-shaped and pale yellow incisors, each with a hypsodont

tooth. Digestive tract is elongated having a cecum. The upper lip is cleft, with flat S-shaped

nostrils, covered with velvety hair on their top. This genus includes twelve species, whose

combined range extends over the whole Southern Europe, Africa and South Eastern Asia,

including Pakistan (Prakash and Rana, 1970; Grzimek, 1990; Nowak, 1991). Out of these,

only two, namely, Hystrix indica (Kerr) and H. hodgsoni (Gray), are generally met within the

2

Indo-Pak subcontinent. H. indica is widely distributed in Pakistan. (Greaves and Khan, 1978;

Roberts, 1997; Khan et al., 2007).

H. indica is characterized by an average head and body, which measures up to 78-100

cm, from the head to the tail end. This specie weighs about 11-18 kg and its hair are highly

modified into superimposed layers of spines or quills of different size/ form. Beneath the

longer and thinner spines, lies a layer of shorter and thicker ones (Prater, 1965; Roberts,

1997). Each quill has brown or black bands, alternating with white bands. Spines vary in

length throughout the body, with the neck and shoulder, quills being the longest and measure

about 15-30 cm (Gurung and Singh, 1996). When the porcupine is excited, these quills

usually get erected to appear like a prominent crest. The tail is covered with shorter quills,

which are usually white in colour. Among these, there are longer, hollow and rattling quills

used to alarm the suspected predators (Ellerman, 1961). There is a general belief that a

porcupine can actually shoot-out its quills at the intruder, though it is not supported with

scientific evidence. The incisors are very broad and powerful and appear yellow in colour.

The feet and hands are broad, with long claws, which are mainly used for burrowing and

digging purposes.

H. indica has successfully adapted itself to live in irrigated areas, forest plantations of

the Indus plain as well as in the desert lands of the Punjab and Sindh (Khan et al., 2000). The

soil dirt raised embankments of barrage and link canals have provided them with the most

suitable habitats for establishing permanent dens. It also commonly occurs in the ‘Pothwar’

plateau throughout its scrub-forest plantations as well as in the steppe mountainous regions

of Baluchistan upto an elevation of 2,750 m, above sea level (Roberts, 1997). This species is

found in Las Bela, Kirthar Range, Kalat, Panjgur, Sibi area as well as in the Murree Hills

and Kohistan forests above Shogran. It has also been recorded from the main valley of lower

Chitral, Swat, Bannu and the Kurram areas (Roberts, 1997). It is well distributed throughout

the Jehlum and Neelum valleys of Azad Jammu&Kashmir (Ahmad, 1990), and has been

recorded in moist temperate deciduous forests of Machiara National Park at an elevation of

3,200 m above sea level the highest point, so far, recorded of its distribution (Awan et al.,

2004).

The porcupine inhabits canal-side plantations, embankments of drainage channels and

irrigated forest-plantations. Intensively cultivated croplands, along canals and drains, are

3

normally the main target of the porcupine depredations. They also often infest graveyards

and mounds of scrapped soil in the corners of fields, in saline and sodic soil tracts (Arshad,

1987; Greaves and Khan, 1978). In India, the Indian porcupine is found in all types of

habitats, dry or humid, open-land, forest, rocky-hill areas and even in the undulating plains

(Prakash and Rana, 1970; Atwal, 1979).

Porcupine has been recognized as a serious pest of forest plantations: man-made

irrigated and natural. Therefore, in the all Forest Management Working Plans emphasis has

been given for its management. As early as 1967 (Taber et al. 1967) common girdling of

Morus alba, Melia azedarach and Dalbergia sissoo in crop lands of the Punjab and in the

forest-plantations was observed. Greaves and Khan (1978) made a brief survey of the

porcupine problem in irrigated forest- plantations of the Punjab (Pakistan) and quantified its

damage to M. azedarch (52.5%), M. alba (24.3%) and D. sissoo (1.0%). Khan et al. (2000)

recorded damage to Pinus roxburghii (60%) and Robinia pseudoacacia (42%) in different

areas of the Tarbela Watershed Management Project. Similar porcupine damage to forest and

reforested areas was reported by Ahmed and Chaudhry (1977). Farm forestry efforts are

being badly affected by the porcupines. Seedlings of D. sissoo, Eucalyptus spp. and Bombax

ceiba were observed being up-rooted just after their transplanting, a characteristic behaviour

of Indian crested porcupine (Khan et al., 2000).

In India, H. indica, as a vertebrate pest, cause damage to Acacia spp, Zizyphus

mauritiana, A. catechu, A. leucophloea, Butea monosperma, P. roxburghii, A. indica,

Eucalyptus spp, and up-rooting of young coconut plants (Sharma and Prasad, 1992; Idris and

Rana, 2001; Girish et al. 2005). Sheikher (1998) recorded 90% debarkation of the young P.

roxburghii planted along the hillocks in Himachal Pradesh, Killing 54% of these. In Iran, H.

indica is one of the important pests on reforestation in western oak forests (Fattahi, 1997).

Indian crested porcupine has been recorded as a serious pest of the traditional as well

as non-traditional crops, including fruit orchards, vegetables, flowering plants, forages etc.

(Alkon and Saltz, 1985; Khan et al., 2000, 2007; Pervez, 2006). Crops of economic

importance, such as, maize, groundnut and potato, are severely damaged in irrigated plains

and mountainous regions (Ahmad et al., 1987; Brooks et al., 1988; Khan et al, 1997, 2000).

Among vegetables; okra, pumpkin, carrot, bitter gourd and onion are badly damage by this

pest (Pervez, 2006). Porcupine has been reported to damage extensively Cenchrus ciliaris,

4

Sorghum helpenese, cymbopogan jwarancusa and Eliomurus hirsutus species of grasses at

Karluwala (Bhakkar), a desert land of the Punjab, which are being seeded to enhance its

grazing capacity on sustainable basis (Khan et al., 2000). Gutterman (1982) recorded more

than 17 geophytes and hemicryptophytes being consumed by porcupines.

Khan et al. (2000) recorded porcupine damage to plastic tubes of the drip irrigation

system which seriously effected water flow. Such damage has also reported from Israel

(Alkon and Saltz, 1985a). Porcupine tunneling into embankment of barrage and link canals,

such as, Nara, Rice and Rohri canals, caused breaches of irrigation water and flooding of

thousand of hectares of croplands. One such breach in Rohri canal in 2002 caused an

estimated loss of some 3 billion rupees in 12 villages (Khan et al. 2007).

Porcupines are basically herbivorous in feeding habits, but prefer the bark of certain

tree species and also certain roots, bulbs and succulent tubers. They sometimes prefer feeding

on ripened fruits. In Balochistan, they regularly excavate the bulbs of Eremurs aurantiacus,

whereas in the Southwestern Punjab, they appear to prefer the bark of Bakain (M.

azedarach), which is being attacked systematically. Their second preference, with respect to

trees seems to be the mulberry (M. alba) plants and then, the mango (Mangifera indica)

gardens. Trees with thick and rough bark are mostly shunned (Roberts, 1997; Khan et al.,

2000).

The Old World porcupines of the genus Hystrix, have been very little studied,

because of their shy nature, nocturnal habits and their tendency to live in remote and

inaccessible places (Roberts, 1997). The information, so for available, on its feeding habits

and biology is insufficient and suggests a scientific based study for its control in the field.

The present study has been designed to collect/analyze detailed information on the

food preferences, feeding habits, extent and pattern of damage inflicted by H. indica, in

different agro-ecosystems of the Punjab (Pakistan). The information thus generated will be

utilized to develop control strategies.

Objectives of the Research

1. To study changes in its seasonal feeding behaviour in different agro-forestry systems.

2. To identify its food diversity in different agro-ecological zones of the Punjab.

3. To determine the nature and extent of the porcupine damage to different trees and

cultivated crops.

5

Chapter - II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Geographic Range:

The Indian crested porcupine, H. indica, an Old World porcupine species is both

Palearctic and Oriental in distribution (Grzimek, 1990; Nowak, 1991). The species is found

throughout central Asia, southeast and in parts of Middle East, including countries, like,

India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Srilanka, Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Israel, Saudia

Arabia and Yemen.

In Pakistan, H. indica is commonly found in man-made natural forest plantation, crop

lands, sandy desert of Punjab and Sindh, in the hill tracks of Khyber Pakhtun Khwa (KPK)

province, and it is abundant in steppe mountain areas of Balochistan (Nawaz and Ahmad,

1974; Greaves and Khan, 1978; Geddes and Iles, 1991, Roberts, 1997; Khan et al. 2000).

Ahmad (1990) and Awan et al. (2004) reported its distribution in different parts of Azad

Jummu& Kashmir, having been recorded in moist temperate deciduous forest of Machiara

National Park at 3,200m elevation, the highest point so for recorded of its distribution in

Pakistan. In addition to these areas, Roberts (1997) reported H. indica populations in the

Murree Hills, Kohistan, Hazara, Malakand, Kaghan, Naran, Sawat valley, Bannu, Kurram

and lower Chatral valleys, and in the forests above Shogran.

Khan et al. (2000, 2007) provided evidences of the presence of H. indica in some

irrigated forest plantations of Sindh and scrub forests in Powrhar Region of Punjab. Mia et

al. (1988) reported its presence in Lasbelas, Kirttar range, Kalat, Panjgur and Sibi.

Brohi et al. (2006) in a survey of small mammals indicated the presence of porcupine

in Hingol National Park. According to survey of the mammals conducted by Ghalib et al.

(2007) this specie is found in Hingol and Chiltan Hazarganji National Parks of Balochistan.

Morphometry:

The average length of an adult porcupine from head to tail is 80-100 cm as recorded

by Prater (1965). The adult porcupine weighs about 11-18 kg. Its length from head to tail

end is 78-100 cm. Its hair are modified into spines/quills each quill has alternating bands of

brown/black and white colours. Beneath the longer and thinner spine there is a layer of

shorter ad thicker ones. The length of spines varies throughout the body. The longest spine

6

measures about 15-30 cm (Gurung and Singh, 1996). On the tip of quills, there are hollow

and microscopic barbs. Gurung and Singh, 1996; Kurta, 1995; Rose, 1989; Sweitzer and

Berger, 1997; Vaughn et al., 2000, reported that quills vary in length at different sites of

body. The neck and shoulder quills are longest measuring 15-30 cm. Ellerman (1961) studied

that tails of Indian crested porcupine contain some longer, hollow and rattling quills having

the purpose to alarm potential predators. Some quills of the tail are short and white.

Sever and Mendelssohn (1991) studied average weight of 10 adult porcupines,

collected from coastal plains and Israel, and reported it to be 13.9±2.2 kg. Agrawal and

Chakraborty (1992) studied porcupines from Indian plains having maximum weight about

17-27 Kg. According to Roberts (1997) its adult male weighs about 11.3 kg in Pakistan.

Burton (1915) recorded its weight about 15 kg. It has broader hands and feet with long claws,

used for burrowing.

The morphology of skull has been studied by Grzimek (1990). According to him

there are pocket like inflations prominent in skull, lower jaw, lacrimal and turbinate bones.

Infraorbital foramen arises from the frontal surface of snout (hystricomorphous condition). It

is enlarged to extend masseter through it. Nasal cavity is enlarged. Shin and call bones are

fused. Collar bone is greatly reduced. Angular portion is inflicted on the lower jaw. There are

five teeth in each jaw i.e. one incisor, one premolar and three molars. Prominent diastema

allows the lips to be drawn in while gnawing (Vaughn et al., 2000).

Mian et al. (2007) observed that unlike other rodents the incisors of porcupine are

active to its maximum size upper/lower, 3.0/4.5 and 2.5/4.5 cm in male and female

respectively during adulthood. So lower incisors are significantly (P<0.05) larger than the

upper ones both in male (3.81±0.10 cm Vs 2.24 ± 0.07 cm) and female (3.72±0.08 cm Vs

2.12 ± 0.04 cm). They observed the mean length of porcupine to be 83.28 ± 1.98 cm (male =

82.34 ± 1.52 cm, female = 84.17 ± 2.46 cm). According to them forelimbs of H. indica are

significantly shorter than hind limbs both in case of male (17.52 ± 0.73 cm Vs 20.64 ± 0.69

cm) and female (17.77 ± 0.66 cm Vs 21.50 ± 0.82 cm).

Damage:

i. Forest trees

In Pakistan, and else where porcupine damage to forest trees, crops, fruits and

vegetables and natural resources have been studied and documented by the various workers.

7

As early as 1927, McDonald (1927) reported that in Cawnpore (Kanpur) Afforestation

Division in India porcupine damage to trees was alarming. Damage to young rubber plants in

southern India was noted by Pillai (1968). Sheik (1993) reported that H. indica damages the

forest plantation of any stage from seed to mature tree. Porcupine damage to vegetation

involves a wide variety of cultivated and wild plants and consumes both surface and sub-

surface material (Gutterman, 1982, Alkon and Saltz, 1985; Ahmad et al. 1987; Brooks et al.,

1988., Khan et al., 2000; Pervez., 2006). The porcupine inflicts injury to trees by gnawing

the bark and through the multiple injuries completing the girdling of the tree trunk, exposing

it to parasitic, fungi, termites and borer attack (Boddicker, 1983).

The earliest report of damage by porcupine (Erethizan dorsatum) was by Storm and

Halvorson (1967) who studied the effect of injury on radial growth of ponderosa pine, Pinus

ponderosa, in western Montana, USA. On the basis of incremental borings, Krefting et

al.(1962) estimated 45% reduction in the 10- years radial growth of Erethizon damaged

timber trees. In Pakistan, Nawaz and Ahmad (1974) calculated a loss of increment amounting

to 3853 cubic meter of wood in various blocks of Change Manga plantation. Greaves and

Khan (1978) estimated economic loss of US$ 25/ha. in Changa Manga plantation. Khan et

al. (2000) calculated economic loss of US$ 60-75/ ha. in various irrigated forest plantation

of the Punjab.

In Pakistan various workers investigated porcupine damage to irrigated plantation and

quantified damage to different tree species. Taber et al. (1967) reported a common

occurrence of girdling of M. alba, in the crop lands of Punjab, while Ahmad and Chaudhry

(1977) reported serious damage to M. azedarach in five plantations.

Greaves and Khan (1978) made a survey of quantified damage to M. azedarach

(72%), M. alba (50%) and D. sissoo (4%) by porcupine in Chichawatni. Earlier to this,

Nawaz and Ahmad (1974) studied the tree species susceptibility and percentage of damage

by porcupine in five randomly selected blocks in Changa Manga irrigated forest. Porcupine,

on the average, caused 15% plantation damage: M. azedarach (52.5%), M. alba (24.49%)

and D. sissoo (1.02%) in performance order.

Khan et al. (2000) gave further information of the impact of porcupine on forestry

resources of Pakistan. While surveying Daur, Unhar and Kunhar Divisions of Terbla

Watershed they studied the chirpine (P. roxburghii) and robinia (R. pesudoacacia) seedlings

8

1-2 years of age, planted at the density of 1,075 trees/ha. The damage to chirpine (P.

roxburghii) ranged from 30-90% (X=60%) and to robinia (R. pseudoacacia) ranged from 10-

90% (X=42%). This substantial mortality of tree stocking was not astonishing, as a similar

study in Himachal Pradesh, India, reported 54.4% mortality of P. roxburghii (Sheikhar

1988). Hussain (2004) observed that the damage to the chirpine mature trees was negligible,

only partial debarkation of roots and stems was noted. However, the damage to chirpine

plantation < 6 years of age was vulnerable to porcupine in Sherwan area of Terbela

Watershed. According to information provided by forest officials, the material cost of raised

transplantation of Chirpine, excluding the cost of time/season, establishment, transportation

and other resources, is Pak Rs. 8/ plant. Based upon these two studies average mortality rate

was 40%. The total economical loss was Rs. 3440.00 or about US $ 58/ha. If this is applied

to five divisions of Terbela Watershed, annual economic loss may run into millions of

rupees.

Mishra and Khan. (2000) studied the rodents and porcupine which are injurious to

forests and reported damage to coniferous and broad leafed tree species in various states of

India. Earlier to this, Sharma and Prasad (1992) reported damage to Acacia spp, Zizyphus

mauritiana, A. catechu, A. leucophloea, Butea monosperma, P. roxburghii, A. indica,

Eucalyptus spp. Idris and Rana (2001) studied the extent of damage and factors leading to the

damage of plants by porcupines, near Aavaclli hill, Jodhpur India, where damage by

porcupine was restricted to epidemical layer only. They recorded neem plant damage upto

12% and Eucalyptus spp. in May and June near Mandal north hills, India. Some biotic factors

eg. extreme heat and non availability of water cause extensive damage of plants by

porcupines.

Mian et al. (2007) studied the debarking of mature trees of different species in eight

irrigated plantations of Punjab. Incidence of damage to E. camaladulensis, D. sissoo, and M.

alba averaged 9.36, 10.82 and 8.02%, respectively, and overall damage estimated was 9.4%.

They observed that the degree of damage to different specie between the plantations was

significant. Also, no damage to mature trees of A. modesta, Populus deltoids, B. ceiba, and

Tamarix Sumba was recorded in any plantation. Further to it, Mian et al. (2007) estimated

porcupine damage to nursery plants of D. sissoo (9.85%), B. cieba (22.05%) and M. alba

(14.97%). They did not record porcupine damage to nursery plants of A. modesta. Ahmad

9

and Chaudhry (1977) and Greaves and Khan (1978) observed the same type of damage to

nursery stocks of the species in different plantations. Reports from India indicate that 30%

seedling of Neem (A. indica) and 12% of Eucalyptus spp. were damage by cutting the plants

at 5-7 cm above the ground level in Aravelli hill near Jodhpur (Idris and Rana, 2001; Girish

et al., 2005).

ii. Fruit trees:

Damage to fruit trees by H. indica has little been assessed. Greaves and Khan (1978)

recorded that citrus trees in orchards around Chichawatni suffered 20% damage. A farm,

located near Fateh Jang, lost 200 young plants of mango (Mangifera indica) due to severe

porcupine attack. Similarly, a farmer had to remove more than 500 citrus trees, which were

severely debarked and girdled from a farm located in Islamabad. Pervez (2006) estimated H.

indica damage to different fruit trees in Balochistan. He estimated porcupine damage to

Ficus carica (7.7%), Carica papaya (16.67%), Pistacia spp. (5.0-28.85%) and grapes

(1.20%). His data indicated that apples and wild pistachio are severely damaged. During

winter, apple fruit, stored in pits in open area, is also known to suffer a severe damage in

Kalat (Balochistan). Seed and seedling of mango, horse chestnut and almonds in nursery

have been observed to be heavily damaged by removal of seed and uprooting through

diggings (Aziz Khan, per. Comm.).

Field Crops and Vegetables:

Although, H. indica severely damage crops and vegetables but only few studies have

been conducted and losses estimated. Crops especially maize, potatoes, melon, sugarcane and

groundnut are highly susceptible to porcupine attack Roberts, (1997). Brooks et al. (1988)

estimated 0.21% damage to groundnut plants by porcupine. They anticipated that as many as

30 to 40 plants may be up rooted in one night. Ahmad et al. (1987) recorded insignificant

damage of 0.4% in 22 maize fields in Faisalabad district. This level of damage looks

underestimated due to smaller sample size. In mountain areas of AJ&K heavy porcupine

damage to maize crop was observed by Khan et al. (1997) and a little damage to rice and

wheat crops.

Alkon and Saltz (1985) estimated the total potato damage at 1.3 tons/ha, or 0.6% of

the crop valuing US$ 30.0/ha. in irrigated fields in the Negev desert of Southern Israel. In

Italy, porcupines are pest of cultivated crops such as maize, chickpeas, potato, beets,

10

cabbage, water melon and onion (Valier, 1991).Khan et al. (2000) estimated porcupine

damage in 2.5 ha potato field 2 weeks before harvest and calculated a loss of 17.6% of the

total production. They estimated that 270 kg of seed was lost due to porcupine damage.

Pervez (2006) estimated 2-20% damage to potato crop in Balochistan, much higher damage

(4-36%) was recorded in case of sweet potato.

Mian et al. (2007) suggested by their studies that maize and potato were seriously

damaged by H. indica. The estimated damage of 8.5±0.96% was recorded over 2.35 ha of

wheat crop in Pothar belt. The damage was recorded higher (20.2±7.20%) in periphery of

fields than in the center. Damage to onion was estimated 0.9-5.4% in different area of

Bhakhar. Khan et al. (2000) studied the saffron (Crocus sativa) plantation at Mastung,

Balochistan. There porcupine damaged bulbs through digging, 15-20 digs/day were recorded

and total estimated loss was US $ 20-40/ha/season. Similarly in one of the floriculture

orchard of Islamabad, the damage to iris, tulip and gladeolus estimated ranged from 50-

70%/season.

Range Lands and Vegetation:

Gutterman (1982) studied the impact of porcupine digs and digging on microhabitat,

vegetative conditions and landscape. He recorded more than17 geophytes and

hemicryptopytes being consumed by porcupines. Gutterman and Herr (1981); Alkon (1999)

explained that porcupine diggings facilitate trapping of seeds, organic matter and water,

promoting germination and growth of annual plants especially in arid areas. However,

digging also enhances flow of water causing erosion of soil and soil nutrients from watershed

and hilly areas.

At Karluwala desert range, Bhakhar (Punjab) studies conducted by Khan et al. (2000)

revealed that five species of grasses (Pennisetum spp., Cenchrus ciliaris, Elionurus histus,

Cybopogan jawarancusa, Sorghum helpense) were severely damaged by porcupine digging.

The grazing capacity of the range lands is, thus, being effected.

Valier (1991) reported in Sicily the eating the bulbs of red quill (Urginea maritime)

with out harm. It does, however, feed on rhizomes of such toxic plants as Arum maculatum

and the tuber of Tamus communis and Cyclamen europaeus.

Awan et al. 2004 observed that tubers of Arisaema jacquemontii and roots of

Convolvulus arvensia were consumed by porcupines.

11

Distribution and habitat utilization:

The Indian porcupine is highly adaptive and efficiently exploits various

environments. The Indian crested porcupine is fossorial, dwelling in caves, and is highly

adaptable to variable environmental conditions. They are usually found in rocky hill sides, in

tropical and temperate scrublands, desert lands, grasslands and forests. For burrow

development they require raised hillocks/embankments close to foraging habitat.

Champion (1927) described the nocturnal habitat of porcupine in Himalayan hill

station. Gurung and Sing (1996) survey indicated that Indian crested porcupine is distributed

throughout Himalayas upto the elevation of 2400 m above sea level. Awan et al., (2004)

recorded its highest point (3200 m) of distribution in the Machiara National park, AJ&K.

Grzimek (1990) described the favorable habitats of porcupine including tropical and

temperate scrublands, croplands, grasslands, sand dune deserts and forests. So they are highly

adaptive and exploit various environments. In Pakistan, historically, porcupines utilized

scrub forest, irrigated plantations, and moist deciduous temperate forest and desert lands. In

Punjab, all irrigated and scrub forests, embankments of barge and link canals are heavily

inhabited with porcupine. With the expansions of irrigation the porcupines have expended

their distribution in to the crop lands.

The information on population structure and burrow density are scanty. Nawaz and

Ahmad (1974) calculated 2.4 porcupines/ burrow in the Changa Manga plantations. Different

reports suggest different number of individuals sharing a porcupine den. Roberts (1997)

reported the presence of 10 porcupines in a single burrow system, while Arshad (1987)

suggested an average of 4 porcupine/ burrow. Khan et al. (1990) estimated the burrow

density in different habitats of flood protection and railway embankments, dirt mounds,

sandy scrubs and graveyard as heavily infested (7.14/ ha) as compared to the embankments

of drainage (0.68/ ha) and irrigation canals (1.25/ ha). The average burrows density of

0.80/ha in forest plantation was estimated. Sever and Mendelssohn (1991) estimated a

density of 0.04/ha for Negev desert in Israel with male: female ratio 2:1. Kayani et al. (1990)

estimated the burrow density 0.05/ha for forest plantation of central Punjab.

Pervez et al. (2005) reported three major habitats of H. indica in Pakistan i.e.,

mountain and Pothar, irrigated forests; and sandy deserts, having population density of 0.98 ±

0.2/ha, 0.67±0.1/ha, 0.15±0.7/ha., respectively. Arshad (1987) reported 4 porcupines/ burrow

12

while Roberts (1997) reported the presence of 10 porcupines in a single burrow. On an

average burrow density estimated was 0.56 ± 0.17/ha, though a very high density (0.98 ±

0.20) appeared in rain-fed areas of Potohar belt followed by embankments of link canals

(0.98 ± 0.20), irrigated forest plantation (0.21 ± 0.01) and desert rangeland (0.15 ± 0.07)

(Mian et al. 2007).

Food and Feeding:

Only limited studies have been conducted on the food and feeding behaviour of H.

indica. According to Blanford (1888-1891) and Flower and Lydekker (1891) porcupine is

particular in its choice of food. It feeds on the roots of vegetables like sweet potatoes,

potatoes, onion, carrot and fruits. It mostly attacks seedlings, saplings and boles of forest

trees and roots and bulbs of succulent plants, uproots and clips nursery seedlings and

saplings.

Hanson et al. (1999) and Ben-David et al. (1997) suggested that dietary habit of

porcupine is related to temporal and spatial variation of food availability. Prakash and Rana

(1970) reported that feeding habits of porcupine is not species specific. They change their

diet from habitat to habitat and from time to time.

Smith (1982) conducted his studies in Pullman (USA) he described the seasonal and

nocturnal variation in the feeding behavior of porcupine. The porcupines preferred large trees

within ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa) or Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) dominated

subunits of a mixed conifer/pine grass.

Harder (1979) conducted studies about winter feeding by porcupines (E. dorsatum) in

mountain forest south-Western Alberta (USA) on Douglas fir (P. menziesii) and limber pine

(P. flexilis). The pure stands of Douglas fir were preferred.

Speer and Dilwerth (1978) conducted studies in central New Brunswick (Canada)

during 1973-1974 and 1974-1975 on winter food utilization by American porcupine (E.

dorstum). The porcupines feed preferably on the bark of spruce, white pine (P. strobes),

eastern larch (Larix laricina) and gray birch and 91% on the bark of conifers. During the

spring and fall season bark feeding is preferably on the eastern larch, white cadar (Thuja

accidentalis) is preferred while feeding on twigs. In the wintering areas feedings on 3% of

the trees occurred as compared to 0.13% in the randomly selected control plots.

13

Alkon and Saltz (1985) reported the foraging habits of porcupine (H. indica Kerr) on

the cultivated potatoes in the Negev desert of the highlands of southern Israel. The ecological

impact of porcupine on potato cultivation was assessed. The fasting animals feed on potato

tubers at a rate of 530 ± 37 g in first 45 minutes and 148 ± 42 g/hr thereafter, the captive

porcupine feed at a rate of 0.9 ± 0.2 g/bait. Potatoes cultivation is only a natural food and

water supplement for porcupine. Their energy balance cannot be maintained only on

potatoes.

The Indian crested porcupine is herbivorous as it feed on vegetative materials (both

wild and agricultural crops) of all kinds including fruits, grains and roots (Prater, 1965). Roze

(1989) stated that nocturnal feeding habit of porcupines provide them additional nutrition due

to night time metabolic process. Nowak (1991) and Pigozzi and Patherson (1990) described

that these pests attack the agricultural crops due to their vegetation preference and can travel

significant distance in search of food.

Gurung and Singh (1996) and Prater (1965) suggested that vegetative material is not

sufficient to fulfill the mineral requirement like Calcium which supports the growth of quills.

The porcupine consumes insects, small vertebrates and carrion for this purpose (Nowak,

1991; Grzimck, 1990).

Plant tissues are grinded efficiently by high crowned teeth with plain chewing

surfaces which are later digested in stomach. The undigested material is retained in enlarged

appendix and anterior part of large intestine where these are broken by microorganisms

(Grzimek, 1990). Alkon and Saltz (1988) analyzed that the fecal pellets of porcupine contain

a substantial amount of plant fiber that can be differentiated into identifiable parts of roots,

shoots and twigs.

Felicetti et al. (2000); Fournier and Thomas (1997); Roze (1989) suggested that

porcupine has the ability to save nitrogen through faeces. Due to longer stay of the food

matter in the digestive system, it can digest high fiber food better than some other hindgut

fermenters of ruminants.

Gulterman (1982) reported in Negev (Israel) that the porcupines consumed storage

part of 12 species of geophytes and hemicryptophytes. Alkon and Saltz, (1985), reported the

consumption of potatoes, pepper, fallen fruit and other agricultural crops. Harrison (1972),

Freyc (1974); Gorbunov (1985) proved by the study that porcupine is adapted to consume

14

below ground plant biomass. Chaudhry and Ahmad (1975 b) recorded that porcupine feeds

on the roots and barks of succulent plants in Pakistan especially bulbs of Eremurus

auranhiacus, melons in Balochistan. They prefer bark of Persian Lilac (M. azedarach)

followed by mulberry (M. alba) and mango (M. indica) in Punjab (Roberts, 1997), onion and

carrot in India (Agrawal and Chakrabovty, 1992).

According to Sarwar (1990) the diet of porcupine in center Punjab (Pakistan) consists

of crops (corn seeds and cobs, sugarcane, wheat, rice), vegetable (musk-melon, bitter-gourd,

potatoes, peas, sweet potatoes, chilies and pumpkin), grasses and fruit, tree leaves, bark and

roots of different trees.

Roberts (1997) suggested that porcupines are herbivorous, but they mostly prefer the

bark of certain tree species as well as roots, bulbs and succulent tubers while maturing. They

also attack ripe fruits. In southwest Punjab their preference order is: bakain (M. azedarach),

M. alba and mango (M. indica). In Punjab they also attack the agricultural crops occasionally

sugarcane crop. In Balochistan, they excavate the bulbs of Eremurs aurantiacus.

According to Ahmed et al. (2003) in lower Sindh (Pakistan) porcupine consumed the

parts of xerophytic plants species.

Girish et al. (2005) found porcupine feeding on 37 species of cultivated and wild

plants, apart from cultivated palms. The species also debark wild and cultivated palms such

as coconut, areacanut and species of phoenix palms.

Arshad et al. 1990; Bibi, 2004; Pervez A., 2005, conducted direct study on porcupine

food through stomach contents and fecal analysis. The analysis of gut contents showed the

presence of leaves, fruit, bark, roots of different crops, vegetable, grasses and trees.

Inayatullah (2006) conducted study in Tarbela watershed areas and reported that porcupine

depends upon minimum of 29 cultivated and wild plant species, and the preferable species

included M. azedarach, P. roxburghii, Zea mays, S. helepense and Triticum aestivum.

Mian et al. (2007) reported that porcupines are totally herbivorous and found seasonal

and geographical variation of plant species. They analyzed 26 vegetation species of stomach

contents and fecal pellets. The more frequently consumed species include Prosopis juliflora

(20.79%), Z. mays (12.80%), Arachus hypogea (10.9%), T. aestivum (5.12%), Z. mouritiana

(4.72%), Hordeum vulgare (4.26%), and S. vulgaris (4.03%). Less consumption was

observed in the species like Solanum melongena (2.96%), Dicanhicem annulutum (2.90%),

15

Capsicum annuum (2.51%), Fumaria indica (1.75%), Brassica compestris (1.68%), Tribulus

terrestris (1.51%), Allium cepa (0.70%), M. alba (0.70%), Convolvulus arvensis (0.52%),

Cynodon dactylon (0.41%), Asphodeulus tenuifolis (0.41%), Salvia moorcrofliana (0.34%),

Boerhaavia procumbens (0.20%), Cucumis melo (0.16%), Linaria vulgaris (0.16%),

Solanum tuberosum (0.15%), Brassica obracea (0.05%), Dodonaca viscose (0.04%), Cyprus

rotundus (0.03%) and M. indica (0.01%). Cotton thread, human hair and porcupine quills

were also isolated from stomach contents as fragments. Both male and female species have

same selection of food.

Mian et al. (2007) analyzed 24 fecal pellets, collected from different tracks. Most

commonly consumed food items include S. vulgare (15.16%), P. juliflora (12.46%), H.

vulgare (11.04%) and T. aestivum (7.68%).

Amjad et al. (2009) observed in Sindh that porcupine extensively consumed

agricultural crops including Pisdium guajava (Gava), Ccucrbite maxime (Pumpkin), and

Solamum melongera (Bringal). The food of Indian crested porcupine was comprised of

66.7% vegetable matter, 3.9% tuber/roots, 46.3% leaves/stem and 16.5% fruits.

Behaviour:

Grzimek (1990) and Felicioli et al. (1997) suggested that social life of porcupine is

based on monogamy and long intensive care of young ones. According to their studies small

family group shares the same burrow system including adult pair with infants and juveniles.

Nowak, (1991) reported that females which bear young ones establish a separate den. H.

indica are terrestrial rarely climbing trees, but are able to swim. They have strictly nocturnal

behaviour even avoiding moonlight for foraging (Nowak, 1991; Bruno and Riccardi, 1995).

Sever and Mendelssohn (1991) described the good memory and learning behaviour of

porcupines. Animals have been trapped once in a trap (in open place/drainage pipe) can

never be recaptured again at the same place even when attractive bait was placed. The second

trapping is possible after five nights, while the third consecutive after 16 nights. Sever and

Mendelssohn (1991) also suggested that porcupines do not exploit their entire home range

every night but they choose a target area according to the availability of food, returning to the

same den. Saltz (1985) explained that home range exploited during different nights is

variable, average length of nocturnal course in deserts was 5.534 ± 1.781 m. Both sexes

display the same behavior. Roberts, 1997, reported that food is recognized by sense of smell

16

and long vibrissae while feeding in agricultural tracts in several neighboring areas. The sense

of hearing is also very sharp.

Ellerman, (1961) and Nowak, (1991), reported by their study that when H. indica is

alarmed/irritated it raised its quills and rattles the hollow spines on the tails. If the stimulus is

persistent, it may attack by clashing its rear part against offender and driving its spine deep

into enemy even causing severe injury or death of enemy including lion, leopard and hyena.

Roberts (1997) reported that the species have graceful movement while walking slowly using

an alternating gait and probably a trot when running and can swim fairly well.

Communication and Perception:

Roze (1989, 2002) studied the communication among porcupines such as acoustic,

chemical, visual and tactile. When threatened, porcupines warn the predator by chattering

their teeth and produce a chemical odour. Male warns through fierce vocalization and also

displays the white and black markings on its back and tail to show the presence of its

weapon. Females communicate their readiness to males by vaginal secretions, urine marking

and high pitched vocalizations. Tactile communication has been noted between aggressive

males, between mates, and between mothers and their young ones.

Reproduction:

Direct studies on reproduction biology of H. indica are very limited. However a

major part of knowledge on breeding behaviour in H. cristata comes from captive

individuals.

Nowak (1991) reported that breeding occurs from March to December in Indian zoos,

July to December in Central Africa and throughout the year in London zoo. The captive

females in South Africa produce litters throughout the year but appear from August to March

with a peak in January. According to Nowak (1991) and Grzimek (1990) 1-2 offsprings are

born in a grass lined chamber in a burrow system, after 35 days of estrous cycle and 112 days

of gestation period. Shortly afterward or at birth the young ones, eyes are opened and incisors

are completely broken through (Grzimek, 1990). Its body is covered with small hairs and

back spines are soft, sensing bristles projecting far beyond spines (Grzimek, 1990). Its birth

weight is only 3% of the mother’s body weight and its spines begin to harden within one

week making it able to leave den first time, it begins to feed on solid food within 2-3 weeks.

17

Van Aarde, 1987, reported that females of H. africaeaustralis conceive once a year as

normal ovarian cycle starts (from 2-42 days after the end of lactation period, but 3-7 days

elapse before conception, each cycle is about one month long 32.3 ± 4.6 days, n= 18). During

these sterile cycle less studies are available about the hormonal changes, although the

progesterone concentration during sterile mating is 0.9 ± 0.5 mg/ml n = 6, while during

mating followed by conception its mean level is 3.2 ± 1.0 mg/ml n = 3. This is significantly

higher (P<0.01) than that of sterile period. The two conceptions interval is one year and the

interval between litters is approximately one year (gestational length = 93 days, lactational

anoestrus = 101 ± 37.8 days) 25 intervals have been recorded between litters for parous

females which varied 110 – 500 days. Young ones born after an interval of <200 days (n = 3)

do not survive, on an average their life is 345 ± 66 days (n = 22). This is not due to

physiological limitation of mother but due to interference of proceeding litters who prevent

them from sucking. The females must yearly conceive to produce a litter with high chance of

survival. Van Aarcle and Skinner (1986) studied the male reproductive tract and found that

males attain sexual maturity (complete spermatogenesis) at the age of 8-18 months and

remain sexually active throughout year. In pubertal males testosterone concentration is

significantly higher than those recorded in sexually mature males. These Hystricomorph

rodents don’t have true scrotum and penis is directed posteriorly and s-shaped when not

erected. In most species surface of glans penis is covered with spines and spicules and

characteristic suborder is produced by sacculus urethralis. Neither the hystricomorph males

have been reported to be seasonal breeder, nor do their gonads regress periodically. In South

Africa free ranging females produce litters in summer (Van Aarde, 1985). In male accessory

glands including vesicular glands, prostrate gland and Cowper’s gland are well developed in

adults. Prostrate gland consists of left and right lobes. Copulatory plug is formed by mixture

of fluid of diverticulated seminal vesicles and prostrate secretion; captive females are

polyestrous and non-lactating adults cycled throughout the year. They attain maturity at an

age of 9-16 months and conceive first time when 10-25 months old.

Parental Care:

Currently available information on parental care is derived from studies on the tree

porcupine, E. dorsatom (Roze, 1989; Sweitzer and Berger, 1997). Parental care and food is

provided by mother for a few weeks of life. During day time, the baby remains hidden under

18

ground and mother rests in the trees. The baby porcupine and mother meet only at night. For

six weeks baby follows mother for feeding. In the next couple of months foraging distances

increase separation between them. But mother follows landmarks of porcupine every night

by mid October; baby spends its first winter alone. The father does not play any role in

rearing and caring of offspring’s and maintains little or no contact with offspring’s. Kurta,

(1995) and Roze, (1989) determined the life span of porcupine as 18 years in the wild.

Porcupine longevity is probably limited by life of their grinding teeth.

Control:

Various control methods both chemical and non-chemical, are being practiced or have

been evaluated for the control of Indian crested porcupine. The most commonly used non

chemical methods such as dog hunting, shooting and trapping are short term solutions and

are mostly labour intensive and costly. Use of chemical compound for the control of H.

indica have been tested and evaluated in Pakistan and elsewhere.

Faulkner and Dodge, (1967) developed a control technique involving the use of

sodium aresnite, granulated sugar and apple as fresh bait and obtained 71-93% kill of

Canadian porcupine (E. dorsatum). Anthony et al., (1986) used strychnine-salt blocks for

controlling porcupines in pine forests in Oregon and California. Only 4 out of 32 marked

porcupines were killed. Boddicker (1983) reported the repellent materials that can be sprayed

over plants to save from porcupine damage which included thiram or arasan formulation.

Wagner and Nolte (2000) used Hot Sauce registered as a repellent for forest mammals.

Porcupines (E. dorsatum) were not repelled by any concentration of Hot Sauce.

Nawaz and Ahmad, (1974) obtained 83% success while conducting large scale

operational research in Changa Manga plantations. They used aluminium phosphide and

hydrogen cyanide. By applying these chemical compounds the porcupine damage of 14.67%

in whole of plantations reduced to 0.026%. Some other studies involved the use of some

toxic compound where complete control of porcupines was not achieved (Chaudhry and

Ahmad, 1975 ; Arshad et al.,1988).

In the field trials conducted by Khan et al. (1992) three fumigants and two acute

poisons were used against the porcupines in forest plantations and crop lands. The use of a

two-ingredient gas cartridge, followed by sodium cyanide and aluminium phosphide caused

the highest mortality. Strychnine baits did not proved so effective as the fresh baits which

19

were made from sodium fluoroacetate (1080). Field trials were conducted by Ahmed et al.

(2003) in order to determine the efficacy of aluminum phosphide (3g), sodium

monofluroacetate (0.03%) and brodifacoum wax blocks (0.005%) against the Indian crested

porcupine. He got the highest mortality (100%) after applying 4 tablets of aluminium

phosphide (3g) followed by sodium cyanide.

Khan et al. (2007) tried two poison baits i.e. (0.0375% coumatetralyl and 2% zinc

phosphide) and two fumigants (carbon monoxide and calcium cyanide powder) against the

Indian crested porcupine. With carbon monoxide, calcium cyanide and coumatetralyl 95.85,

96.52, 100% mortality was recorded while zinc phosphide proved a less effective bait. It was

poorly consumed by porcupine and gave only 27.78% mortality. While checking the efficacy

of coumatetralyl bait (0.0375%) against H. indica on a floriculture farm, Khan et al. (2008)

recorded that the bait consumption increased up to 7th day which steadily decreased by 14th

and completely decreased on 15th day. Hence, baiting resulted in 100% elimination of

porcupine population.

The research (Field trial) conducted by Mushtaq et al. (2008) determined the efficacy

of aluminium phosphid (3g tablets). He achieved 100% reduction in burrow activity by

applying eight tablets of aluminium phosphide/burrow, 85% with six tablets/ burrow and

75% reduction with four tablets/ burrow. In order to get 100% reduction in burrow activity in

categorized burrows he used four tablets of aluminium phosphid in small (circumference

100.2+2.93 cm), six tablets in medium (127+0.93cm) and eight tablets in large sized

(157+2.44cm) burrows. According to Khan et al. (2010) arsenic trioxide as a baiting method

resulted in 89% reduction of porcupines occupying in treated dens. Four to ten tablets of

aluminium phosphide were used for fumigation, with the results ; four tablets are ineffective

five and six tablets partial control and complete control of porcupine was achieve by seven

tablets. Khan et al., (2011) used two-ingredient cartridge for the release of carbon monoxide

for controlling porcupine in the dens. The test results indicated 100 percent reduction in

active porcupine dens with the usage of 250, 350, 375g cartridges in porous sandy, clay loam

and silt loam soils having varied moisture contents.

20

Chapter - III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area:

The Punjab (27.5-34.1° NL and 69.5-75.2° E) is the north-eastern province of

Pakistan. Leaving aside the northern parts, the main part of the province is plain, which

mainly constitutes the central Punjab. The north-eastern parts of the province are extensively

cultivated and thickly populated, while towards the south and the west the agriculture and

human settlements become sparse. Under the recent development and constrains on the biotic

resources, the agriculture has extended to the previously unexploited tracts through the

development of irrigation network. The porcupine tract in the Punjab is constituted mainly by

the tracts where the agriculture has recently extended and is relatively sparsely inhabited by

the human population. For the purpose of present study, the prospective porcupine belt of the

central Punjab has been divided into four ecological zones, i.e., rainfed Pothwar belt,

irrigated forest plantation, embankments of link canals and desert. Most of the plain area of

Punjab is irrigated through barrage and irrigational canals. Apart from the agricultural

exploitation, vast areas in these tracts have been set aside for the development of irrigated

forests by the Forest Department. Kundian (Mianwali), Shorkot, Changa Manga, Daphar and

Lal Sohanra are some of the important irrigated forest plantations. Dapher and Shorkot

plantations were selected for the study. Each plantation is divided into different subdivisions,

blocks and compartments for administrative convenience. Each plantation has its own plant

composition but Shesham (D. sissoo), Eucalyptus (E. camaldulensis), Frash (Tamarix

aphylla) and Mulberry (M. alba) were the dominating tree species (Sheikh, 1995).

Thal represent sandy desert ecosystem of Punjab. Annual precipitation in these areas

is less than 75 mm and natural vegetation is scarce. Water table is generally very low. Rakh

Goharwala and Rakh Chobara were selected for the desert ecosystem. Faisalabad and

Qaidabad were selected for the agriculture lands. The canal irrigation extends in some areas,

where irrigated agriculture is exercised; there are sufficiently large tracts under wild

undulating sand dunes, even in the extensively irrigated/ arable tracts, which provide denning

habitat for the porcupine. The embankments along the canals also provide favorite denning

sites for the porcupine. Qadirabad-Ballokey canal was selected for the link canal ecosystem.

21

Study Period:

The experiment was conducted between January 2008 to Jun 2010, the whole study

period was divided into four seasons: Spring (February – April); Summer (May –August);

Fall (September-October) and Winter (November-January).

Trapping Method:

The porcupines were trapped according to method of Hafeez et al., (2007).

Penal trap used in this study is given in plate 1. Late in the evening, the traps were set at the

mouth of active porcupine burrows with suitable bait materials placed inside it. Each trap

was fixed with steel pegs in this position so that a trapped animal may not tilt it. The traps

were checked early in the morning to collect the animal.

Damage Assessment:

A general idea on the type of the damage caused to different types of the vegetation

was developed through general observations in the area and sharing the experiences of the local

farmers. This helped in further designing the sampling techniques and its mode of operation for

future studies. However, in forest plantations stratified sampling technique was used.

i. Irrigated Plantation:

The tree damage was assessed in two major forest plantations of the Punjab, Daphar

(Gujrat) and Shorkot plantation. In each forest age-related types of plantations i.e. very

young (< 1 years), young (> 2 years) and mature (5 or more years) were marked on the map,

randomly selected compartments, representing each type of plantation were visited for a

detailed survey. Every 5th row was selected and the number of damaged (with characteristic

marks of gnawing) and undamaged trees were counted. In the case of mature trees, the plants

having debarkation of >20% of the stem girth at b.h.d were regarded as damaged, as it is

expected to seriously effecting the radial growth of the plant, affecting the quality of wood.

For younger and or very young plants, the number of uprooted (associated with characteristic

porcupine digging, Plate 6) and chopped off plants were considered as damaged.

ii. Forest Nursery:

In the study area two types of nurseries were observed for damage in forest

plantations of Punjab, i.e., D. sissoo (Sheesham) and B. ceiba, (Simal). The quadrate (2x2

m²) technique was adopted for the damage assessment, where the normal verses uprooted

plants were counted and damage estimated.

22

iii. Crops:

The survey was done by driving roads traversing the selected crop growing area, using

a road transect, stopping at every 5km if crops fields were available. At each stop, 4 fields were

surveyed. Four quadrate samples were taken from each field, generally near the corners. The

number of plants, both damaged and undamaged within the quadrate, were counted.

The damage in the crop was assessed by randomly selecting four quadrate (two in the

periphery and two some 50 m deep) of 1 x I m² for the wheat field. Onion (Bhakkar), melons

(Bhakkar), and groundnuts (Quaidaabad) crops were sampled using 2X2m² quadrate. The

normal and damaged plants (cut and chewed) were directly counted. The percentage damage

was calculated using following formula:

No. Damage plants % damage = -------------------------- × 100 Total no. of plants

Preparation of Reference Slides:

In different seasons, plant species from different study area were collected. Reference

slides were prepared following William (1962) and Ward (1970). The required vegetative

parts of the plants were obtained and dried. These fresh specimens/dried tissues are soaked in

plant soaking solutions (distilled water, ethyl alcohol, and glycerin (1:1:1)) for a night then

washed with tape water for about 10-20min. each specimen of plant tissue was ground in

virtis homogenizer with distilled water. These contents were poured in micro sieve. This

micro sieve in composed of 6cm long hollow cylinder having 0.05mm mesh of stainless steel

wire that is fitted with a rubber stopper at one end of cylinder in such a way that it could be

left filled with 1% sodium hypochlorite for clearing the specimen and was kept soaked in a

sodium hypochlorite solution of 5% Chlorax and 4 parts of distilled water (1:4) for 20-30

min. To neutralize the basic effect of sodium hypochlorite equal amount of dilute acetic acid

was added to the tissues, were placed in mordant solution for 15-30min, and then this

distilled water was dripped into the sieve to remove any basic residues.

The contents were placed in hematoxylin stain for 10-15minutes then washed with

tape water. On a clean slide a drop of Apathy of mounting medium (100cc distilled water and

100g gum Arabic) was placed. The stained plant material was mixed with this mounting

medium with a wet camel brush and the material was uniformly spread over 22x40mm of

23

slide. Two drops of mounting medium were added to the plant material and were covered

with glass cover of 22x40mm and press tightly with a peril eraser for uniform contact of

glass cover and slide. Labeling of slider was done for identification and was left at room

temperature overnight for fastening of material on these studies.

The main features and cellular characteristic of each slide were studied and drawn on

a note book as freehand drawing.

Stomach Contents and Fecal Pellets Analysis:

Stomach of each of the trapped animals was immediately removed, after

immobilizing and mid ventral cut, which were legated on the both sides, and fixed in 10%

commercial grade formalin and properly labeled with a field number. The field data on each

individual like geographic location and date were recorded with reference to the field

number. Samples were brought to the laboratory, where the contents of each stomach were

removed and preserved in 10% formalin, in glass vials, for further analysis. The randomly

selected parts of the stomach contents were cleared with running water over a sieve and

placed in the Petri dish for macro-analysis. A white paper having equal-sized squares grid

was placed below the Petri dish where the fragments recovered from stomach were spread as

a single layer, each item was identified directly through macroscopic examination by

comparing with the reference plants. The number of fragments of different species of plant in

seven different randomly selected boxes was recorded. The relative frequencies contributed

by different species were worked out by suitable pooling of the individual data

The fresh fecal pellets (Plate 2) of the porcupine were also collected from different

areas according to availability; packed in polyethylene bags, labeled appropriately and

brought back to the laboratory, where these were stored at 40°C till their analysis.

Representative samples of the dominating plant species were collected from each locality,

brought back to the laboratory, identified and used as reference material for identification of

the species recovered from the stomach contents and fecal pellets. Different parts of the

reference plant specimens, i.e., stem, root and leaf, were soaked in the 70% alcohol for 2

hours and subsequently grinded using a pestle and mortar to the size of fragments frequently

found in fecal pellets of the porcupine and stained with light green. The reference drawings

of each sample of different species were developed and maintained for the analysis of the

fragments recovered from fecal pellets, using prominent cell and other histological structures

24

through light microscopic examination and used for identification of the species recovered

from the fecal pellets.

. The fecal pellets were soaked in distilled water and washed with water over a mesh

screen. The fragments left on the mesh were put in 70% alcohol for about 10 minutes and

stained with light green dye to achieve differentiation. Permanent mounts were then prepared

after passing through alcohol gradients. Seven focuses from each of seven slides, prepared

from each fecal pellet, were examined under light microscope (60 X) and each piece in the

focus was identified up to the lowest possible taxonomic category. The number of each

species of plant parts in each box was calculated and the total number of the fragment was

recorded according to method of Hansen et al., (1971).

The overall percent relative frequency was calculated as: Total number of fragments of a species Relative frequency (%) = ------------------------------------------------------- 100 Total number of fragments analysed

The relative frequency of different food items recorded from the stomach content was

compared in different areas and seasons to work out the feeding preference of the species.

The similar procedure was adopted for fecal pellet analysis.

Statistical analysis:

Level of significance of results was analyzed with the help of analysis of variance

(ANOVA) using SPSS software at 95% confidence limit X ± 2 S.D. (SPSS, 1996).

Diversity Index:

To determine the degree of dominance of food items in the stomach samples, Berger-

parker index (1970) was applied. To calculate index number (d), total number of fragments

of each food item was calculated from the equation.

d = N (max)/N

Where

N = total number of fragments of all food items and

N(max) = number of fragments of the most abundant food items.

In order to ensure that the index X (1/d) increases with the increasing diversity, the

reciprocal of the index value (d) was used.

25

26

Chapter - IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The porcupines are very cautious, human shy and basically nocturnal, making direct

studies on feeding behavior is difficult (Roberts, 1997). H. indica is a large rodent having

scattered populations and hence a limited degree of trapping is possible for obtaining the

stomach contents. The fecal pellets however, can be collected from the field and be subjected

to study. In Pakistan, only few short term studies feeding habits of H. indica have been

conducted.

An analysis of 131 stomachs contents and 480 fecal pellets revealed that 44 species of

plants were consumed by the porcupine as food items. The Indian crested porcupine is

covered under Schedule IV of Pakistan Wildlife Acts and there are no restriction on its

hunting or Killing by any means. A season-wise distribution of these stomach samples and

geographic variation are as following

A. Seasonal feeding behaviour and geographic variation:

a. Faisalabad:

i. Spring:

The analysis of spring samples of stomach contents (n=4) revealed that 15 plant species

were consumed by porcupines (Table 1). Among these, Triticum aestivum with mean relative

frequency of 21.62±1.45 was the most intensively consumed in this season. B. ceiba

(12.58±1.31), Brassica campestris (9.19±0.60), Sorghum helpense (9.01±1.48) were in

sufficient amount, while Solanum melongena (7.52±0.62), M. alba (7.31±1.04), C. dactylon

(6.71±0.69), M. indica (6.01±0.62), E. camaldulensis (5.54±0.36), M. azedarach (4.74±1.46),

Lathyrus aphaca (4.67±0.67), B. oleracea (4.26±0.00), Z. jujuba (4.04±0.00), Saccharum

officinarum (3.69±1.36), D. sissoo (3.03±0.00) were utilized relatively less frequently.

Unidentified fragments (2.47±0.41) and other fragment (2.58±0.27) of spring diet comprised of

hair, spine and thread particles contributing significantly of the total contents.

The percentage of food items (Figure 1) of spring diet of porcupine included T.

aestivum (17.92%) was predominantly consumed species, as it constituted a larger percentage

of total stomach contents. B. ceiba (10.43%), B. composures (8.27%), S. halfpence (9.13%), S.

melongena (7.47%), M. alba (6.06% ), C. dactylon (5.56%), M. indica (4.38%), E.

27

camaldulensis (4.53%), M. azedarach (3.93%), L. aphaca (3.87%), B. oleracea (3.53%), Z.

mouritiana (3.35%), S. officinarum (3.06%), D. sissoo (2.51%), unidentified fragments

(2.05%) and other fragments (2.14%), were less consumed by H. indica.

Figure 3 shows the percentage consumption of different food parts like stem, leaf, seed,

spike, tuber, flower and pod recovered from the stomach of porcupine collected during spring

season. Leaf (26.3%), spike (22.3%), stem (19.3%), seed (17.7%) and root (11.2%) were

consumed with a high frequency while flower (2.00%) and tuber (1.1%) were eaten less

frequently consumed.

Fecal sample (n =15) were collected from different localities of Faisalabad during the

spring season. The analysis of the fecal pellets (Table-2) revealed that T. aestivum was

consumed at the highest mean relative frequency 29.37±1.33, while Hordeum vulgare

(19.00±5.45), S. halepense (14.15±1.21), L. aphaca (11.67±0.00), M. azedarach (11.58±0.83),

M. alba (11.08±2.23), B. ceiba (10.90±2.74), B. campestris (10.68±1.08) constituted sufficient

portion of the diet. B. oleracea (9.88±1.93), D. sissoo (9.80±1.41), E. camaldulensis

(9.74±1.83), M. indica (9.22±2.40), Pisum sativum (8.58±3.92), Melilotus indica (8.44±1.67),

Z. jujuba (5.21±1.02), A. cepa (5.19±0.58) were recorded with different frequency. Other

matter (1.52±0.00), unidentified plant parts constituted (7.51±0.53) and unknown plant parts

(10.00±0.65). This confirms the reports of Arshad et al., (1990) who provided some

information about the diet of H. indica in the 30 km radius around Faisalabad.

Regarding analysis of the fecal pellets, the percentage of the food items (Fig-2)

revealed that T. aestivum was consumed at the highest percentage (14.43%), while H. vulgare

(9.34%), S. halepense (6.95%), L. aphaca (5.73%), M. azedarach (5.69%), M. alba (5.44%), B.

ceiba (5.36%), B. campestris (5.25%), B. oleracea (4.85%), D. sissoo (4.82%), E.

camaldulensis (4.79%), M. indica (4.53%), P. sativum (4.22%), M. indica (4.15%), Z.

mouritiana (2.56%), A. cepa (2.55%) other matter (0.75%), unidentified (3.69%) and

unknown plant parts (4.31%) were the spring diet of the porcupine.

Figure 4 shows the percentage consumption of the percentage different parts of the

plant species. Spike (32.9%), stem (22.3%), seed (17.2%) and leaf (13.7%) appeared with

higher frequency.

28

ii. Summer:

During the summer season stomach contents of (n= 5) animals were examined (Table

1). Analysis of stomach contents of these specimens revealed that 19 types of food items of

plant origin were consumed by the porcupine. Among these Z. mays (17.38±1.25) and S.

vulgaris (17.35±0.86) were predominant, as it constituted larger amount of total stomach

contents followed by P. juliflora (13.40±0.00), M. alba (8.91±0.00), M. azedarach

(7.92±0.80), L. esulentum (7.81±0.74) but were utilized relatively less intensively. Among

other items eaten C. maxima (6.70±3.61), C. dactylon (6.36±1.10), B. ceiba (6.19±0.00),

Cucumis melo (5.36±0.28), L. aphaca (4.95±0.00), C. rotundus (4.08±0.42), E.

camaldulensis (3.78±0.34), S. halepense (3.09±0.00), M. indica (3.06±0.03), M. indica

(3.05±0.04), D. sissoo (2.72±0.37), P. guajava (2.54±0.56), A. cepa (2.06±0.00) were

occasionally consumed. In the summer diet of the porcupine other matter like hair and spine

constituted (2.56±0.31) whereas unidentified plant food (3.68±1.62) and unknown matter

was (5.87±0.49). During this season maize is widely cultivated and severely damaged by

porcupines (Ahmed et al., 1987).

The percentage of analysis of stomach content of plant origin included Zea mays

(12.52%) and S. vulgaris (12.50%) were predominant, as these constituted larger percentage of

total stomach content. P. juliflora (9.65%), M. alba (6.42%), M. azedarach (5.71%), L.

esulentum (5.63%), C. maxima (4.83%), C. dactylon (4.58%), B. ceiba (4.46%), C. melo

(3.86%), L. aphaca (3.57%), C. rotundus (2.34%), E. camaldulensis (2.12%), S. halepense

(2.23%), M. indica (2.20%), M. indica (2.20%), D. sissoo (1.96%), P. guajava (1.83%),

Allium cepa (1.48% ), other matter like hair and spine constituted (1.83%) whereas

unidentified plant food (4.23%) and unknown matter was (2.65%).

Analysis of plant parts during the summer season showed (Fig.3) that seed (26.3%)

appeared with higher frequency followed by leaf (18.1%), stem (16.1%), spike (14.0%), tuber

(8.4%) and pods (1.1%) of different plants were also present. Maximum used of seed and leaf

in summer , this confirms the reports of Inaytullah (2006).

All the (n=15) samples were collected in the summer seasons in the months of May,

June, July, August and September, 2009. The analysis of the fecal pellets showed that 17 types

of food items of plant origin were consumed at different frequency by porcupines (Table -2) Z.

mays (24.05±1.65) and S. vulgaris (21.42±1.74) were the most intensively consumed species in

29

this season. B. campestris (11.50±2.55), C. dactylon (11.03±1.05), M. azedarach (11.01±1.52),

Morus alba (10.55±1.15) appeared in high frequency. M. indica (9.98±1.94), S. halepense

(9.94±2.26), E. camaldulensis (8.78±1.19), B. ceiba (8.24±0.89), D. sissoo (7.77±0.90), C.

rotundus (5.57±0.84), C. melo (5.16±0.57), S. nigrum (4.83±0.65), S. tuberosum (4.76±0.00),

S. officinarum (3.58±0.30) and Z. jujuba (1.59±0.02) were less frequently recovered. Other

matters (3.29±1.36) were found less frequently while unidentified material (8.75±1.04) and

unknown plant parts were (8.68±0.45).

The analysis of the fecal pellets showed the percentage of food items as: (Fig. 2) Z.

mays (13.33%) and S. vulgaris (11.87%) was the most intensively consumed species in this

season. B. campestris (6.37%), C. dactylon (6.11%), M. azedarach (6.10%), M. alba (5.85%),

M. indica (5.53%), S. halepense (5.51%), E. camaldulensis (4.86%), B. ceiba (4.57%), D.

sissoo (4.31%), C. rotundus (3.09%), C. melo (2.86%), S. nigrum (2.68%), S. tuberosum

(2.64%), S. officinarum(1.38%) and Z. jujuba (0.88%), other matter (1.82%), unidentified

material (4.85%) and unknown plants parts were (4.81%).

The analysis of plant parts showed (Fig. 4) that stem (24.5%) appeared with higher

frequency followed by seed (21.4%), spike (16.3%), tuber (10.1%) and pod (5.6%).

iii. Fall:

The specimens (n=5) were captured in the months of September, October and

November, 2009. Plant tissues belonging to 12 species were recovered from porcupine in this

season, (Table. 1). S. vulgaris (19.51±1.62) was the most intensively consumed species. Z.

mays (18.69±2.53), M. azedarach (11.87±0.63), S. halepense (10.11±0.00), D. sissoo

(9.60±0.51), B. ceiba (9.16±1.46), C. dactylon (8.59±0.71), C. rotundus (6.91±0.51), S.

officinarum (4.27±0.38), E. camaldulensis (4.04±0.72), C. melo (3.76±1.51), M. indica

(3.70±1.07) were consumed in significant proportions , while unknown plant parts also

constituted a significant part of stomach contents (5.92±0.91) and unidentified plant or

unknown matter was (4.04±0.82).

The percentage of food items in fall seasons showed that S. vulgaris (15.89%) was the

most intensively consumed specie. Z. mays (15.22%), M. azedarach (9.67%), S. halepense

(8.23%), D. sissoo (7.82%), B. ceiba (7.46%), C. dactylon (6.99%), C. rotundus (5.63%), S.

officinarum (3.48%), E. camaldulensis (3.29%), C. melo (3.06%), M. indica (3.70±1.07) ,

30

unknown plant parts also constituted a significant part of stomach contents (4.82%) and

unidentified parts were (3.29%).

During fall, roots, stems, leaves, seeds, tuber and spike were consumed in different

frequency. Seeds (20.2%) were consumed with high frequency following by leaf (18.3%),

spike (18.1%), stem (17.1%), root (16.1%), tuber (7.1%) and pod (2.8%).

The fecal samples of porcupine (n=15) which were collected during fall season showed

mean relative frequency of Z. mays 25.60±1.81 which remained the most intensively eaten

food. S. vulgaris (17.09±3.16), B. campestris (13.32±3.76), M. azedarach (12.85±1.27), B.

ceiba (11.61±0.88), M. alba (10.73±1.37), E. camaldulensis (10.28±1.36) were significantly

consumed by porcupine during the fall season. S. halepense (9.39±1.40), C. dactylon

(9.27±1.20), S. nigrum (8.97±1.81), D. sissoo (8.54±1.56), C. rotundus (8.53±1.00), M. indica

(6.55±0.75), Z. jujuba (6.37±1.26), S. tuberosum (5.88±0.00), S. officinarum(4.69±0.44), S.

nigrum (4.69±0.00), C. melo (4.55±0.00), P. sativum (3.92±0.00) were taken in decreasing

frequency. Other matters constituted (2.95±0.64) that were eaten less intensively; unknown

plants parts (9.27±0.81) and unidentified material constituted (4.01±0.48).

The percentage of food items of the fecal samples showed ((Fig. 3) that Z. mays

constituted (12.86%) of the total contents. S. vulgaris (8.59%), B. campestris (6.69%), M.

azedarach (6.46%), B. ceiba (5.83%), M. alba (5.39%), E. camaldulensis (5.16%), S.

halepense (4.72%), C. dactylon (4.66%), S. nigrum (4.51%), D. sissoo (4.29%), C. rotundus

(4.29%), M. indica (3.29%), Z. jujuba (3.20%), S. tuberosum (2.95%), S. officinarum

(2.36%), Solanum nigrum (4.51%), Cucumis melo (2.29%), Pisum sativum (1.37%), other

matters (1.48%), unknown plant parts (4.66%) and unidentified material (2.01%).

In fecal pellets, seeds (22.6%) were recovered in significantly high proportion followed

by stem (18.4%), spike (16.3%), leaf (13.1%), tuber (8.3%), pod ((3.2%) and flower (1.6%) of

the different plant species appeared less frequently (Fig. 4).

iv. Winter:

The specimens of stomach contents (n= 4) analyzed in winter season revealed that 17

plant species were consumed by porcupine (Table. 1). Among these, T. aestivum mean relative

frequency (18.38±3.47) was predominantly consumed plant species, S. halepense

(12.79±0.00), B. campestris (11.58±0.09), H. vulgare (10.81±1.47), B. ceiba (9.71±0.30), M.

indica (7.69±2.69), M. azedarach (8.47±1.49), M. alba (7.28±0.30), P. guajava (7.00±0.50)

31

and Z. jujuba (6.19±1.34) were present in sufficient amount, while C. dactylon (5.89±0.24),

B. Oleracea (5.20±2.17 ), S. officinarum (4.41±1.91), E. camaldulensis (2.91±0.00), A. cepa

(2.91±0.00), D. sissoo (2.60±0.00) and C. rotundus (2.56±0.69) were less frequently analyzed.

Unidentified food items (6.79±0.86) and unknown plant parts (4.36±0.71), like hair, spine and

thread particles contributed (2.52±1.23) of the total contents.

The percentage of the food items in winter season (Fig.1) revealed that T. aestivum

(13.12%) was predominantly consumed plant species, as it constituted the highest percentage

of total stomach contents. S. halepense (9.13%), B. campestris (8.27%), H. vulgare (7.72%),

B. ceiba (6.93%), M. indica (5.49%) , M. azedarach (6.05%), M. alba (5.20%), P. guajava

(5.00%), C. dactylon (4.51%), Z. jujuba (4.42%), B. Oleracea (3.71%), S. (3.15%), E.

camaldulensis (2.08%), A. cepa (2.08%), D. sissoo (1.86%), C. rotundus (1.83%), unidentified

food items (4.85%) and unknown plant parts (3.11%), other like hair, spine and thread particles

contributed (1.80%) of the total contents.

Stem (27.9%), seed (16.0%), spike (14.7%), leaf (12.5%) and root (10.2%) were

recovered with high frequency. Flower (9.8%), tuber (6.5%) and pod (2.1%) were less

frequent. (Fig .3)

All the (n =15) samples collected in the winter season were taken in the months of

November, December and January. Seventeen type of food items of plant origin were

recovered from fecal sample collected in winter (Table 2). T. aestivum (23.23±2.23) was

present in sufficient amount, while H. vulgare (20.75±4.83), B. ceiba (15.71±0.96), C.

dactylon (15.01±1.15), S. halepense (10.57±1.17) were also recorded sufficiently. E.

camaldulensis (8.48±0.73), M. azedarach (8.48±0.65), B. oleracea (7.63±1.28), M. alba

(7.37±1.25), P. guajava (7.15±1.25), M. indica (6.61±0.35), S. vulgaris (6.12±0.64), A. cepa

(4.70±1.09), S. officinarum (4.21±1.02), C. rotundus (2.51±1.12), Z. jujuba (1.60±0.21) were

less frequently obtained. Other matter (4.17±0.00), unknown plant parts were identified in

significant percentage (8.60±0.65) and unidentified fragments found (7.24±0.55).

The percentage of the food items in fecal samples collected during winter season, T.

aestivum (13.11%), while H. vulgare (11.71%), B. ceiba (8.86%), C. dactylon (8.47%), S.

halepense (5.96%), E. camaldulensis (4.79%), M. azedarach (4.79%), B. Oleracea (4.31%), M.

alba (4.16%), P. guajava (4.03%), M. indica (3.73%), S. vulgaris (3.45%), A. cepa (2.65%), S.

32

officinarum(2.36%), C. rotundus (1.42%), Z. jujuba (0.90%), other matter (2.35%), unknown

plant parts were (4.85%) and unidentified material found (4.09%).

The analysis of fecal pellets (Fig.4) suggested that stem (29.7%) were represented in

sufficient amount. Spike (17.9%), seed (16.0%) and root (10.3%) contributed a significant part

of total fecal contents. Tuber (6.6%) and pod (5.5%) appeared with low frequency in fecal

pellets. It confirms the finding of Roberts (1997), Arshad et al. (1990) and Brooks et al.

(1988).

33

Table 1: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Faisalabad.

Food items Spring Summer Fall Winter Allium cepa 0.00 ± 0.00 2.06 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 2.91 ± 0.00 Bombix ceiba 12.58 ± 1.31 6.19 ± 0.00 9.16 ± 1.46 9.71 ± 0.30 Brassica campestris 9.19 ± 0.60 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 11.58 ± 0.09 Brassica oleracea 4.26 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 5.20 ± 2.17 Cucumis melo 0.00 ± 0.00 5.36 ± 0.28 3.76 ± 1.51 0.00 ± 0.00 Cucurbita maxima 0.00 ± 0.00 6.70 ± 3.61 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Cynodon dactylon 6.71 ± 0.69 6.36 ± 1.10 8.59 ± 0.71 5.89 ± 0.24 Cyperus rotundus 0.00 ± 0.00 4.08 ± 0.42 6.91 ± 0.51 2.56 ± 0.69 Dalbergia sissoo 3.03 ± 0.00 2.72 ± 0.37 9.60 ± 0.51 2.60 ± 0.00 E. camaldulensis 5.54 ± 0.36 3.78 ± 0.34 4.04 ± 0.72 2.91 ± 0.00 Hordeum vulgare 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 10.81 ± 1.47 L.esculentum 0.00 ± 0.00 7.81 ± 0.74 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Lathirus aphaca 4.67 ± 0.67 4.95 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Mangifera indica 6.01 ± 0.62 3.05 ± 0.04 3.70 ± 1.07 7.69 ± 2.69 Melia azedarach 4.74 ± 1.46 7.92 ± 0.80 11.87 ± 0.63 8.47 ± 1.49 Melilotus indica 0.00 ± 0.00 3.06 ± 0.03 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Morus alba 7.31 ± 1.04 8.91 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 7.28 ± 0.30 Prosopis juliflora 0.00 ± 0.00 13.40 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Psidium guajava 0.00 ± 0.00 2.54 ± 0.56 0.00 ± 0.00 7.00 ± 0.50 Saccharum officinarum 3.69 ± 1.36 0.00 ± 0.00 4.27 ± 0.38 4.41 ± 1.91 Solanum melongena 7.52 ± 0.62 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Sorghum halepense 9.01 ± 1.48 3.09 ± 0.00 10.11 ± 0.00 12.79 ± 0.00 Sorghum vulgaris 0.00 ± 0.00 17.35 ± 0.86 19.51 ± 3.47 0.00 ± 0.00 Triticum aestivum 21.62 ± 1.45 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 18.38 ± 3.47 Zea mays 0.00 ± 0.00 17.38 ± 1.25 18.69 ± 2.53 0.00 ± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 4.04 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 6.19 ± 1.34 *Other 2.58 ± 0.27 2.56 ± 0.31 2.64 ± 0.20 2.52 ± 1.23 **Unidentified 2.47 ± 0.41 3.68 ± 1.62 4.04 ± 0.82 6.79 ± 0.86 Unknown plant 5.65 ± 0.63 5.87 ± 0.49 5.92 ± 0.91 4.36 ± 0.71 *Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

34

Table 2: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Faisalabad.

Food items Spring Summer Fall Winter Allium cepa 5.19 ± 0.58 0.00± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 4.70± 1.09 Bombix ceiba 10.90 ± 2.74 8.24± 0.89 11.61± 0.88 15.71± 0.96 Brassica campestris 10.68 ± 1.08 11.50± 2.55 13.32± 3.76 0.00± 0.00 Brassica oleracea 9.88 ± 1.93 0.00± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 7.63± 1.28 Cucumis melo 0.00 ± 0.00 5.16± 0.57 4.55± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 Cynodon dactylon 0.00 ± 0.00 11.03± 1.05 9.27± 1.20 15.01± 1.15 Cyperus rotundus 0.00 ± 0.00 5.57± 0.84 8.53± 1.00 2.51± 1.12 Dalbergia sissoo 9.80 ± 1.41 7.77± 0.90 8.54± 1.56 7.08± 1.07 E. camaldulensis 9.74 ± 1.83 8.78± 1.19 10.28± 1.36 8.48± 0.73 Hordeum vulgare 19.00 ± 5.45 0.00± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 20.75± 4.83 Lathirus aphaca 11.67 ± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 Mangifera indica 9.22 ± 2.40 9.98± 1.94 6.55± 0.75 6.61± 0.35 Melia azedarach 11.58 ± 0.83 11.01± 1.52 12.85± 1.27 8.48± 0.65 Melilotus indica 8.44 ± 1.67 0.00± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 Morus alba 11.08 ± 2.23 10.55± 1.15 10.73± 1.37 7.37± 1.25 Pisum sativum 8.58 ± 3.92 0.00± 0.00 3.92± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 Psidium guajava 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 4.69± 0.00 7.15± 1.25 Saccharum officimale 0.00 ± 0.00 3.58± 0.30 4.69± 0.44 4.21± 1.02 Solanum nigrum 0.00 ± 0.00 4.83± 0.65 8.97± 1.81 0.00± 0.00 Solanum tuberosum 0.00 ± 0.00 4.76± 0.00 5.88± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 Sorghum halepense 14.15 ± 1.21 9.94± 2.26 9.39± 1.40 10.57± 1.17 Sorghum vulgaris 0.00 ± 0.00 21.42± 1.74 17.09± 3.16 6.12± 0.64 Triticum aestivum 29.37 ± 1.33 0.00± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 23.23± 2.23 Zea mays 0.00 ± 0.00 24.05± 1.65 25.60± 1.81 0.00± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 5.21 ± 1.02 1.59± 0.20 6.37± 1.26 1.60± 0.21 *Other 1.52 ± 0.00 3.29± 1.36 2.95± 0.64 4.17± 0.00 **Unidentified 7.51 ± 0.53 8.75± 1.04 4.01± 0.48 7.24± 0.55 Unknown plant 10.00 ± 0.65 8.68± 0.45 9.27± 0.81 8.60± 0.65 *Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

35

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Figure 1: Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Faisalabad.

36

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37

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Figure 4: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Faisalabad.

38

b. Qadirabad Ballokey Canal:

i. Winter:

Table 3 present a summary of the mean relative frequency of food items recovered

from stomachs of porcupines collected during winter. During this season 20 different plant

species were recovered. Among these mean relative frequency of T. aestivum (10.60±2.25)

and P. juliflora (10.09±1.87) were most intensively consumed species. A. cepa (8.79±0.94),

B. ceiba (8.29±0.20), H. vulgare (8.16±0.33), M. indica (8.08±0.00), S. halepense

(7.56±0.63), B. campestris (7.03±1.67), M. alba(6.50±0.53), P. guajava (6.00±1.21), E.

camaldulensis (5.18±1.12), C. dactylon (4.30±0.46), Z. jujuba (4.29±1.98), S. officinarum

(3.83±1.09), D. sissoo (3.73±0.70), B. oleracea (3.77±0.72), S. tuberosum (3.22±1.33), M.

azedarach (3.15±0.65) were utilized relatively less intensively. C. rotundus (2.40±0.67) and

S. munja (2.02±0.00) were less frequently consumed. Unidentified food items (4.54±0.44),

unknown plant parts were (7.44±0.78) and other food items (1.92±0.36) of winter diet

comprised of hair, spine and thread particles. Mac Mahon (1985) observed the winter

feeding habits of porcupine and he suggested that it consumed bark of different trees,

including pines, fir and hemlock.

The percentage of the food items of the stomach contents during winter seasons,

recorded; T. aestivum (8.10%) and P. juliflora (7.71%) were most intensively consumed

species. A. cepa (6.72%), B. ceiba (6.33%), H. vulgare (6.23%), M. indica (6.17%), S.

halepense (5.78%), B. campestris (5.37%), M. alba(4.97%), P. guajava (4.58%), E.

camaldulensis (3.96%), C. dactylon (3.29%), Z. jujuba (3.28%), S. officinarum (2.93%), D.

sissoo (2.85%), B. oleracea (2.88%), S. tuberosum (2.46%), M. azedarach (2.41%), C.

rotundus (1.83%), S. munja (1.54%), unidentified food items (3.41%), unknown plants parts

were (5.68%) and other food items (1.47%) of winter diet.

Stem (30.8%), leaf (24.7%), seed (15.2%) and spike (11.6%) were recovered with

high frequency. Root (8.8%), tuber (4.3%), flower (3.1%) and pod (1.2%) were less

frequently recovered. The presence of seeds of different plants species confirmed the result

of Arshad et al., (1990).

All the samples of fecal pellet were collected in the months of November, December

and January. T. aestivum (20.97±0.97) predominantly remained the most intensively eaten

food. M. azedarach (12.67±2.56), S. halepense (12.50±0.85), M. alba (12.45±3.34), E.

39

camaldulensis (10.25±1.07), D. sissoo (10.14±1.15) was also recorded in sufficiently

amount. C. dactylon (8.43±1.01), P. juliflora (8.39±0.95), M. indica (8.18±1.84), A. cepa

(7.90±1.81), B. ceiba (5.64±1.23), S. officinarum (5.31±1.34), S. munja (4.56±0.95), C.

rotundus (3.99±1.01), B. oleracea (3.86±0.24), Z. jujuba (3.08±0.34) were less frequent.

Unknown plant parts (9.80±0.75) and unidentified (7.03±0.73) fragments were found at

significant percentage.

The percentage of the food items reported that T. aestivum was predominant and

remained the most intensively eaten food; it contributed 13.52% of the total of fecal

contents. M. azedarach (8.17%), S. halepense (8.06%), M. alba (8.06%), E. camaldulensis

(6.61%), D. sissoo (6.54%), C. dactylon (5.43%), P. juliflora (5.41%), M. indica (5.27%), A.

cepa (5.09%), B. ceiba (3.64%), S. officinarum (3.42%), S. munja (2.73%), C. rotundus

(2.57%), B. oleracea (2.43%), Z. jujuba (1.99%), unknown plant (6.32%) and unidentified

(4.53%) parts were found.

Figure eight (8) showed the percentage of the parts of plants like stem, leaf, root,

tuber, seed and spike recovered from the fecal pellets of porcupine during the winter season.

Stem (31.5%), leaf (19.6%), spike (18.6%), seed (12.4%) and root (11.7%) were consumed

with high frequency while pod (3.1%) and tuber (2.8%) with less frequency.

ii. Spring:

The analysis of the stomach contents of porcupines trapped during spring showed

that 20 plants species were recovered. T. aestivum (18.30±1.81) was the most intensively

consumed specie. B. ceiba (10.09±1.15), S. halepense (9.08±1.70), B. campestris

(8.26±1.37), A. cepa (8.26±0.00), P. juliflora (7.80±1.99), S. melongena (6.90±0.24), P.

guajava (6.42±0.00), M. alba (5.95±0.00), C. dactylon (5.86±0.42), D. sissoo(5.24±0.60), M.

indica (4.79±0.71), E. camaldulensis (4.59±0.36) L. aphaca, (4.43±0.90), B. oleracea

(4.08±0.00), S. munja (3.85±1.47), S. officinarum (3.66±0.92), M. azedarach (2.38±0.00), Z.

jujuba (1.65±0.73) and C. rotundus (1.62±0.43) were consumed in relatively less

proportions, other matters (2.45±0.32) included hair, spine and pieces of stone which

constituted a very small part of total contents, while unidentified food matter constituted

(5.01±0.89) and unknown plant parts (8.75±1.85) of the stomach content (Table -3).

The percentage of food items of stomach contents in spring included T. aestivum

(13.13%) as the most intensively consumed species. B. ceiba (7.24%), S. halepense (6.51%),

40

B. campestris (5.92%), A. cepa (5.92%), P. juliflora (5.59%), S. melongena (4.95%), P.

guajava (4.60%), M. alba (4.27%), C. dactylon (4.20%), D. sissoo (3.76%), M. indica

(3.44%), E. camaldulensis (3.23%), L. aphaca (3.18%), B. oleracea (2.93%), S. munja

(2.76%), S. officinarum (2.63%), M. azedarach (1.71%), Z. jujuba (1.18%), and C.

rotundus (1.16%) were consumed in relatively less significant proportions. Other matters

(1.76%) included hair, spine and pieces of stone which constituted a very small portion of

total contents, while unidentified food matter constituted (3.59% ) and unknown plant parts

(6.28%) of the stomach content (Fig.5).

Leaves (24.4%) were consumed with higher percentage (Fig.7) followed by spike

(21.4%), stem (19.7%) and seed (16.7%), root (7.0%), tuber (5.2%), flower (4.0%) and pod

(1.3%) were present in less percentage.

The fecal samples were collected from Link canal side during the spring season. The

analysis of the fecal pellets (Table-4) revealed that T. aestivum was consumed at highest

frequency (18.02±0.58). S. halepense (12.56±1.52), B. ceiba (11.03±1.13) and M. indica

(10.39±0.00) constituted sufficient part of diet. M. alba (9.76±1.26), P. juliflora (9.42±0.91),

C. rotundus (6.54±2.08), A. cepa (6.03±1.55), P. guajava (5.83±0.59), C. dactylon

(5.58±0.52), E. camaldulensis (5.51±0.61), Z. mays (5.48±0.87), D. sissoo (5.21±0.92), Z.

jujuba (4.56±0.77), P. sativum (3.21±0.25), M. indica (3.17±0.00), S. munja (2.21±0.48)

were less frequently used. Unknown plant parts (9.04±0.66) and unidentified material

(7.17±0.71) were also found. Other contents (1.53±0.09) were present in much frequency.

The analysis of the fecal pellets showed the percentage of food items such as (Fig-6);

T. aestivum was consumed at highest percentage (11.88%). S. halepense (8.88%), B. ceiba

(7.27%), M. indica (6.85%), M. alba (6.43%%), P. juliflora (6.21%), C. rotundus (4.31%),

A. cepa (3.97%), P. guajava (3.84%), C. dactylon (3.68%), E. camaldulensis (3.63%), Z.

mays (3.61% ), D. sissoo (3.43%), Z. jujuba (3.01%), Pisum sativum (2.12%), M. indica

(2.09%), S. munja (1.46%), unknown plant (5.96%) and unidentified material (4.73%) were

found at significant percentage. Other contents (1.01%) were present in much less

percentage.

In fecal pellets, spikes (30.0%) were recovered in significantly higher proportion

followed by, stem (22.2%), root (13.6%) and seed (10.8%). Tuber (7.7%) and pod (3.0%)

appeared in low proportions.

41

iii. Summer:

The summer sample of stomach contents (Table-3) showed the appearance of 19

plants specie. S. halepense (14.09±0.61) was the most extensively consumed species

followed by Z. mays (13.23±1.77). M. alba (10.11±0.00), M. azedarach (9.80±0.00),

L.esculentum (8.16±2.41), E. camaldulensis (7.86±1.55), L. aphaca (7.08±1.46), C. dactylon

(6.81±1.59), C. melo (6.27±0.60), S. vulgaris (6.58±0.82), B. ceiba (5.88±0.00), P. juliflora

(5.73±1.76), C. rotundus (4.53±0.60), D. sissoo (3.86±0.36), Melilotus indica (3.58±0.30),

M. indica (3.37±0.00), Cucurbita maxima (2.94±0.00), A cepa (2.53±0.19), S. munja

(2.10±0.14) were less frequent. Other contents were (3.05±0.57), unidentified material

(4.37±0.87) and unknown plant parts (7.87±0.26) were found in less significant amount.

The summer sample of stomach contents (Fig-5) showed the percentage of the food

items as; S. halepense (10.04%) was the most extensively consumed species followed by Z.

mays (9.81%). M. alba (7.20%), M. azedarach (6.98%), L. esculentum (5.81%), E.

camaldulensis (5.60%), L. aphaca (5.04%), C. dactylon (4.85%), C. melo (4.47%), S.

vulgaris (4.69%), B. ceiba (4.19%), P. juliflora (4.08%), C. rotundus (3.23%), D. sissoo

(2.75%), M. indica (2.55%), M. indica (2.40%), C. maxima (2.09%), A. cepa (1.80%), S.

munja (1.50%) and other contents were (2.17%), unidentified material (3.11%) and unknown

plant parts (5.61%).

Figure 7 presents the summary of the food parts recovered from stomach of

porcupine. Seed (24.7%), stem (20.4%), leaf (18.5%) and root (16.0%) recovered with

higher percentage while spike (8.5%), tuber (8.0%) and pod (3.61%) were of less percentage.

Analysis of fecal pellets showed that 18 types of food items of plant origin were

consumed at different frequency by porcupine (Table14). Z. mays (19.14±1.18) and S.

vulgaris (18.44±1.38) were the most intensively consumed species in this season. P. juliflora

(11.78±1.23), C. dactylon (9.02±0.72), B. ceiba (8.84±2.52), M. alba (8.50±1.50), S. nigrum

(7.58±5.76), M. azedarach (7.15±1.39), S. halepense (7.01±0.46), D. sissoo (6.07±0.98), E.

camaldulensis (5.59±1.03), M. indica (4.93±1.18), C. rotundus (4.56±0.87), P. sativum

(3.92±0.00), Z. jujuba (3.78±0.33 ), L. aphaca (3.31±0.18 ), S. munja (2.99±0.00 ), C. melo

(2.94±0.89) constituted a significant proportion. Unknown plant (10.44±0.37) and

unidentified particles (8.21±0.64) were found significantly. Other fragments (1.96±0.00)

were found less frequently.

42

The percentage of food item in fecal samples during summer season showed (Fig-5)

that Z. mays (12.26%) and S. vulgaris (11.81%) was the most intensively consumed species

in this season followed by P. juliflora (7.54%), C. dactylon (5.78%), B. ceiba (5.66%), M.

alba (5.44%), S. nigrum (4.85%), M. azedarach (4.58%), S. halepense (4.49%), D. sissoo

(3.89%), E. camaldulensis (3.58%), M. indica (3.16%), C. rotundus (2.92%), P. sativum

(2.51%), Z. jujuba (2.42%), L. aphaca (2.12%), S. munja (1.31%), C. melo (1.88%),

unknown plant parts (6.69%) and unidentified particles (5.26%), other matters (1.26%).

In fecal pellets, seed (24.3%) and stem (23.8%) were in high proportion (Fig-8).

Spike (18.7%), leaf (16.9%) and root (10.8%) were found in sufficient amount. Tuber (5.4%)

was appearing in less proportion. The presence of seed of different plant species confirmed

the results of Arshad et al. (1990).

iv. Fall:

The fall sample of stomach contents (Table 3) showed the appearance of 14 plant

species. Z. mays (20.48±2.56) was the most intensively consumed specie. S. vulgaris

(12.68±4.65), P. juliflora (12.45±0.99), S. halepense (11.23±4.98) were recovered with high

frequency. M. azedarach (8.93±0.00), B. ceiba (8.50±0.46), E. camaldulensis (7.60±1.33),

D. sissoo (7.53±0.98), C. dactylon (6.33±0.23), C. melo (5.08±2.38), C. rotundus

(4.54±0.77), S. officinarum (4.03±0.19), Z. jujuba (2.84±0.14), S. munja (2.44±0.81) were

recovered in relatively less frequently. Other matters (2.54±0.26) were found to be less

frequent while unidentified (5.07±0.52) and unknown plant parts were found relatively in

significant amount (6.79±1.22).

The fall sample of stomach contents (Fig-5) showed the percentage of the food items:

Z. mays (15.87%) was the most intensively consumed species. S. vulgaris (9.82%), P.

juliflora (9.65%), S. halepense (8.70%), M. azedarach (6.92%), B. ceiba (6.59%), E.

camaldulensis (5.89%), D. sissoo (5.83%), C. dactylon (4.90%), C. melo (3.94%), C.

rotundus (3.52%), S. officinarum (3.12%), Z. jujuba (2.20%), S. munja (1.89%) were

recovered. Other matters (1.97%) were found in less percentage while unidentified (3.93%)

and unknown plant parts (5.26%) were found. This confirmed the observation of Geddes and

Iles (1991) that porcupine causes extensive damage to maize crops in the northern area of

Azad Kashmir, Pothowar plateau. Z. mays consumption also support the observation of

43

Ahmed et al. (1987) who reported that damage conducted in maize fields in Faisalabad

district was widespread.

Leaf (23.6%) and stem (18.2%) were consumed with high percentage followed by

seed (16.3%), spike (15.3%), root (13.7%), tuber (10.5%) and pods (2.2%).

The analysis of fecal samples of porcupine collected during fall season showed that

18 types of food items of plant origin were consumed at different frequency (Tabl-4). Z.

mays (16.75±0.91) and S. vulgaris (16.23±0.85) was the most intensively consumed

species in this season. P. juliflora (12.91±1.34) appeared in high frequency. M. azedarach

(9.17±1.08), C. dactylon (9.131.12), M. alba (8.69±1.52), M. indica (8.45±0.00), P.

guajava (7.92±0.65), S. nigrum (7.15±0.75), S. halepense (7.13±0.69), B. ceiba

(6.39±0.90), D. sissoo (5.74±0.56), E. camaldulensis (5.37±0.68), B. oleracea (5.13±0.00),

Z. jujuba (4.43±0.30), S. officinarum (4.30±0.78), C. melo (4.00±0.11), S. munja

(3.13±0.23) were recovered less frequently. Unknown plant parts (9.44±0.49) and

unidentified material (5.60±0.39) appeared significantly. Other matters (3.81±0.48) were

found to be less frequent.

The analysis of fecal pellets showed the different percentage of food items

consumed by porcupine (Fig-6). Z. mays (10.41%) and S. vulgaris (10.09%) were the most

intensively consumed species in this season. P. juliflora (8.03%), M. azedarach (5.70%),

C. dactylon (5.68%), M. alba (5.40%), M. indica (5.25%), P. guajava (4.92%), S. nigrum

(4.44%), S. halepense (4.43%), B. ceiba (3.97%), D. sissoo (3.57%), E. camaldulensis

(3.34%), B. oleracea (3.19%), Z. jujuba (2.75%), S. officinarum (2.67%), C. melo (2.43%),

S. munja (1.95%) were recovered with different percentage. Unknown plant parts (5.87%),

unidentified material (3.48%) and other matter (2.37%) were found in less percentage.

In fecal pellets, stems (23.5%) were recovered in significantly high proportions

followed by seed (29.2%), spike (17.3%), root (16.0%) and leaf (15.4%), while pod (4.4%)

and tuber (4.0%) of different plant species appeared in low proportions.

44

Table 3: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Qadirabad Ballokey Canal.

Food items Spring Summer Fall Winter Allium cepa 8.26 ± 0.00 2.53± 0.19 0.00 ± 0.00 8.79± 0.94 Bombix ceiba 10.09 ± 1.15 5.88± 0.00 8.50± 0.46 8.29± 0.20 Brassica campestris 8.26 ± 1.37 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 7.03± 1.67 Brassica oleracea 4.08 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 3.77± 0.72 Cucumis melo 0.00 ± 0.00 6.27± 0.60 5.08± 2.38 0.00 ± 0.00 Cucurbita maxima 0.00 ± 0.00 2.94± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Cynodon dactylon 5.86 ± 0.42 6.81± 1.59 6.33± 0.23 4.30± 0.46 Cyperus rotundus 1.62 ± 0.43 4.53± 0.60 4.54± 0.77 2.40± 0.67 Dalbergia sissoo 5.24 ± 0.60 3.86± 0.36 7.53± 0.98 3.73± 0.70 E. camaldulensis 4.59 ± 0.36 7.86± 1.55 7.60± 1.33 5.18± 1.12 Hordeum vulgare 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 8.16± 0.33 L.esculentum 0.00 ± 0.00 8.16± 2.41 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Lathirus aphaca 4.43 ± 0.90 7.08± 1.46 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Mangifera indica 4.79 ± 0.71 3.37± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 8.08± 0.00 Melia azedarach 2.38 ± 0.00 9.80± 0.00 8.93± 0.00 3.15± 0.65 Melilotus indica 0.00 ± 0.00 3.58± 0.30 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Morus alba 5.95 ± 0.00 10.11± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 6.50± 0.53 Prosopis juliflora 7.80 ± 1.99 5.73± 1.76 12.45± 0.99 10.09± 1.87 Psidium guajava 6.42 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 6.00± 1.21 Saccharum munja 3.85 ± 1.47 2.10± 0.14 2.44± 0.81 2.02± 0.00 Saccharum officimale 3.66 ± 0.92 0.00 ± 0.00 4.03± 0.19 3.83± 1.09 Solanum melongena 6.90 ± 0.24 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Solanum tuberosum 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 3.22± 1.33 Sorghum halepense 9.08 ± 1.70 14.09± 0.61 11.23± 4.98 7.56± 0.63 Sorghum vulgaris 0.00 ± 0.00 6.58± 0.82 12.68± 4.65 0.00 ± 0.00 Triticum aestivum 18.30 ± 1.81 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 10.60± 2.25 Zea mays 0.00 ± 0.00 13.77± 1.23 20.48± 2.56 0.00 ± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 1.65 ± 0.73 0.00 ± 0.00 2.84± 0.14 4.29± 1.98 *Other 2.45 ± 0.32 3.05± 0.57 2.54± 0.26 1.92± 0.36 **Unidentified 5.01 ± 0.89 4.37± 0.87 5.07± 0.52 4.54± 0.44 Unknown plant 8.75 ± 1.85 7.87± 0.26 6.79± 1.22 7.44± 0.78

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

45

Table 4: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Qadirabad Ballokey Canal.

Food items Spring Summer Fall Winter Allium cepa 6.03 ± 1.55 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 7.90± 1.81 Bombix ceiba 11.03 ± 1.13 8.84± 2.52 6.39± 0.90 5.64± 1.23 Brassica oleracea 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 5.13± 0.00 3.86± 0.24 Cucumis melo 0.00 ± 0.00 2.94± 0.89 4.00± 0.11 0.00 ± 0.00 Cynodon dactylon 5.58 ± 0.52 9.02± 0.72 9.13± 1.12 8.43± 1.01 Cyperus rotundus 6.54 ± 2.08 4.56± 0.87 0.00 ± 0.00 3.99± 1.01 Dalbergia sissoo 5.21 ± 0.92 6.07± 0.98 5.74± 0.56 10.14± 1.15 E. camaldulensis 5.51 ± 0.61 5.59± 1.03 5.37± 0.68 10.25± 1.07 Lathirus aphaca 0.00 ± 0.00 3.31± 0.18 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Mangifera indica 10.39 ± 0.00 4.93± 1.18 8.45± 0.00 8.18± 1.84 Melia azedarach 9.49 ± 1.18 7.15± 1.39 9.17± 1.08 12.67± 2.56 Melilotus indica 3.17 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Morus alba 9.76 ± 1.26 8.50± 1.50 8.69± 1.52 12.45± 3.34 Pisum sativum 3.21 ± 0.25 3.92± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Prosopis juliflora 9.42 ± 0.91 11.78± 1.23 12.91± 1.34 8.39± 0.95 Psidium guajava 5.83 ± 0.59 0.00 ± 0.00 7.92± 0.65 0.00 ± 0.00 Saccharum munja 2.21 ± 0.48 2.99± 0.00 3.13± 0.23 4.56± 0.95 Saccharum officimale 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 4.30± 0.78 5.31± 1.34 Solanum nigrum 0.00 ± 0.00 7.58± 5.76 7.15± 0.75 0.00 ± 0.00 Sorghum halepense 12.56 ± 1.52 7.01± 0.46 7.13± 0.69 12.50± 0.85 Sorghum vulgaris 0.00 ± 0.00 18.44± 1.38 16.23± 0.85 0.00 ± 0.00 Triticum aestivum 18.02 ± 0.58 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 20.97± 0.97 Zea mays 5.48 ± 0.87 19.14± 1.18 16.75± 0.91 0.00 ± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 4.56 ± 0.77 3.78± 0.33 4.43± 0.30 3.08± 0.34 *Other 1.53 ± 0.09 1.96± 0.00 3.81± 0.48 0.00 ± 0.00 **Unidentified 7.17 ± 0.71 8.21± 0.64 5.60± 0.39 7.03± 0.73 Unknown plant 9.04 ± 0.66 10.44± 0.37 9.44± 0.49 9.80± 0.75

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

46

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Spring Summer Fall Winter

Figure 5: Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Qadirabad Ballokey Canal.

47

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Figure 6: Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Qadirabad Ballokey Canal.

48

18.3

23.6

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.3

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Figure 7: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the Stomach contents of Hystrixindica captured from Qadirabad Ballokey Canal

23.5

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Figure 8: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Qadirabad Ballokey Canal

49

c. Rakh Chobara Desert Lands:

i. Spring:

The analysis of the stomach contents of porcupine trapped during spring showed that

11 plants species were recovered. T. aestivum (26.59±2.75) was the most intensively

consumed species. Tribulus terrestris (17.39±0.00), H. vulgare (14.00±1.10), P. juliflora

(13.44±3.40), S. halepense (12.04±1.30) and C. rotundus (10.87±0.00) were recovered

with high frequency. C. ciliaris (7.56±0.65), A. tenuifolius (5.96±1.38), Z. jujuba

(5.84±1.43), V. mungo (4.55±0.00) and S. munja (4.31±0.53) were consumed in significant

proportions. Unidentified (4.95±0.38) and unknown plant parts (9.39±0.72) were found less

frequently.

The percentage of food items of the analysis of the stomach contents of porcupine

trapped during spring showed that Triticum aestivum (19.42%) was the most intensively

consumed specie. T. terrestris (12.70%), H. vulgare (10.23%), P. juliflora (9.82%), S.

halepense (8.80%), C. rotundus (7.94%), C. ciliaris (5.52%), A. tenuifolius (4.35%), Z.

jujuba (4.27%), V. mungo (3.32%) and S. munja (3.15%) were also consumed. Unidentified

(3.62%) and unknown plant fragments (6.86%) were found.

Spike (31.0%) was consumed with higher percentage (Fig-11) followed by leaves

(24.1%), stem (17.3%) seed (11.8%) and root (10.6%). Pods (5.0%) were also consumed in a

significant proportion. It confirmed the result of Arshad et al., (1990).

The fecal samples (n=15) were collected from the Rakh Chobara during the spring

season. The analysis of the fecal pellets (Table-5) revealed that T. aestivum was

consumed at highest mean relative frequency 28.07±1.86. C. ciliaris (14.52±1.97), D.

sissoo (12.96±0.00), A. tenuifolius (12.83±1.26), C. dactylon (12.12±1.84), V. mungo

(11.60±2.49), Cymbopogan jawarancusa (10.53±0.00) constituted the diet. S. halepense

(9.09±0.00), P. juliflora (7.45±1.15), Z. jujuba (6.73±1.21), C. polygonoides (6.35±2.46).

C. rotundus (5.98±0.91) and S. munja (3.60±0.82) were recorded in different frequency.

Other matter (4.13±0.83) constituted the small part of the contents while the unknown

plant (13.36±0.89) and unidentified (8.91±1.05) were found relatively in significant

proportion.

The analysis of the fecal pellets (Fig-10) revealed that T. aestivum was consumed

at highest percentage (16.69%). C. ciliaris (8.63%), D. sissoo (7.70%), A. tenuifolius

50

(7.63%), C. dactylon (7.20%), V. mungo (6.90%), C. jawarancusa (6.26%), S. halepense

(5.40%), P. juliflora (4.43%), Z. jujuba (4.00%), C. polygonoides (3.77%), C. rotundus

(3.55%) and S. munja (2.14%) were recorded with different percentage. Other matter

(2.45%) constituted the small part of contents while the unknown plant parts (7.94%) and

unidentified (5.30%) were found relatively in higher percentage.

Table 12 shows the consumption of the percentage of different parts of the plant

species. Spike (27.2%), stem (18.9%), leaf (11.0%), pod (16.0%), tuber (8.2%) and seed

(5.4%) appeared with different percentage. The presence of different plant species confirmed

the result of Arshad et al. (1990).

ii. Summer:

All the samples collected in the summer season were taken in the month of May,

June, July, August and September in 2009. During the summer season stomach contents of

(n=5) animals were examined (Table-6). Analysis of the stomach contents of these

specimens revealed that 9 types of food items of plant origin were consumed by the

porcupine. Among these, S. vulgaris (30.79±1.87) was predominant, as it constituted larger

percentage of total stomach contents. P. juliflora (25.09±2.28) and C. ciliaris (10.20±0.79)

were the next most consumed items but were utilized relatively less intensively. Among

other items eaten with decreasing frequency were C. polygonoides (8.74±1.36), C. melo

(6.52±0.00), Z. jujuba (6.48±2.85), A. tenuifolius (5.89±0.63), T. terrestris (2.27±0.00) and

C. dactylon (2.27±0.00). In the summer diet of the porcupine, unidentified plant food

(5.34±1.20) and unknown plant parts (11.82±0.49) were less frequently constituent.

The analysis of the stomach contents of porcupine trapped during summer showed

percentage of food items. S. vulgaris (26.68%) was the most intensively consumed specie.

P. juliflora (21.74%), C. ciliaris (8.84%), C. polygonoides (7.57%), C. melo (5.65%), Z.

jujuba (5.61%), A. tenuifolius (5.10%), C. dactylon (1.97%) and T. terrestris (1.97%),

unidentified (4.63%) and unknown plant parts (10.24%) were found with different

percentage of the food items.

Figure11 presents the summary of the food parts recovered from stomachs of

porcupine. Seed (22.7%), stem (21.7%), spike (19.2%), leaf (17.0%) and root (16.7%) were

recovered with higher percentage while pods (2.3%) with the less percentage.

51

The analysis of the fecal pellets showed that 13 types of food items of plant origin

were consumed at different frequency by porcupines (Table-5) P. juliflora (21.05±1.54)

was the most intensively consumed specie in this season. C. ciliaris (15.08±3.80), S.

halepense (15.00±0.00), A. tenuifolius (12.89±1.15), C. dactylon (12.64±1.00), T. terrestris

(11.36±3.76) appeared in high frequency. C. polygonoides (8.59±0.47), S. munja

(8.53±1.77), A. procera (8.38±2.98), D. sissoo (8.16±0.00), C. jawarancusa (7.71±1.36),

Z. jujuba (7.70±0.40), C. rotundus (6.40±1.33), V. mungo (4.17±0.00) constituted a

significant proportion. Other matter (3.87±0.34) was found to be less frequent while

unidentified (20.45±1.50) and unknown plants (16.21±0.68) were found to be highly

significant.

The analysis of fecal pellets showed the different percentage of food items by

porcupine (Fig-10) P. juliflora (11.19%) was the most intensively consumed species in

this season. , C. ciliaris (8.01%), S. halepense (7.97%), A. tenuifolius (6.85%), C. dactylon

(6.72%), T. terrestris (6.04%), C. polygonoides (4.56%), S. munja (4.53%), A. procera

(4.45%), D. sissoo (4.34%), C. jawarancusa (4.10%), Z. jujuba (4.09%), C. rotundus

(3.40%), V. mungo (2.22%), other matter (2.06%), unidentified (10.87%) and unknown

plants (8.61%) were found with different percentages.

Figure 12 shows the consumption of the percentage of different parts of the plant

species. Stem (20.2%), pod (18.2), root (17.0%), leaf (16.0%) and seed (11.3%) were found

with high percentage while spike (8.8%) and tuber (8.1%) appeared with low percentage.

iii. Fall:

In the fall season the stomach content analysis showed that 9 types of food items of

plant origin were consumed by the porcupines (Table-6). T. terrestris (30.17±5.98) was the

most intensively consumed species in this season. P. juliflora (20.38±1.88) appeared in high

frequency. S. halepense (13.66±2.82), C. polygonoides (13.27±2.86), A. tenuifolius

(7.58±0.760), C. ciliaris (7.48±2.94), Z. jujuba (6.89±2.46), C. rotundus (5.31±1.14) and S.

munja (4.55±0.00) contributed a significant proportion. Other matters (2.22±0.05) were

found to be less frequent while unidentified (5.73±1.25) and unknown plants (9.21±1.34)

were found significant proportions comparatively.

In the fall season the stomach content analysis showed the percentage of the food

items of plant origin were consumed by the porcupines (Fig-9). T. terrestris (23.86%) was

52

the most intensively consumed species in this season. P. juliflora (21.74%) appeared to be

consumed in high percentage. S. halepense (10.80%), C. polygonoides (10.43%), A.

tenuifolius (5.99%), C. ciliaris (5.92%), Z. jujuba (5.45%), C. rotundus (4.20%) and S.

munja (3.60%) contributed different percentage. Other matters (1.76%) were found to be in

less percentage while unidentified (4.53%) and unknown plant parts (7.28%) were found

significantly.

Figure11 present the summary of the food parts recovered from stomachs of

porcupine. Leaf (27.0%), stem (25.1%), seed (22.0%) and root (15.1%) recovered with

higher percentage while tuber (8.5%) and pod (2.1%) were in less percentage.

The fecal samples of porcupines which were collected during fall season, showed

predominance of T. terrestris (26.26±1.610) which remained the most intensively eaten food.

P. juliflora (20.84±1.81), C. dactylon (12.48±1.33), C. ciliaris (10.96±1.81) were

significantly consumed by the porcupine during the fall season. C. polygonoides (8.68±1.68),

S. munja (8.29±1.58), S. halepense (6.67±0.00), A. tenuifolius (6.14±0.90), Z. jujuba

(4.85±0.97), C. rotundus (4.17±1.89) were eaten much less intensively. Other matter

(3.84±0.48) eaten less intensively and unidentified (10.16±1.32) and unknown plant

(13.76±1.09) constituted the significant part of the total contents.

The fecal samples showed the percentage of food items (Fig-10) with predominance

of T. terrestris (19.15%). P. juliflora (15.20%), C. dactylon (9.10%), C. ciliaris (7.99%), C.

polygonoides (6.33%), S. munja (6.05%), S. halepense (4.87%), A. tenuifolius (4.48%), Z.

jujuba (3.54%), C. rotundus (3.04), other matter (2.80%), unidentified (7.41%) and

unknown plant (10.04%) were in different percentage of the total fecal contents.

Figure12 suggested that stem (25.6%) parts were representing in sufficient amount.

Root (23.5%) and seed (20.7%) contributed significantly of the total fecal contents. Tuber

(7.5%) and pod (2.4%) appeared with low frequency in fecal pellets. It confirms the finding

of Roberts (1997) and Arshad et al., (1990).

iv. Winter:

Table 6 presents a summary of the relative frequency of food items recovered from

stomachs of porcupines collected during winter. During this season 11 different plant

species were recorded. Among these, T. aestivum (39.89±5.21) was predominant as it

constituted most intensively eaten food. P. juliflora (18.28±1.55), H. vulgare (10.94±0.00)

53

and A. tenuifolius (10.91±0.00) appeared less commonly. Among less intensively

consumed plants were S. halepense (8.59±2.34), C. ciliaris (8.40±1.13), C. rotundus

(7.81±0.00), C. dactylon (7.14±0.00), C. polygonoides (6.74±1.71), Z. jujuba (4.76±0.00)

and T. terrestris (4.76±0.00). Unidentified (5.09±0.93) and unknown plants (9.92±1.16)

were consumed in low frequency. Mac Mahon (1985) observed the winter feeding habits

of porcupine and he suggested that it consumed bark of different trees, including pines, fir

and hemlock.

Figure 9 presents a summary of the percentage of food items recovered from

stomach of porcupines collected during winter. Among these, T. aestivum (27.85%) was

predominant as it constituted most intensively eaten food. P. juliflora (12.76%), H. vulgare

(7.64%), A. tenuifolius (7.62%), S. halepense (6.00%), C. ciliaris (5.86%), C. rotundus

(5.45%), C. dactylon (4.38%), C. polygonoides (4.71%), Z. jujuba (3.32%), T. terrestris

(3.32%), unidentified (3.55%) and unknown plant (6.93%) were consumed at different

percentage.

Stem (30.3%), spike (24.5%), leaf (18.5%) and seed (10.8%) were recovered with

high frequency. Root (8.3%), tuber (4.1%) and pod (3.2%) were less frequently consumed.

The study on the fecal pallets collected in winter season (Table-5) suggested that 12

types of food items of plant origin were recovered. T. aestivum (22.89±0.85), V. mungo

(22.22±0.00) and T. terrestris (20.83±0.93) were eaten in sufficient amount, while A.

procera (12.58±1.71), P. juliflora (12.21±1.10) were also recorded sufficiently. C. ciliaris

(9.65±1.18), C. dactylon (8.68±0.70), Z. jujuba (6.20±0.62), C. polygonoides (5.88±0.58),

S. munja (4.25±0.92), A. tenuifolius (4.17±0.54), C. jawarancusa (3.51±0.00) and C.

rotundus (3.34±1.07) were less frequently recorded. Other matters (2.54±0.21),

unidentified (6.94±0.91) and unknown plants (9.43±0.60) parts were less frequently

recorded.

The percentage of fecal pallet analysis of winter sample (Fig-10) showed different

food items. T. aestivum (14.74%), V. mungo (14.31%) and T. terrestris (13.41%), A.

procera (8.10%), P. juliflora (7.86%), C. ciliaris (6.21%), C. dactylon (5.59%), Z. jujuba

(3.99%), C. polygonoides (3.79%), S. munja (2.74%), A. tenuifolius (2.68%), C.

jawarancusa (2.26%), C. rotundus (2.15%), other matter (1.64%), unidentified (4.47%)

and unknown plants (6.07%) were present in different percentages.

54

Analysis of fecal pellets (Fig-12) suggested that stem (34.7%) were representing in

sufficient amount. Root (17.0%), seed (14.0%), leaf (11.1%) and spike (13.1%) contributed a

significant part of total fecal contents. Tuber (7.4%) and pod (2.4%) appeared with low

frequency in fecal pellets. It confirms the findings of Roberts (1997), Arshad et al. (1990)

and Brooks et al. (1988).

55

Table 5: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Rakh Chobara.

Food items Spring Summer Fall Winter Alibizzia procera 0.00 ± 0.00 8.38± 2.98 0.00 ± 0.00 12.58± 1.71 Asphodelus tenuifolius 12.83 ± 1.26 12.89± 1.15 6.14± 0.90 4.17± 0.54 Cenchrus ciliaris 14.52 ± 1.97 15.08± 3.80 10.96± 1.81 9.65± 1.18 Cymbopogan jawarancusa 10.53 ± 0.00 7.71± 1.36 0.00 ± 0.00 3.51± 0.00 Cynodon dactylon 12.12 ± 1.84 12.64± 1.00 12.48± 1.33 8.68± 0.70 Cyperus rotundus 5.98 ± 0.91 6.40± 1.33 4.17± 1.89 3.34± 1.07 Dalbergia sissoo 12.96 ± 0.00 8.16± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Prosopis juliflora 7.45 ± 1.15 21.05± 1.54 20.84± 1.81 12.21± 1.10 Saccharum munja 3.60 ± 0.82 8.53± 1.77 8.29± 1.58 4.25± 0.92 Sorghum halepense 9.09 ± 0.00 15.00± 0.00 6.67± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Tribulus terrestris 0.00 ± 0.00 11.36± 3.76 26.26± 1.61 20.83± 0.93 Triticum aestivum 28.07 ± 1.86 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 22.89± 0.85 Vigna mungo 11.60 ± 2.49 4.17± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 22.22± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 6.73 ± 1.21 7.70± 0.40 4.85± 0.97 6.20± 0.62 *Other 4.13 ± 0.83 3.87± 0.34 3.84± 0.48 2.54± 0.21 **Unidentified 8.91 ± 1.05 20.45± 1.50 10.16± 1.32 6.94± 0.91 Unknown plant 13.36 ± 0.89 16.21± 0.68 13.76± 1.09 9.43± 0.60

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

56

Table 6: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the

Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Rakh Chobara.

Food items Spring Summer Fall Winter Asphodelus tenuifolius 5.96 ± 1.38 5.89± 0.63 7.58± 0.76 10.91± 0.00 Calligonum polygonoides 0.00 ± 0.00 8.74± 1.36 13.27± 2.86 6.74± 1.71 Cenchrus ciliaris 7.56 ± 0.65 10.20± 0.79 7.48± 2.94 8.40± 1.13 Cucumis melo 0.00 ± 0.00 6.52± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Cynodon dactylon 0.00 ± 0.00 2.27± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 7.14± 0.00 Cyperus rotundus 10.87 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 5.31± 1.14 7.81± 0.00 Hordeum vulgare 14.00 ± 1.10 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 10.94± 0.00 Prosopis juliflora 13.44 ± 3.40 25.09± 2.28 20.38± 1.88 18.28± 1.55 Psidium guajava 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Saccharum munja 4.31 ± 0.53 0.00 ± 0.00 4.55± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Sorghum halepense 12.04 ± 1.30 0.00 ± 0.00 13.66± 2.82 8.59± 2.34 Sorghum vulgaris 0.00 ± 0.00 30.79± 1.87 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Tribulus terrestris 17.39 ± 0.00 2.27± 0.00 30.17± 5.98 4.76± 0.00 Triticum aestivum 26.59 ± 2.75 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 39.89± 5.21 Vigna mungo 4.55 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 5.84 ± 1.43 6.48± 2.85 6.89± 2.46 4.76± 0.00 *Other 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 2.22± 0.05 0.00 ± 0.00 **Unidentified 4.95 ± 0.38 5.34± 1.20 5.73± 1.25 5.09± 0.93 Unknown plant 9.39 ± 0.72 11.82± 0.49 9.21± 1.34 9.92± 1.16

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

57

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Spring Summer Fall Winter

Figure 9: Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Rakh Chobara

58

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Spring Summer Fall Winter

Figure 10: Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Rakh Chobara.

59

25.1

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Figure 11: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Rakh Chobara.

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Figure 12: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Rakh Chobara.

60

d. Rakh Goharwala Desert Lands:

i. Spring:

Analysis of the stomach contents of porcupine trapped during spring showed that

13 plants species were commonly consumed. T. aestivum (18.75±0.00) was predominant,

as it constituted the larger percentage of total stomach content. P. juliflora (15.22±1.53), S.

halepense (11.97±2.11) and Calligonum polygonoides (10.50±0.23) were the next most

consumed items but were utilized relatively less intensively. Among other items eaten with

decreasing frequency were A. tenuifolius (9.31±1.05), C. dactylon (8.57±0.85), C. ciliaris

(6.90±0.00), A. procera (5.34±0.93), E. camaldulensis (5.17±0.00), S. munja (4.97±1.19),

Z. jujuba (4.34±0.75), C. rotundus (3.60±0.35) and V. mungo (3.42±0.91) were

occasionally consumed. In the spring diet of porcupine other matter like hair and spine

constituted (1.37±0.39) were as unidentified (9.66±0.60) and unknown plant parts

(5.28±0.54) were less frequent.

The analysis of the stomach contents of porcupine showed the percentage of food

items (Fig-13). T. aestivum (15.08%) was predominant, as it constituted larger percentage

of total stomach contents. P. juliflora (12.24%), S. halepense (9.62%) and C. polygonoides

(8.44%), A. tenuifolius (7.49%), C. dactylon (6.89%), C. ciliaris (5.55%), A. procera

(4.29%), E. camaldulensis (4.16%), S. munja (4.00%), Z. jujuba (3.49%), C. rotundus

(2.89%) and V. mungo (2.75%) were found in different percentage. In the spring diet of

porcupine other matter like hair and spine constituted (1.10%) where as unidentified

(7.77%) and unknown plant parts (4.25%).

Leaves (25.3%) were consumed with higher percentage (Fig-15) followed by spike

(20.8%), stem (20.1%), root (14.4%) and seed (10.1%). Tuber (5.7%), flower (2.0%) and

pod (1.3%) were also consumed in a significant proportion.

The fecal samples (n=15) collected from the study area during this season (Table-7)

revealed that T. aestivum (25.58±1.61) was the most intensive consumed species. D. sissoo

(20.26±1.28), A. procera (12.93±2.00) and C. dactylon (11.28±1.51) were recovered with

high frequency. C. ciliaris (9.26±1.57), A. tenuifolius (8.95±1.39), P. juliflora (8.42±1.19),

V. mungo (8.00±1.13), C. polygonoides (7.94±0.73), C. rotundus (5.53±0.50), Z. jujuba

(5.06±0.76), S. halepense (5.02±0.86) and S. munja (3.71±1.18) were consumed in

61

significant proportion. In the spring diet of the porcupine other matter (2.96±0.27), where

as unknown plants (12.83±0.97) were also identified in significant amount.

The analysis of the fecal pellets (Fig-14) revealed that T. aestivum (16.24%) was

the most intensive consumed specie. D. sissoo (12.86%), A. procera (8.21%), C. dactylon

(7.16%), C. ciliaris (5.88%), A. tenuifolius (5.68%), P. juliflora (5.35%), V. mungo

(5.08%), C. polygonoides (5.04%), C. rotundus (3.51%), Z. jujuba (3.21%), S. halepense

(3.19%) and S. munja (2.36%) were consumed in different percentage. In the spring diet of

the porcupine other matter (1.88%), where as unknown plants (8.14%) were recorded.

In fecal pellets, spike (22.6%) and stem (20.8%) were recovered significantly in

high proportion followed by leaf (13.5%), root (12.6%), pod (12.0%), tuber (10.0%) and

seed (8.4%) of the different plant species.

ii. Summer:

The summer sample of stomach contents (Table8) showed appearance of 15 plant

species. P. juliflora (17.25±1.04) was the most extensively consumed species followed by,

C. ciliaris (10.48±0.73). Among the comparatively less consumed plant species, S.

vulgaris (9.09±0.00), T. terrestris (8.57±0.00), C. dactylon (7.93±0.94), C. polygonoides

(7.82±1.48), A. procera (7.65±0.15), E. camaldulensis (7.61±0.77), Z. jujuba (7.56±0.57),

D. sissoo (5.16±0.29), Orobanchi nicotianae (5.12±1.55), A. tenuifolius (4.99±0.13), C.

rotundus (3.90±0.00), S. halepense (3.39±0.27), C. melo (3.21±0.36) were included. Other

matters (2.35±0.15) were found to be less frequent while unidentified (9.16±1.03) and

unknown plant parts (8.92±0.25) were consumed in low frequency.

The summer sample of stomach contents (Fig-13) showed percentage of food

items. P. juliflora (13.25%) was the most extensively consumed species followed by C.

ciliaris (8.05%). The comparatively less consumed plant species, included S. vulgaris

(6.98%), T. terrestris (6.58%), C. dactylon (6.09%), C. polygonoides (6.01%), A. procera

(5.88%), E. camaldulensis (5.85%), Z. jujuba (5.81%), D. sissoo (3.96%), O. nicotianae

(3.93%), A. tenuifolius (3.83%), C. rotundus (3..00%), S. halepense (2.60%), C. melo

(2.47%). Other matters (1.81%), unidentified (7.04%) and unknown plant parts (6.85%)

were consumed in low percentage.

62

Figure15 presents the summary of the food parts recovered from stomachs of

porcupines. Stem (28.2%), leaf (20.2%), seed (18.0%), root (17.6%) and spike (11.2%)

recovered with higher percentage while pod (2.6%) and tuber (2.0%) with less percentage.

In fecal pellets, D. sissoo (22.86±1.59) was consumed in significant high

proportion. (Table7) A. procera (19.01±1.45), T. terrestris (12.82±0.00), C. dactylon

(12.32±1.20), C. jawarancusa (10.62±3.23), C. ciliaris (10.59±3.59), P. juliflora

(10.26±1.01) showed high frequency. S. munja (9.54±4.67), C. polygonoides (8.02±0.71),

V. mungo (7.01±1.65), C. rotundus (6.86±2.70), Z. jujuba (5.71±0.40), A. tenuifolius

(5.64±1.09) and T. aestivum (3.15±1.02) appeared with less frequency. Other matters

(2.71±0.24) were found to be less frequent while unidentified (9.17±0.75) and unknown

plant parts (12.31±0.79) were found relatively in high proportion.

In fecal pellets, D. sissoo (13.56%) was consumed in high percentage showed (Fig-

14). A. procera (11.28%), T. terrestris (7.60%), C. dactylon (7.31%), C. jawarancusa

(6.30%), C. ciliaris (6.28%), P. juliflora (6.09%), S. munja (5.66%), C. polygonoides

(4.76%), V. mungo (4.16%), C. rotundus (4.07%), Z. jujuba (3.39%), A. tenuifolius

(3.35%) and T. aestivum (1.87%) appeared with decreasing percentage, respectively. Other

matters (1.61%) were found in less percentage while unidentified (5.44) and unknown

plant parts (7.30%) were found relatively in high percentage.

Figure16 suggested that stem parts (23.0%) were represented in sufficient amount.

Root (19.2%), pod (18.1%), seed (15.0%), leaf (14.3%) and tuber (10.2%) contributed

significant part of total fecal contents. It confirms the finding of Roberts (1997) and Arshad

et al. (1990).

iii. Fall:

The analysis of the stomach contents of porcupines trapped during fall season

showed that 12 plant species were recovered. Among these D. sissoo (17.51±2.66) was

predominant as it was the major constituent. C. dactylon (15.31±2.96), C. ciliaris

(14.73±1.54), T. terrestris (13.18±2.07), P. juliflora (12.88±3.89) and E. camaldulensis

(10.76±1.01) appeared less commonly. The less intensively consumed plants were C.

polygonoides (9.95±2.81), Z. jujuba (9.79±1.72), A. procera (8.36±2.97), S. munja

(5.66±1.15), C. rotundus (5.40±0.31) and S. halepense (2.86±0.00). Other matters

63

(3.55±0.42), unidentified (7.65±0.63) and unknown plant parts (8.08±1.35) found in low

frequency.

Figure13 shows the percentage of food items of plant species as recovered in fall

season. Among these D. sissoo (12.02%) was predominant with highest percentage. C.

dactylon (10.51%), C. ciliaris (10.11%), T. terrestris (9.05%), P. juliflora (8.84%), E.

camaldulensis (7.39%), C. polygonoides (6.83%), Z. jujuba (6.72%), A. procera (5.74%),

S. munja (3.89%), C. rotundus (3.71%) and S. halepense (1.96%) were found in different

percentages. Other matters (2.44%) were in low percentage while unidentified (5.25%) and

unknown plant parts (5.55%) were also found.

During fall, roots, stems, leaves, seeds, tuber and spike were consumed in different

frequency. Seed (24.5%) was consumed with high frequency followed by stem (23.7%), leaf

(20.9%), root (17.4%) and tuber (11.1%) and pod (2.1%).

The study on the fecal pallet analysis of the fall season (Table-7) suggested that 12

types of food items of plant origin were eaten by porcupines. P. juliflora (17.59±1.39) and

D. sissoo (17.22±1.95) were found in sufficient amount, while, T. terrestris (12.55±1.81),

C. dactylon (11.68±1.29) and C. ciliaris (10.44±1.78) were also recorded sufficiently. A.

procera (9.99±2.03), C. jawarancusa (8.57±0.00), C. polygonoides (8.42±1.37), S. munja

(6.26±0.91), A. tenuifolius (4.88±0.00), Z. jujuba (4.73±0.77) and C. rotundus (4.44±0.00)

were less frequent. Other matters (3.80±0.28) were present in much less frequency while

unknown plant parts (15.46±1.28) were found in significant amount.

The fecal pallet analysis of the fall season (Fig-14) suggested that P. juliflora

(11.97%), D. sissoo (11.72%), T. terrestris (8.54%), C. dactylon (7.95%), C. ciliaris

(7.11%), A. procera (6.80%), C. jawarancusa (5.83%), C. polygonoides (5.73%), S. munja

(4.26%), A. tenuifolius (3.32%), Z. jujuba (3.22%) and C. rotundus (3.02%) were found

in varied percentages. Other matters (2.59%) were present in less percentage while

unknown plant parts (10.52%) were found at high percentage.

In fecal pellets, seed (22.6%) were recovered in significantly high proportion

followed by stem (28.4%), leaf (23.1%), root (21.2%) and seed (18.4%) while pods (6.3%)

and tubers (2.4%) of the different plant species appeared at low frequency.

64

iv. Winter:

Table-8 presents a summary of the relative frequency of food items recovered from

stomachs of porcupines collected during the winter. During this season 14 different plant

species were recorded. Among these, T. aestivum (13.88±1.00), S. munja (13.75±0.00) and

D. sissoo (13.33±1.84) were predominant. T. terrestris (12.93±1.65) and C. dactylon

(10.76±0.91) appeared less commonly. Among the less intensively consumed plants were

P. juliflora (9.89±0.49), H. vulgare (9.40±0.00), A. tenuifolius (7.06±0.76), A. procera

(6.28±0.54), S. halepense (5.66±0.00), E. camaldulensis (5.21±1.21), C. polygonoides

(3.41±1.43), Z. jujuba (2.95±0.72) and C. jawarancusa (2.56±0.00). Unidentified food

items (9.92±1.13) and unknown plant parts (6.33±0.94) contributed significantly of the

total contents.

Fig-13 presents a summary of the percentage of food items recovered from

stomachs of porcupines collected during the winter. Among these, T. aestivum (10.41%),

S. munja (10.31%) and D. sissoo (10.00%), T. terrestris (9.70%), C. dactylon (8.07%), P.

juliflora (7.42%), H. vulgare (7.05%), A. tenuifolius (5.30%), A. procera (4.71%), S.

halepense (4.25%), E. camaldulensis (3.91%), C. polygonoides (2.56%), Z. jujuba

(2.21%) and C. jawarancusa (1.92%) were identified. Unidentified food items (7.44%) and

unknown plant parts (4.75%) contributed to the total contents.

Fig-15 shows the consumption percentage of different food parts like stem, leaf,

seed, spike and pod recovered from the stomach of porcupines collected during winter

seasons. Stem (34.1%), leaf (30.0%) and root (13.5%) were consumed with a high frequency

while spike (9.3%) and pod (4.3%) with less frequently.

The study on the fecal pallet analysis of the winter samples (Table-7) suggested

that 14 types of plant origin were eaten by porcupines. A. procera (16.58±3.18) and D.

sissoo (16.66±0.91) were in sufficient amount while T. aestivum (11.65±1.47) and P.

juliflora (10.04±1.19) were also recorded sufficiently. C. ciliaris (9.45±0.89), T. terrestris

(8.95±1.39), Z. jujuba (8.38±1.05), C. dactylon (8.19±1.01), S. halepense (8.04±1.16), C.

polygonoides (7.91±0.69), S. munja (3.61±0.39), V. mungo (3.23±0.00), C. rotundus

(3.12±0.30) and A. tenuifolius (2.63±0.50) were less frequently recorded. Other matters

(3.73±0.38) were also less frequently recorded. Unidentified (8.85±0.72) and unknown

plant parts (15.72±1.30) contributed significantly of the total contents.

65

The fecal pallet analysis of the winter sample (Fig-13) suggested that A. procera

(11.30%), D. sissoo (11.35%), T. aestivum (7.94%), P. juliflora (6.84%), C. ciliaris

(6.44%), T. terrestris (6.10%), Z. jujuba (5.71%), C. dactylon (5.58%), S. halepense

(5.48%), C. polygonoides (5.39%), S. munja (2.46%), V. mungo (2.20%), C. rotundus

(2.13%) and A. tenuifolius (1.79%) were found in different percentages. Other matters

(2.54%), unidentified (6.03%) and unknown plant parts (10.71%) contributed significantly

to the percentage of the total contents.

Analysis of fecal pellets (Table16) suggested that stem (32.7%) were represented in

sufficient amount. Spike (22.8%), root (17.5%) and seed (10.9%) contributed significant part

of total fecal contents. leaf (8.12%) and pod (2.0%) appeared with low frequency in fecal

pellets. It confirms the finding of Roberts (1997), Arshad et al. (1990) and Brooks et al.

(1988).

66

Table 7: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Rakh Goharwala, Bakher.

Food items Spring Summer Fall Winter Alibizzia procera 12.93 ± 2.00 19.01± 1.45 9.99± 2.03 16.58± 3.18 Asphodelus tenuifolius 8.95 ± 1.39 5.64± 1.09 4.88± 0.00 2.63± 0.50 Calligonum polygonoides 7.94 ± 0.73 8.02± 0.71 8.42± 1.37 7.91± 0.69 Cenchrus ciliaris 9.26 ± 1.57 10.59± 3.59 10.44± 1.78 9.45± 0.89 Cymbopogan jawarancusa 0.00 ± 0.00 10.62± 3.23 8.57± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Cynodon dactylon 11.28 ± 1.51 12.32± 1.20 11.68± 1.29 8.19± 1.01 Cyperus rotundus 5.53 ± 0.50 6.86± 2.70 4.44± 0.00 3.12± 0.30 Dalbergia sissoo 20.26 ± 1.28 22.86± 1.59 17.22± 1.95 16.66± 0.91 Prosopis juliflora 8.42 ± 1.19 10.26± 1.01 17.59± 1.39 10.04± 1.19 Saccharum munja 3.71 ± 1.18 9.54± 4.67 6.26± 0.91 3.61± 0.39 Sorghum halepense 5.02 ± 0.86 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00± 0.00 8.04± 1.16 Tribulus terrestris 0.00 ± 0.00 12.82± 0.00 12.55± 1.81 8.95± 1.39 Triticum aestivum 25.58 ± 1.61 3.15± 1.02 0.00 ± 0.00 11.65± 1.47 Vigna mungo 8.00 ± 1.13 7.01± 1.65 0.00 ± 0.00 3.23± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 5.06 ± 0.76 5.71± 0.40 4.73± 0.77 8.38± 1.05 *Other 2.96 ± 0.27 2.71± 0.24 3.80± 0.28 3.73± 0.38 **Unidentified 9.79 ± 0.61 9.17± 0.75 10.89± 0.97 8.85± 0.72 Unknown plant 12.83 ± 0.97 12.31± 0.79 15.46± 1.28 15.72± 1.30

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

67

Table 8: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica captured from Rakh Goharwala, Bakher.

Food items Spring Summer Fall Winter Alibizzia procera 5.34 ± 0.93 7.65± 0.15 8.36± 2.97 6.28± 0.54 Asphodelus tenuifolius 9.31 ± 1.05 4.99± 0.13 0.00± 0.00 7.06± 0.76 Calligonum polygonoides 10.50 ± 0.23 7.82± 1.48 9.95± 2.81 3.41± 1.43 Cenchrus ciliaris 6.90 ± 0.00 10.48± 0.73 14.73± 1.54 0.00 ± 0.00 Cucumis melo 0.00 ± 0.00 3.21± 0.36 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Cymbopogan jawarancusa 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 2.56± 0.00 Cynodon dactylon 8.57 ± 0.85 7.93± 0.94 15.31± 2.96 10.76± 0.91 Cyperus rotundus 3.60 ± 0.35 3.90± 0.00 5.40± 0.31 0.00 ± 0.00 Dalbergia sissoo 0.00 ± 0.00 5.16± 0.29 17.51± 2.66 13.33± 1.84 E. camaldulensis 5.17 ± 0.00 7.61± 0.77 10.76± 1.01 5.21± 1.21 Hordeum vulgare 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 9.40± 0.00 Orobanchi nicotianae 0.00 ± 0.00 5.12± 1.55 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Prosopis juliflora 15.22 ± 1.53 17.25± 1.04 12.88± 3.89 9.89± 0.49 Saccharum munja 4.97 ± 1.19 0.00 ± 0.00 5.66± 1.15 13.75± 0.00 Sorghum halepense 11.97 ± 2.11 3.39± 0.27 2.86± 0.00 5.66± 0.00 Sorghum vulgaris 0.00 ± 0.00 9.09± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Tribulus terrestris 0.00 ± 0.00 8.57± 0.00 13.18± 2.07 12.93± 1.65 Triticum aestivum 18.75 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 13.88± 1.00 Vigna mungo 3.42 ± 0.91 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 4.34 ± 0.75 7.56± 0.57 9.79± 1.72 2.95± 0.72 *Other 1.37 ± 0.39 2.35± 0.15 3.55± 0.42 0.00 ± 0.00 **Unidentified 9.66 ± 0.60 9.16± 1.03 7.65± 0.63 9.92± 1.13 Unknown plant 5.28 ± 0.54 8.92± 0.25 8.08± 1.35 6.33± 0.94

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

68

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Spring Summer Fall Winter

Figure 13: Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Rakh Goharwala, Bakher.

69

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Spring Summer Fall Winter

Figure 14: Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Rakh Goharwala Bakher.

70

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Fall Spring Summer Winter

Figure 15: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Rakh Goharwala, Bakher.

28.5

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Figure 16: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Rakh Goharwala, Bakher.

71

e. Qaidabad:

i. Spring:

Analysis of the stomach contents of porcupines trapped during spring showed that

18 plant species were consumed. T. aestivum (23.69±2.17) was the most intensively

consumed specie. B. ceiba (11.75±1.91), B. campestris (11.49±0.09) and P. juliflora

(10.33±0.20) were recovered with high frequency. S. halepense (9.81±1.83), S. melongena

(7.72±1.63), M. alba (6.50±0.90), E. camaldulensis (5.85±0.77), M. indica (5.64±0.30), V.

mungo (5.45±0.92), L. aphaca (5.23±1.44), P. guajava (4.95±0.00), B. oleracea

(4.95±0.00), C. dactylon (4.76±0.22), D. sissoo (4.15±1.18), M. azedarach (3.98±0.02), Z.

jujuba (3.96±0.00) and A. cepa (1.98±0.00) were consumed in significant proportions.

Other matters (2.90±0.35) were found to be less frequent while unidentified (3.17±0.36)

and unknown plant parts (9.78±0.65) were found in significant amounts.

The percentage of stomach contents of porcupines trapped during spring showed

that T. aestivum (16%) was the most intensively consumed species. B. ceiba (7.94%), B.

campestris (7.76%), P. juliflora (6.98%), S. halepense (6.63%), S. melongena (5.21%), M.

alba (4.39%), E. camaldulensis (3.95%), M. indica (3.81%), V. mungo (3.68%), L. aphaca

(3.53%), P. guajava (3.34%), B. oleracea (3.34%), C. dactylon (3.22%), D. sissoo

(2.80%), M. azedarach (2.69%), Z. jujuba (2.67%) and A. cepa (1.34%) were consumed.

Other matters (1.96%) were found in less percentage while unidentified (2.14%) and

unknown plant (6.61%) were found.

Leaves (27.5%) were consumed with higher percentage (Fig-19) followed by spike

(21.3%), stem (19.5%) and seed (13.7%). Root (8.1%), flower (5.4%) and pod (4.1%) were

also consumed in a significant proportion.

The analysis of the fecal pallets collected during the spring (Table-10) suggested

that T. aestivum (20.45±1.20) was consumed with high frequency. S. halepense

(13.65±0.84), V. mungo (12.19±0.71) and P. juliflora (10.80±1.32) appeared in sufficient

proportion. M. sativa (8.79±2.17), E. camaldulensis (8.73±0.85), M. azedarach

(8.45±1.34), C. dactylon (7.92±0.67), Arachis hypogea (7.85±1.13), M. alba(7.52±1.66),

A. procera (6.94±0.62), B. ceiba (6.17±1.52), C. rotundus (5.72±0.08), Z. jujuba

(5.37±0.92), L. aphaca (5.24±0.39), P. guajava (5.20±0.36), D. sissoo (4.43±0.40), S.

officinarum (4.29±0.06), C .jawarancusa (3.70±0.00) and S. munja (3.24±0.63) were

72

recovered with different frequency. Other matters (2.82±0.00) were found to be less

frequent while unidentified (7.08±0.58) and unknown plant parts (11.64±0.47) found in

sufficient amounts.

By the analysis of the fecal pallets, the percentage of food items (Fig-18) suggested

that T. aestivum (11.48%) was consumed with high percentage. S. halepense (7.66%), V.

mungo (6.84%), P. juliflora (6.06%), M. sativa (4.93%), E. camaldulensis (4.90%), M.

azedarach (4.74%), C. dactylon (4.44%), A. hypogea (4.41%), M. alba(4.22%), A.

procera (3.89%), B. ceiba (3.46%), C. rotundus (3.21%), Z. jujuba (3.01%), L. aphaca

(2.94%), P. guajava (2.92%), D. sissoo (2.49%), S. officinarum(2.41%), C. jawarancusa

(2.08%) and S. munja (1.18%) were recovered with different percentages. Other matters

(1.58%) were found in low percentage while unidentified (3.97%) and unknown plant parts

(6.53%) found in sufficient percentage.

Fig-20 shows the consumption of the percentage of different parts of the plant

species. Spike (25.4%), stem (19.3%), leaf (14.1%) and seed (12.4%) appeared with higher

frequency while tuber (7.6%) and root (6.8%) were consumed with low frequency.

ii. Summer:

Table 3 present the summary of the relative frequency of food items recovered

from stomachs of porcupines collected during the summer. During this season 17 different

plant species were recorded. Among these Z. mays (20.36±2.19) was predominant as it

constituted the largest percentage of the total stomach contents. S. vulgaris (14.50±2.71)

and P. juliflora (12.92±1.48) appeared less common. Among less intensively consumed

plants were B. ceiba (7.23±0.00), C. dactylon (6.98±1.23), M. azedarach (6.93±0.00), L.

aphaca (6.92±1.04), C. maxima (6.76±3.14), L. esculentum spp. (5.52±0.78), C. melo

(5.49±0.54), E. camaldulensis (4.75±0.47), S. halepense (3.41±0.00), M. indica

(3.38±0.14), V. mungo (3.29±0.32), M. indica (3.19±0.22), D. sissoo (3.19±0.22), C.

rotundus (3.19±0.78) and A. cepa (1.98±0.00). Other matters (2.54±0.31) which

constituted a very small portion of the total contents while unidentified (5.96±1.24) and

unknown plant parts (8.30±0.93) were less intensively consumed.

Fig-17 present the summary of the percentage of food items recovered from

stomachs of porcupines collected during the summer. During this season Z. mays (14.88%)

was predominant as it constituted the highest percentage of the total stomach contents. S.

73

vulgaris (10.60%), P. juliflora (9.45%), B. ceiba (5.29%), C. dactylon (5.10%), M.

azedarach (5.07%), L. aphaca (5.06%), C. maxima (4.94%), L. esculentum spp. (4.04%),

C. melo (4.01%), E. camaldulensis (3.47%), S. halepense (2.49%), M. indica (2.47%), V.

mungo (2.41%), M. indica (2.33%), D. sissoo (2.33%), C. rotundus (2.33%) and A. cepa

(1.45%) were found in different percentage. Other matters (1.86%) which constituted a

very small portion of the total contents while unidentified (4.36%) and unknown plant

parts were 6.07%.

The analysis of plant parts during the summer season showed (Fig-19) that leaf

(21.7%) appeared with higher frequency followed by seed (20.2%), stem (17.3%), spike

(16.1%) and root (15.9%) while tuber (5.5%) and pod (3.0%).

The study on the fecal pallet analysis of the summer samples (Table10) suggested

that 16 types of food items of plant origin were consumed by porcupines. S. vulgaris

(23.34±1.39) was the most intensively consumed specie. Z. mays (16.98±1.58), P. juliflora

(13.40±0.98), M. alba (11.63±1.69), M. azedarach (11.37±1.68), C. dactylon (10.90±1.55)

and B. ceiba (10.47±1.89) were recovered in high frequency. E. camaldulensis

(9.25±0.72), C. dactylon (9.03±0.98), A. hypogea (8.26±1.41), S. halepense (5.33±0.49), V.

mungo (4.99±0.48), S. munja (4.30±0.79), S. nigrum (2.78±0.00), C. jawarancusa

(2.25±0.00), C. rotundus (2.17±0.58) and Z. jujuba (1.73±0.18) were consumed in

significant proportions. Other contents (2.73±0.77) were present in much less frequency

while unidentified (10.61±0.88) and unknown plant parts (11.20±0.65) were also found.

Fig-17 suggested the percentage of different food items consumed by porcupine in

summer season. S. vulgaris (14.42%) was the most commonly consumed species. Z. mays

(10.49%), P. juliflora (8.28%), M. alba (7.19%), M. azedarach (7.03%), C. dactylon

(5.58%), B. ceiba (6.47%), E. camaldulensis (5.72%), C. dactylon (5.58%), A. hypogea

(5.10%), S. halepense (3.29%), V. mungo (3.08%), S. munja (2.66%), S. nigrum (1.72%),

C.jawarancusa (1.39%), C. rotundus (1.34%) and Z. jujuba (1.07%) were consumed in

different percentage. Other contents (1.69%) were present in less percentage while

unidentified (6.56%) and unknown plant parts (6.92%) were found.

In fecal pellet, spikes (23.4%) were recovered in significantly high proportion

followed by, stem (22.3%), (17.7%) and leaf (15.8%), tuber (8.7%) and pod (3.0%).

74

iii. Fall:

In the fall season the stomach content analysis showed that 15 types of food items

of plant origin were consumed by porcupines. S. vulgaris (16.76±3.21) was the most

intensively consumed species in this seasons. Z. mays (13.78±0.83), P. juliflora

(11.93±0.00) and A. hypogea (11.00±0.97) appeared in high frequency. M. azedarach

(9.85±0.68), D. sissoo (8.30±0.53), S. halepense (8.26±0.00), B. ceiba (7.84±1.30), C.

dactylon (7.25±0.60), C. rotundus (5.18±0.88), S. officinarum (3.94±0.25), E.

camaldulensis (3.39±0.57), M. indica (3.23±0.93), C. melo (3.22±1.38) and V. mungo

(2.61±0.16) contributed a significant proportion. Other matters (2.25±0.20) were present in

much less frequency while unidentified (3.50±0.77) and unknown plant parts (7.38±0.78)

were found frequently.

Among the food items of fall season (Fig-17) S. vulgaris (12.93%) was the most

intensively consumed species. Z. mays (10.63%), P. juliflora (9.20%), A. hypogea (8.48%),

M. azedarach (7.60%), D. sissoo (6.40%), S. halepense (6.37%), B. ceiba (6.05%), C.

dactylon (5.59%), C. rotundus (3.99%), S. officinarum (3.04%), E. camaldulensis (2.61%),

M. indica (2.49%), C. melo (2.48%) and V. mungo (2.01%) contributed a significant

percentage. Other matters (1.74%) were present in low percentage while unidentified

(2.70%) and unknown plant parts (5.59%) were also found.

In the stomach contents, leaves (24.2%) were recovered in significantly high

proportion followed by, seed (20.5%), stem (19.3%), spike (15.1%), tuber (7.1%), flower

(2.5%) and pod (2.0%).

The analysis of the fecal pellets (Table10) revealed that S. vulgaris (23.35±1.87)

was consumed at the highest frequency. M. alba (12.32±0.67), P. juliflora (12.20±1.30)

and M. azedarach (12.19±0.99) were consumed in significant high proportions. B. ceiba

(11.27±0.00), C. dactylon (10.90±1.55), A. hypogea (10.18±0.93), E. camaldulensis

(8.98±0.90), Z. mays (8.60±2.02), V. mungo (5.76±1.24), S. halepense (5.54±0.64), Z.

jujuba (4.77±0.96), C. rotundus (4.44±1.36), A. procera (4.44±0.00), M. sativa

(4.28±0.89), C. melo (3.95±0.50), D. sissoo (3.70±0.78), L. aphaca (3.23±0.00), C.

jawarancusa (3.20±0.85), S. nigrum (2.93±0.30) and S. munja (2.70±0.00) appeared with

decreasing frequency. Other matters (2.69±0.32) were found to be less frequent while

75

unidentified (9.09±0.89) and unknown plant parts (11.61±0.61) were found in significant

amount.

The analysis of the fecal pellets showed the percentage of the food items (Fig-18)

revealed that S. vulgaris (12.81%) was consumed at high percentage. M. alba (6.76%), P.

juliflora (6.69%), M. azedarach (6.69%), B. ceiba (6.18%), C. dactylon (5.98%), A.

hypogea (5.58%), E. camaldulensis (4.93%), Z. mays (4.72%), V. mungo (3.16%), S.

halepense (3.04%), Z. jujuba (2.62%), C. rotundus (2.44%), A. procera (2.44%), M.

sativa (2.35%), C. melo (2.17%), D. sissoo (2.03%), L. aphaca (1.77%), C. jawarancusa

(1.76%), S. nigrum (1.61%) and S. munja (1.48%) appeared with different percentages.

Other matters (1.48%) were found less frequently while unidentified (4.99%) and unknown

plant parts (6.37%) were found in significantly high percentage.

In fecal pellets, stem parts (25.4%) were recovered in significantly high proportion

followed by spike (19.7%), pod (16.0%), leaf (12.3%), seed (11.8%) and tuber (6.6%).

iv. Winter:

The analysis of the stomach contents of porcupines trapped during winter showed

that 18 plant species were consumed (Table 9). S. halepense (17.19±0.00) was the most

intensively consumed species in this season. H. vulgare (14.64±2.71), T. aestivum

(14.28±2.21), B. campestris (13.64±0.00) and B. ceiba (10.77±0.30) were also recorded

sufficiently. M. azedarach (9.03±2.59), B. oleracea (8.74±0.63), A. hypogea (7.87±1.31),

P. juliflora (7.81±0.00), M. alba (7.47±0.93), C. dactylon (6.91±0.61), Z. jujuba

(6.90±1.44), S. vulgaris (5.54±0.14), S. officinarum (4.79±1.97), E. camaldulensis

(3.41±0.00), C. rotundus (3.22±1.84), M. indica (2.82±0.00) and D. sissoo (2.82±0.00)

were less frequently obtained. Other contents (1.57±0.16) were present with less frequency

while unidentified (3.91±1.19) and unknown plant parts (8.61±0.91) were found in

significant frequency.

The percentage of food items of the stomach contents of porcupines recovered (Fig-

17) were S. halepense (10.62%), H. vulgare (9.04%), T. aestivum (8.82%), B. campestris

(8.42%), B. ceiba (6.65%), M. azedarach (5.58%), B. oleracea (5.40%), A. hypogea

(4.86%), P. juliflora (4.82%), M. alba (4.61%), C. dactylon (4.27%), Z. jujuba (4.26%),

S. vulgaris (3.42%), S. officinarum (2.96%), E. camaldulensis (2.11%), C. rotundus

76

(1.99%), M. indica (1.74%) and D. sissoo (1.74%).Other matters (0.97%), unidentified

(2.41%) and unknown plant parts (5.32%) were also found in less percentage.

In fecal pellets, T. aestivum (21.27±2.17) was consumed in significant high

proportion (Table 10). S. nigrum (13.79±0.00), A. hypogea (13.58±1.43), P. juliflora

(13.45±1.18) and S. vulgaris (10.85±1.14) showed high frequency. E. camaldulensis

(9.87±0.67), B. ceiba (9.80±1.24), C. dactylon (9.72±0.96), M. azedarach (9.60±1.40), M.

alba (9.04±1.96), D. sissoo (8.62±1.21), P. guajava (7.94±0.00), S. officinarum

(6.35±0.00), S. halepense (4.69±0.00), S. munja (4.35±0.46), C . jawarancusa (2.56±0.00),

Z. jujuba (2.27±0.35) and C. rotundus (2.17±0.54) appeared with less frequency. Other

matters (2.69±0.76), unidentified (8.29±0.89) material appeared less frequently and

unknown plant parts (12.21±0.74) with high frequency.

In the fecal pellets the percentage of food items identified showed that T. aestivum

(11.62%) was consumed in the highest percentage (Fig-18). S. nigrum (7.53%), A. hypogea

(7.42%), P. juliflora (7.35%), S. vulgaris (5.93%), E. camaldulensis (5.39%), B. ceiba

(5.35%), C. dactylon (5.31%), M. azedarach (5.24%), M. alba (4.94%), D. sissoo (4.71%),

P. guajava (4.34%), S. officinarum (3.47%), S. halepense (2.56%), S. munja (2.38%), C .

jawarancusa (1.40%), Z. jujuba (1.24%) and C. rotundus (1.19%) appeared with different

percentages. Other matters (1.47%), unidentified material (4.53%) and unknown plant

parts (6.67%) were found relatively in low percentage.

In fecal pellets, stem (29.0%) were recovered in significantly high proportion

followed by, spike (17.9%), seed (15.2%), tuber (8.8%) and pod (3.0%).

77

Table 9: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Quaidabad

Food items Spring Summer Fall Winter Allium cepa 1.98 ± 0.00 1.98± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Arachus hypogea 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 11.00± 0.97 7.87± 1.31 Bombix ceiba 11.75 ± 1.91 7.23± 0.00 7.84± 1.30 10.77± 0.30 Brassica campestris 11.49 ± 0.09 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 13.64± 0.00 Brassica oleracea 4.95 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 8.74± 0.63 Cucumis melo 0.00 ± 0.00 5.49± 0.54 3.22± 1.38 0.00 ± 0.00 Cucurbita maxima 0.00 ± 0.00 6.76± 3.14 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Cynodon dactylon 4.76 ± 0.22 6.98± 1.23 7.25± 0.60 6.91± 0.61 Cyperus rotundus 0.00 ± 0.00 3.19± 0.78 5.18± 0.88 3.22± 1.84 Dalbergia sissoo 4.15 ± 1.18 3.19± 0.22 8.30± 0.53 2.82± 0.00 E. camaldulensis 5.85 ± 0.77 4.75± 0.47 3.39± 0.57 3.41± 0.00 Hordeum vulgare 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 14.64± 2.71 L.esculentum 0.00 ± 0.00 5.52± 0.78 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Lathirus aphaca 5.23 ± 1.44 6.92± 1.04 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Mangifera indica 5.64 ± 0.30 3.19± 0.22 3.23± 0.93 2.82± 0.00 Melia azedarach 3.98 ± 0.02 6.93± 0.00 9.85± 0.68 9.03± 2.59 Melilotus indica 0.00 ± 0.00 3.38± 0.14 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Morus alba 6.50 ± 0.90 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 7.47± 0.93 Prosopis juliflora 10.33 ± 0.20 12.92± 1.48 11.93± 0.00 7.81± 0.00 Psidium guajava 4.95 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Saccharum officimale 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 3.94± 0.25 4.79± 1.97 Solanum melongena 7.72 ± 1.63 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Sorghum halepense 9.81 ± 1.83 3.41± 0.00 8.26± 0.00 17.19± 0.00 Sorghum vulgaris 0.00 ± 0.00 14.50± 2.71 16.76± 3.21 5.54± 0.14 Triticum aestivum 23.69 ± 2.17 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 14.28± 2.21 Vigna mungo 5.45 ± 0.92 3.29± 0.32 2.61± 0.16 0.00 ± 0.00 Zea mays 0.00 ± 0.00 20.36± 2.19 13.78± 0.83 0.00 ± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 3.96 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 6.90± 1.44 *Other 2.90 ± 0.35 2.54± 0.31 2.25± 0.20 1.57± 0.16 **Unidentified 3.17 ± 0.36 5.96± 1.24 3.50± 0.77 3.91± 1.19 Unknown plant 9.78 ± 0.65 8.30± 0.93 7.38± 0.78 8.61± 0.91

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

78

Table 10: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Quaidabad

Food items Spring Summer Fall Winter Alibizzia procera 6.94 ± 0.62 0.00 ± 0.00 4.44 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Arachus hypogea 7.85 ± 1.13 8.26 ± 1.41 10.18 ± 0.93 13.58 ± 1.43 Bombix ceiba 6.17 ± 1.52 10.47 ± 1.89 11.27 ± 0.00 9.80 ± 1.24 C.jawarancusa 3.70 ± 0.00 2.25 ± 0.00 3.20 ± 0.85 2.56 ± 0.00 Capsicum annuum 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Cucumis melo 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 3.95 ± 0.50 0.00 ± 0.00 Cynodon dactylon 7.92 ± 0.67 9.03 ± 0.98 10.90 ± 1.55 9.72 ± 0.96 Cyperus rotundus 5.72 ± 0.08 2.17 ± 0.58 4.44 ± 1.36 2.17 ± 0.54 Dalbergia sissoo 4.43 ± 0.40 0.00 ± 0.00 3.70 ± 0.78 8.62 ± 1.21 E. camaldulensis 8.73 ± 0.85 9.25 ± 0.72 8.98 ± 0.90 9.87 ± 0.67 Lathirus aphaca 5.24 ± 0.39 0.00 ± 0.00 3.23 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Medicago sativa 8.79 ± 2.17 0.00 ± 0.00 4.28 ± 0.89 0.00 ± 0.00 Melia azedarach 8.45 ± 1.34 11.37 ± 1.68 12.19 ± 0.99 9.60 ± 1.40 Morus alba 7.52 ± 1.66 11.63 ± 1.69 12.32 ± 0.67 9.04 ± 1.96 Prosopis juliflora 10.80 ± 1.32 13.40 ± 0.98 12.20 ± 1.30 13.45 ± 1.18 Psidium guajava 5.20 ± 0.36 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 7.94 ± 0.00 Saccharum munja 3.24 ± 0.63 4.30 ± 0.79 2.70 ± 0.00 4.35 ± 0.46 Saccharum officimale 4.29 ± 0.06 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 6.35 ± 0.00 Solanum nigrum 0.00 ± 0.00 2.78 ± 0.00 2.93 ± 0.30 13.79 ± 0.00 Sorghum halepense 13.65 ± 0.84 5.33 ± 0.49 5.54 ± 0.64 4.69 ± 0.00 Sorghum vulgaris 0.00 ± 0.00 23.34 ± 1.39 23.35 ± 1.87 10.85 ± 1.14 Triticum aestivum 20.45 ± 1.20 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 21.27 ± 2.17 Vigna mungo 12.19 ± 0.71 4.99 ± 0.48 5.76 ± 1.24 0.00 ± 0.00 Zea mays 0.00 ± 0.00 16.98 ± 1.58 8.60 ± 2.02 0.00 ± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 5.37 ± 0.92 1.73 ± 0.18 4.77 ± 0.96 2.27 ± 0.35 *Other 2.82 ± 0.00 2.73 ± 0.77 2.69 ± 0.32 2.69 ± 0.76 **Unidentified 7.08 ± 0.58 10.61 ± 0.88 9.09 ± 0.89 8.29 ± 0.89 Unknown plant 11.64 ± 0.47 11.20 ± 0.65 11.61 ± 0.61 12.21 ± 0.74

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

79

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Figure 17: Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Quaidabad.

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Figure 18: Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Quaidabad.

81

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Figure 19: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the stomach contents ofHystrix indica captured from Qadabad.

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Figure 20: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Qadabad.

82

f. Shorkot Plantation:

i. Spring:

The analysis of the stomach contents of porcupines trapped during the spring

showed that 12 plant species were consumed. E. camaldulensis (18.63±4.63) was the most

intensively consumed species. S. halepense (16.29±0.97), P. juliflora (13.21±0.00), T.

aestivum (13.19±0.00) and M. alba (10.72±1.45) were recovered with high frequency. B.

ceiba (9.88±2.59), M. azedarach (8.74±1.38), D. sissoo (7.81±2.32), L. aphaca

(7.20±2.45), Z. jujuba (6.96±1.34), S. munja (3.80±0.00) and C. rotundus (2.96±0.35)

were also consumed in significant proportions. Unidentified (4.04±0.53) and unknown

plant parts (9.86±1.48) were also found in significant proportion.

The analysis of the stomach contents showed the percentage of the food items (Fig-

21) the E. camaldulensis (13.98%) was the most intensively consumed species. S.

halepense (12.22%), P. juliflora (9.91%), T. aestivum (9.90%), M. alba (8.04%), B. ceiba

(7.41%), M. azedarach (6.56%), D. sissoo (5.86%), L. aphaca (5.40%), Z. jujuba

(5.22%), S. munja (2.85%) and C. rotundus (2.22%) were consumed in different

percentages. Unidentified (3.03%) and unknown plant parts (7.40) were also found.

Consumption of eucalyptus species confirms the observation of Khan et al., (2000), Idris

and Rana, (2001).

Leaves (28.5%) were consumed with higher percentage (Fig-23) while spike

(21.5%), stem (18.6%) and seed (17.4%). Root (8.0%), pod (3.0%) and tuber (2.8%) were

also consumed in a significant proportion.

The analysis of fecal pellets collected during the spring season (Table11) suggested

that M. azedarach (31.22±4.07) was consumed in highest frequency. B. ceiba

(14.61±4.49), T. aestivum (14.36±0.97), C. dactylon (13.22±0.82), M. alba (11.59±4.43),

E. camaldulensis (10.81±1.00) and P. juliflora (10.74±1.63) contributed significant

proportions. S. halepense (8.84±1.20), C. rotundus (5.41±0.59), D. sissoo (5.39±1.12), Z.

jujuba (4.94±1.77), D. bipinnata (4.85±0.58) and S. officinarum (4.35±0.33) were

recovered with less frequency. Other (2.25±0.26) contents were present in much less

frequency while unidentified (8.24±1.16) and unknown plant parts (14.65±0.98) were

found in significant proportions.

83

The analysis of fecal pellets (Fig-22) suggested the percentage of food items

including M. azedarach (18.37%) was consumed with highest percentage. B. ceiba

(8.83%), T. aestivum (8.68%), C. dactylon (7.99%), M. alba (7.00%), E. camaldulensis

(6.53%), P. juliflora (6.49%), S. halepense (5.34%), C. rotundus (3.27%), D. sissoo

(3.26%), Z. jujuba (2.99%), D. bipinnata (2.93%) and S. officinarum (2.63%) were

recovered. Other contents (1.36%) were present in much less percentage while unidentified

(4.98%) and unknown plant parts (8.85%) were found in significant percentage.

In fecal pellets, stem parts (25.4%) were recovered in significantly high proportion

and spike (20.1%), root (17.3%), leaf (15.3%), and seed (12.3%) appeared in significant

amount while tuber (7.1%) and pod (2.3%) of different plant species appeared less

frequently.

ii. Summer:

All the stomach samples (n=5) collected in summer were taken in the months of

May, June, July, August and September in 2009. The stomach contents (Table 22) showed

appearance of plant species. Z. mays (21.14±3.98) was the most extensively consumed

species. S. vulgaris (13.78±2.35), E. camaldulensis (13.18±1.58) and M. alba (13.04±0.00)

appeared in high frequency. C. melo (9.89±2.42), C. dactylon (8.83 ± 1.41), B. ceiba (8.52

± 2.10), P. juliflora (6.71 ± 1.09) and S. halepense (6.54±1.56) contributed significant

proportions. D. sissoo (5.30±2.23), M. azedarach (5.26±1.23), C. rotundus (4.74±0.75), Z.

jujuba (3.71±0.91) and S. nigrum (2.69±0.96) were recovered with less frequency. Other

matters (2.47±0.60) were found less frequent while unidentified (2.17±0.00) and unknown

plant parts (9.18±0.76) were found to be significant.

The sample of stomach contents (Fig-21) showed percentage of the food items. Z.

mays (15.41%) was the most extensively consumed species. S. vulgaris (10.05%), E.

camaldulensis (9.61%), M. alba (9.51%), C. melo (7.21%), C. dactylon (6.44%), B. ceiba

(6.21%), P. juliflora (4.89%), S. halepense (4.77%), D. sissoo (3.86%), M. azedarach

(3.84%), C. rotundus (3.46%), Z. jujuba (2.71%) and S. nigrum (1.96%) were recovered.

Other matters (1.80%) were found in less percentage while unidentified (1.58%) and

unknown plant fragments (6.69%) were also found. Consumption of Eucalyptus spp.

Confirm the observation of Khan et al., (2000), Idris and Rana, (2001).

84

The analysis of parts of plants consumed during the summer season showed (Fig-23)

that seed (24.6%) appeared with high frequency followed by stem (21.7%), leaf (20.4%),

spike (11.2%) and root (10.2%) while tuber (8.6%) and pod (3.1%) were present in low

frequency.

The fecal samples (n=15) were collected from the Shorkot plantation during the

summer season. The analysis of the fecal pellets (Table11) revealed that Z. mays

(13.80±1.06) appeared in high frequency. M. alba (12.71±1.29), D. sissoo (11.79±1.95), E.

camaldulensis (11.18±1.30), B. ceiba (11.02±1.67) and S. vulgaris (10.55±1.21)

constituted in significant proportions. S. halepense (9.19±2.26), C. dactylon (9.12±0.69)

and P. juliflora (5.85±0.51) were found in sufficient amount. C. rotundus (4.33±0.75), D.

bipinnata (4.00±0.42), S. officinarum (3.67±0.36) and C. melo (3.42±0.25) were less

frequently found. Other matters (2.08±0.21) were found in less frequently while

unidentified (8.24±0.51) and unknown plant parts (11.70±0.79) were found significantly.

The percentage of the food items of the fecal pellets (Fig-22) revealed that Z. mays

(10.40%) appeared in high percentage. M. alba (9.58%), D. sissoo (8.89%), E.

camaldulensis (8.43%), B. ceiba (8.31%), S. vulgaris (7.95%), S. halepense (6.93%), C.

dactylon (6.88%), P. juliflora (4.41%), C. rotundus (3.26%), D. bipinnata (3.02%), S.

officinarum (2.77%) and C. melo (2.58) were also found. Other matters (1.57%) were

found in less percentage while unidentified (6.21%) and unknown plants (8.82%) were

also found.

In fecal pellets, stem parts (29.7%) were recovered in significantly high proportion

followed by seed (23.5%), leaf (18.6%) and root (14.1%), tuber (9.1%) and pod (4.7%) of

different plant species appeared in low frequency.

iii. Fall:

The porcupines (n=4) were captured in the months of September, October and

November in 2009. Plant tissues belonging to 16 species were recovered from porcupine

stomachs in this season, (Table12). Z. mays (23.22±2.05) was recovered at highest

frequency. P. juliflora (14.07±1.51) and M. alba (10.54±2.25) were the most intensively

consumed species. E. camaldulensis (9.96±0.92), C. dactylon (7.33±1.32), S. officinarum

(7.14±0.00), M. azedarach (7.07±0.00), B. ceiba (6.86±1.03), S. nigrum (5.99±0.68) and S.

halepense (5.79±0.74) were consumed in significant proportions. C. rotundus (4.70±0.35),

85

Z. jujuba (3.56±0.59), M. indica (3.26±0.00) and D. sissoo (3.03±0.00) were less

frequently found. In fall diet, the porcupines consumed other matter like hair and spine

(1.77±0.25) whereas unidentified (3.59±0.60) and unknown plants (8.08±1.49) also

constituted in less frequency.

The percentage of food items recovered from stomachs of porcupines in this season

(Fig-21) included Z. mays (18.43%) at highest percentage. P. juliflora (11.17%), M. alba

(8.37%), E. camaldulensis (7.91%), C. dactylon (5.82%), S. officinarum (5.67%), M.

azedarach (5.61%), B. ceiba (5.45%), S. nigrum (4.76%), S. halepense (4.60%), C.

rotundus (3.73%), Z. jujuba (2.83%), M. indica (2.59%) and D. sissoo (2.41%) were

found. In fall diet of the porcupine other matter like hair and spine constituted (1.41%)

whereas unidentified (2.85%) and unknown plant parts (6.41%) also constituted.

Fig-23 shows the consumption of percentage of different food parts like stem, leaf,

seed, spike and pod recovered from the stomachs of porcupine collected during fall season.

Seed (22.2%), stem (19.4%), spike (18.1%), root (11.3%) and tuber (9.2%) were consumed

with a high frequency while pods (3.3%) were less frequently consumed.

The fecal samples (n=15) of porcupine, which were collected during fall season,

showed predominance of B. ceiba (17.55±1.92) and Z. mays (16.76±1.20) species in this

season. M. alba (14.90±1.97), M. azedarach (13.04±0.00), D. sissoo (11.91±1.42), C.

dactylon (10.92±0.66) and E. camaldulensis (10.03±1.06) were consumed in high

frequency. S. vulgaris (9.73±1.05), P. juliflora (8.93±1.13), S. halepense (7.69±0.61), C.

rotundus (4.50±1.78), D. bipinnata (4.21±1.33), Z. jujuba (4.16±0.91), M. indica

(3.51±0.00) and S. nigrum (1.88±0.25) appeared with less frequency. Other matters

(1.93±0.17) were also less frequent. Unidentified (11.04±1.21) and unknown plant parts

(15.20±0.83) were found in significant proportion in the fall diet.

The fecal samples of porcupines showed the percentage of food items with

predominance of B. ceiba (10.45%) and Z. mays (9.98%). M. alba (8.87%), M. azedarach

(7.77%), D. sissoo (7.09%), C. dactylon (6.50%), E. camaldulensis (5.97%), S. vulgaris

(5.80%), P. juliflora (5.32%), S. halepense (4.58%), C. rotundus (2.68%), D. bipinnata

(2.51%), Z. jujuba (2.48%), M. indica (2.09%) and S. nigrum (1.12%) appeared with

different percentages. Other matters (1.15%) were also found in less percentage while

unidentified (6.58%) and unknown plant parts (9.05%) significant portion of the diet.

86

In fecal pellets, stem (20.6%) were recovered in significantly high proportion

followed by, spike (18.5%), root (17.2%), seed (15.9%) and leaf (14.0%) while tuber

(7.5%) and pod (6.0%) appeared in less amount.

iv. Winter:

All the (n=4) samples collected in winter taken in the Shorkot forest plantation, 12

types of food items of plant origin were recovered from the stomachs of porcupines. E.

camaldulensis (15.59±1.95) and T. aestivum (15.00±2.69) were also found sufficient

amount, while S. halepense (10.61±2.30) was also recorded sufficiently. P. juliflora

(9.33±1.96), B. ceiba (9.04±2.64), D. sissoo (6.72±0.40), and Z. jujuba (6.01±2.64) were

also frequent. C. dactylon (5.72±0.91), M. azedarach (5.67±1.09), S. munja (4.75±0.25)

and M. alba (3.56±0.19) were less frequently consumed. Other matters (1.01±0.00) were

present in much less frequency while unidentified (3.91±0.79) and unknown plants

(8.33±0.86) were in low frequency in the stomach contents.

The percentage of the food items recovered from the stomachs of porcupines

(Fig.21) showed. E. camaldulensis (13.54%) and T. aestivum (13.03%) were consumed in

sufficient amount, while S. halepense (9.22%) was also recorded sufficiently. P. juliflora

(8.10%), B. ceiba (7.85%), D. sissoo (5.84%), Z. jujuba (5.22%), C. dactylon (4.97%), M.

azedarach (4.92%), S. munja (4.13%) and M. alba (3.09%) were found. Other matters

(0.88%) were present in much less percentage while unidentified (3.40%) and unknown

plants (7.24) were also recorded in the stomach contents.

The stem (33.7%), spike (20.5%) and leaf (19.2%) were consumed with a high

frequency while seed (9.6%), pod (4.5%), flower (2.4%) and tuber (2.3%) were less frequent

(Fig 23).

The analysis of fecal pellets collected during winter season (Table12) suggested

that D. sissoo (15.76±2.08) was the dominant species. M. alba (14.56±3.15), B. ceiba

(13.39±4.69), M. azedarach (13.33±11.67), C. dactylon (12.27±0.73), E. camaldulensis

(11.69±0.72) and T. aestivum (11.33±1.42) were consumed in sufficient amount. S.

vulgaris (9.70±1.19), S. halepense (9.43±1.66), Z. jujuba (9.23±0.00), P. juliflora

(7.26±0.97), C. melo (5.48±2.40), C. rotundus (4.86±0.56), S. officinarum (4.79±0.84) and

D. bipinnata (3.48±0.48) consumed in less frequency. Other matters (3.20±0.34) were also

87

found in less frequency. Unidentified (8.23±1.03) and unknown plants (14.35±0.67) were

in sufficient amount.

The analysis of fecal pellets (Fig-22) suggested that D. sissoo (9.14%) was

dominant species. M. alba (8.45%), B. ceiba (7.77%), M. azedarach (7.73%), C. dactylon

(7.12%), E. camaldulensis (6.78%), T. aestivum (6.57%), S. vulgaris (5.63%), S. halepense

(5.47%), Z. jujuba (5.36%), P. juliflora (4.21%), C. melo (3.18%), C. rotundus (2.82%),

S. officinarum (2.78%) and D. bipinnata (2.02%) were consumed. Other matters (1.86%)

were also consumed in less percentage. Unidentified (4.78%) and unknown plants (8.33%)

were found in sufficient amount.

Figure 24 shows the percentage consumption of different food parts like stem, leaf,

seed, spike and pod recovered from the stomachs of porcupines collected during winter

seasons. Stem (35.6%), leaf (15.7.0%), seed (14.6) and spike (12.6%) were consumed with a

high frequency while root (9.2%), tuber (7.8%) and pod (4.1%) were less frequently

consumed.

88

Table 11: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Shorkot plantation.

Food items Summer Spring Fall Winter Bombix ceiba 11.02 ± 1.67 14.61 ± 4.49 17.55 ± 1.92 13.39 ± 4.69 Cucumis melo 3.42 ± 0.25 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 5.48 ± 2.40 Cynodom dactylon 9.12 ± 0.69 13.22 ± 0.82 10.92 ± 0.66 12.27 ± 0.73 Cyperus rotundus 4.33 ± 0.75 5.41 ± 0.59 4.50 ± 1.78 4.86 ± 0.56 Dalbergia sissoo 11.79 ± 1.95 5.39 ± 1.12 11.91 ± 1.42 15.76 ± 2.08 Desmostachya bipinnata 4.00 ± 0.42 4.85 ± 0.58 4.21 ± 1.33 3.48 ± 0.48 E. camaldulensis 11.18 ± 1.30 10.81 ± 1.00 10.03 ± 1.06 11.69 ± 0.72 Melia azedarach 0.00 ± 0.00 31.22 ± 4.07 13.04 ± 0.00 13.33 ± 11.67 Melilotus indica 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 3.51 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Morus alba 12.71 ± 1.29 11.59 ± 4.43 14.90 ± 1.97 14.56 ± 3.15 Prosopis juliflora 5.85 ± 0.51 10.74 ± 1.63 8.93 ± 1.13 7.26 ± 0.97 Saccharum officimale 3.67 ± 0.36 4.35 ± 0.33 0.00 ± 0.00 4.79 ± 0.84 Solanum nigrum 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 1.88 ± 0.25 0.00 ± 0.00 Sorghum halepense 9.19 ± 2.26 8.84 ± 1.20 7.69 ± 0.61 9.43 ± 1.66 Sorghum vulgaris 10.55 ± 1.21 0.00 ± 0.00 9.73 ± 1.05 9.70 ± 1.19 Triticum aestivum 0.00 ± 0.00 14.36 ± 0.97 0.00 ± 0.00 11.33 ± 1.42 Zea mays 13.80 ± 1.06 0.00 ± 0.00 16.76 ± 1.20 0.00 ± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 0.00 ± 0.00 4.94 ± 1.77 4.16 ± 0.91 9.23 ± 0.00 *Other 2.08 ± 0.21 2.25 ± 0.26 1.93 ± 0.17 3.20 ± 0.34 **Unidentified 8.24 ± 0.51 8.24 ± 1.16 11.04 ± 1.21 8.23 ± 1.03 Unknown plant 11.70 ± 0.79 14.65 ± 0.98 15.20 ± 0.83 14.35 ± 0.67

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

89

Table 12: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Shorkot plantation.

Food items Summer Sprung Fall Winter Bombix ceiba 8.52 ± 2.10 9.88 ± 2.59 6.86 ± 1.03 9.04 ± 2.64 Brassica campestris 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 9.88 ± 0.00 Cucumis melo 9.89 ± 2.42 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Cynodom dactylon 8.83 ± 1.41 0.00 ± 0.00 7.33 ± 1.32 5.72 ± 0.91 Cyperus rotundus 4.74 ± 0.75 2.96 ± 0.35 4.70 ± 0.35 0.00 ± 0.00 Dalbergia sissoo 5.30 ± 2.23 7.81 ± 2.32 3.03 ± 0.00 6.72 ± 0.40 E. camaldulensis 13.18 ± 1.58 18.63 ± 4.63 9.96 ± 0.92 15.59 ± 1.95 Lathyrus aphaca 0.00 ± 0.00 7.20 ± 2.45 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Mangifera indica 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 3.26 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Melia azedarach 5.26 ± 1.23 8.74 ± 1.38 7.07 ± 0.00 5.67 ± 1.09 Melilotus indica 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Morus alba 13.04 ± 0.00 10.72 ± 1.45 10.54 ± 2.25 3.56 ± 0.19 Prosopis juliflora 6.71 ± 1.09 13.21 ± 0.00 14.07 ± 1.51 9.33 ± 1.96 Saccharum munja 0.00 ± 0.00 3.80 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 4.75 ± 0.25 Saccharum officimale 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 7.14 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Solanum nigrum 2.69 ± 0.96 0.00 ± 0.00 5.99 ± 0.68 0.00 ± 0.00 Sorghum halepense 6.54 ± 1.56 16.29 ± 0.97 5.79 ± 0.74 10.61 ± 2.30 Sorghum vulgaris 13.78 ± 2.35 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Triticum aestivum 0.00 ± 0.00 13.19 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 15.00 ± 2.69 Zea mays 21.14 ± 3.98 0.00 ± 0.00 23.22 ± 2.05 0.00 ± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 3.71 ± 0.91 6.96 ± 1.34 3.56 ± 0.59 6.01 ± 2.64 *Other 2.47 ± 0.60 0.00 ± 0.00 1.77 ± 0.25 1.01 ± 0.00 **Unidentified 2.17 ± 0.00 4.04 ± 0.53 3.59 ± 0.60 3.91 ± 0.79 Unknown plant 9.18 ± 0.76 9.86 ± 1.48 8.08 ± 1.49 8.33 ± 0.86

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

90

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Figure 21: Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Shorkot Plantation.

91

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Figure 22: Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Shorkot Plantation.

92

19.5

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Figure 23: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Shorkot plantation.

20.6

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Figure 24: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Shorkot plantation.

93

g. Daphar Plantation:

i. Spring:

The analysis of the stomach contents of porcupines trapped during spring showed

that 13 plant species were consumed. M. alba (21.84±4.94) and D. sissoo (21.28±2.28)

were the most intensively consumed species in this season. T. aestivum (16.70±3.44) and

B. ceiba (13.50±3.69) appeared in high frequency. M. azedarach (9.77±2.73), E.

camaldulensis (9.74±1.40), A. cepa (9.49±4.80), Z. jujuba (7.84±0.00), B. campestris

(7.04±0.00), L. aphaca (5.63±0.00), S. halepense (4.93±0.49), C. dactylon (3.92±0.00) and

P. juliflora (3.35±0.22) constituted a significant proportion. Other matters (1.68±0.12)

were found to be less frequent while unidentified (5.94±1.04) and unknown plant parts

(10.06±1.27) were found significantly.

The analysis of the stomach contents of porcupines trapped during spring season,

the percentage of food items revealed (Fig. 25) that M. alba (14.30%) and D. sissoo

(13.93%) was the most intensively consumed species in this season. T. aestivum (10.94%),

B. ceiba (8.84%), M. azedarach (6.40%), E. camaldulensis (6.38%), A. cepa (6.21%), Z.

jujuba (5.13%), B. campestris (4.61%), L. aphaca (3.69%), S. halepense (3.23%), C.

dactylon (2.57%) and P. juliflora (2.19%) constituted other part of food items. Other

matters (1.10%) were found in less percentage while unidentified (3.89%) and unknown

plant parts (6.59%) were found to be of significant percentage.

Leaf (23.7%) was consumed with higher percentage (Figure 27) followed by spike

(20.3%), stem (19.7%), root (18.3%) and seed (12.4%) while flower (3.3%) and pod (2.0%)

were also consumed in less percentage.

The fecal samples of porcupines (n=15) were collected from Dapher Plantation in

spring season. The analysis of fecal pellets showed that 14 types of food items of plant

origin were consumed at different frequency by porcupines (Table 13). D. sissoo

(20.72±1.38) and T. aestivum (20.13±1.51) were the most intensively consumed species in

this season. Z. jujuba (12.90±0.00), B. ceiba (11.18±1.31) and M. alba (10.52±1.30)

constituted a significant proportion. M. azedarach (9.86±1.63), P. juliflora (9.25±1.56), E.

camaldulensis (7.93±0.48), S. halepense (6.67±0.00), B. campestris (5.89±0.45), A. cepa

(5.37±0.92), L. aphaca (4.73±0.66), C. dactylon (4.46±1.99) and C. rotundus (1.97±0.34)

were recovered with less frequency, Other matters (1.65±0.16) were found to be less

94

frequent while unidentified (6.49±0.57) and unknown plant parts (11.49±1.15) were

frequent.

The analysis of fecal pellets showed the following percentage of food items

(Fig.26). D. sissoo (13.70%) and T. aestivum (13.31%) were the most intensively

consumed species on this season. Z. jujuba (8.53%), B. ceiba (7.39%), M. alba (6.96%),

M. azedarach (6.52%), P. juliflora (6.12%), E. camaldulensis (5.24%), S. halepense

(4.41%), B. campestris (3.90%), A. cepa (3.55%), L. aphaca (3.13%), C. dactylon (2.95%)

and C. rotundus (1.30%) were recovered with different percentage. Other matters (1.09%)

were found in less percentage while unidentified (4.29%) and unknown plant fragments

(7.60%) were frequently found.

Spike (29.7%) was consumed with higher percentage (Fig.28) followed by stem

(24.4%), leaf (14.8%) and root (12.8%), seed (9.0%), tuber (5.7%) and pod (3.2%) were also

consumed in less percentage. Spike of T. aestivum were consumed with higher frequencies

followed by leaves confirm the report Masih (2007).

ii. Summer:

In the summer season the stomach contents analysis showed that 15 types of food

items of plant origin were consumed by the porcupines. Z. mays (15.45±0.51) was the most

intensively consumed species in this season. S. vulgaris (14.30±1.35) and P. juliflora

(11.10±1.53) appeared in high frequency. D. sissoo (9.97±0.22), Capsicum annulatum

(8.10±0.65), E. camaldulensis (7.15±0.90), C. dactylon (6.17±1.97), C. rotundus

(6.16±0.85), M. azedarach (5.95±0.95), B. ceiba (4.60±0.00), Z. jujuba (4.22±0.78), S.

nigrum (3.76±0.83), B. oleracea (3.19±0.00), C. melo (2.75±0.45) and S. halepense

(1.25±0.00) contributed a significant proportion. Other matters (1.15±0.05) were less

frequent. Unidentified (5.33±0.54) and unknown plant parts (9.97±0.22) were frequently

consumed.

The stomach content analysis showed percentage of food items as in Fig.25. Z.

mays (12.81%) was the most intensively consumed species in this season. S. vulgaris

(11.86%), P. juliflora (9.21%), D. sissoo (8.27%), C. annulatum (6.72%), E. camaldulensis

(5.93%), C. dactylon 95.12%), C. rotundus (5.11%), M. azedarach (4.93%), B. ceiba

(3.82%), Z. jujuba (3.50%), S. nigrum (3.12%), B. oleracea (2.65%), C. melo (2.28%)

and S. halepense (1.04%) contributed a significant percentage. Other matters (0.95%)

95

were obtained in less percentage. Unidentified (4.42%) and unknown plant fragments

(8.27%) were in sufficient percentage.

The analysis of plant parts during the summer season showed (Fig.27) that seed

(29.1%) appeared with higher frequency followed by stem (23.9%), leaf (20.7%) and root

(13.5%) while tuber (8.1%) and pod (4.5%) of different plants were also present.

The fecal samples of porcupine (n=15) were collected from Dapher Plantation in

summer season. The analysis of fecal pellets showed that 16 types of food items of plant

origin were consumed at different frequency by porcupines (Table13). Z. mays

(16.40±1.38) was the most intensively consumed species in this season. D. sissoo

(13.71±0.95) and S. vulgaris (13.62±0.76) contributed a significant part of the total fecal

contents. C. dactylon (8.20±0.61), P. juliflora (7.89±0.44), E. camaldulensis (6.75±0.47),

M. alba (5.94±0.88), S. officinarum (5.93±1.07), C. rotundus (5.27±0.41), M. azedarach

(5.21±0.47), C. annulatum (4.71±1.14), B. ceiba (4.36±0.48), B. oleracea (3.36±0.85), S.

halepense (3.17±0.54), S. nigrum (2.92±0.31) and Z. jujuba (1.80±0.60) and other

contents (1.75±0.24) were found in less frequency. Unidentified (6.01±0.45) and unknown

plants (10.03±0.45) were found significantly.

The analyses of fecal pellets showed the percentage of food items (Fig.26) as; Z.

mays (12.91%) was the most intensively consumed species in this season. D. sissoo

(10.79%), S. vulgaris (10.72%) contributed significant part of the total fecal contents. C.

dactylon (6.46%), P. juliflora (6.21%), E. camaldulensis (5.31%), M. alba (4.68%), S.

officinarum (4.67%), Cyperus rotundus (4.15%), M. azedarach (4.10%), C. annulatum

(3.71%), B. ceiba (3.43%), B. oleracea (2.65%), S. halepense (2.50%), S. nigrum (2.30%)

and Z. jujuba (1.42%) were found in different percentage. Other contents (1.38%) were

found in less percentage. Unidentified (4.73%) and unknown plants (7.90%) were found in

significant percentage.

Figure 28 shows the consumption of the percentage of different parts of the plant

species. Stem (26.1%), seed (17.1%), leaf (16.9%), spike (16.3%) and root (10.9%) appeared

with higher frequency while pod (6.4%) and tuber (6.2%) were found less frequently.

iii. Fall:

The analysis of the stomach contents of porcupine trapped during fall season

showed that 14 plant species were consumed by porcupine. Z. mays (18.25±1.39) remained

96

the most intensively eaten food. D. sissoo (13.36±2.31) and P. juliflora (12.15±1.62) were

significantly consumed by the porcupines. S. vulgaris (8.40±0.99), C. melo (8.20±0.00), C.

dactylon (7.53±0.69), C. rotundus (7.04±1.00), L. aphaca (6.49±0.00), E. camaldulensis

(6.04±1.85), B. ceiba (5.23±0.17), M. alba (5.20±0.00), S. halepense (5.19±1.14), S.

nigrum (4.92±0.00) and Z. jujuba (3.25±0.55) were taken in decreasing frequency. Other

matters (1.39±0.09) were eaten much less intensively. Unidentified (7.04±1.00) and

unknown plant (11.35±0.36) were significant part of the total contents.

Figure 25 showed the percentage of the food items obtained from stomach contents.

Z. mays (13.93%) remained the most intensively eaten food. D. sissoo (10.20%), P.

juliflora (9.27%), S. vulgaris (6.41%), C. melo (6.26%), C. dactylon (5.75%), C. rotundus

(5.37%), L. aphaca (4.95%), E. camaldulensis (4.61%), B. ceiba (3.99%), M. alba

(3.97%), S. halepense (3.96%), S. nigrum (3.75%) and Z. jujuba (2.48%) were taken in

different percentage. Other matters (1.05%) were eaten in less percentage. Unidentified

(5.37%) and unknown plant parts (8.66%) were significant part of total contents.

During fall season roots, stems, leaves, seeds, tuber and spike were consumed in

different frequency. Leaf (24.1%) was consumed with high frequency followed by seed

(20.4%), stem (18.1%), spike (17.4%), tuber (17.4%), pod (4.4%) and flower (1.8%).

The analysis (n=15) of the fecal pellets (Table-13) revealed that D. sissoo

(14.64±0.71), S. vulgaris (14.20±1.17) and Z. mays (13.22±0.81) were consumed at high

frequency. P. juliflora (8.98±0.50), C. dactylon (7.80±0.61), M. azedarach (7.51±0.69), E.

camaldulensis (7.40±0.55), B. ceiba (6.94±0.58), M. alba (6.30±0.61), L. aphaca

(6.10±0.00), and S. nigrum (5.46±0.63) constituted sufficient part of the diet. S. halepense

(4.91±0.33), C. rotundus (4.83±0.56), C. melo (4.00±0.00) and Z. jujuba (2.22±0.63)

were less frequently consumed. Other contents (1.59±0.16) were present in less frequency

while unidentified (6.21±0.39) and unknown plants (10.32±0.50) were found in significant

amount.

The percentage of food items (Fig-26) revealed that D. sissoo (11.04%), S. vulgaris

(10.71%) and Z. mays (9.97%) were consumed in high percentage. P. juliflora (6.77%), C.

dactylon (5.88%), M. azedarach (5.66%), E. camaldulensis (5.58%), B. ceiba (5.23%), M.

alba (4.75%), L. aphaca (4.60%), S. nigrum (4.12%), S. halepense (3.70%), C. rotundus

(3.64%), C. melo (3.02%) and Z. jujuba (1.67%) were consumed in different percentage.

97

Other contents (1.20%) were present in less percentage while unidentified (4.68%) and

unknown plants (7.78%) were found in significant percentage.

Figure 28 shows the consumption of the percentage of different parts of the plant

species. Seed (24.8%), stem (21.2%), leaf (16.4%), root (15.5%) and spike (13.8%) appeared

with higher frequency while pod (4.3%) and tuber (3.8%) were found in less percentage.

iv. Winter:

From the stomach samples (n=5) collected in the winter season 16 types of food

items of plant origin were recovered. D. sissoo (18.33±1.95) was the most intensively

consumed species. T. aestivum (14.22±2.49), M. alba (12.66±1.52), A. cepa (11.94±0.00),

B. ceiba (11.63±2.80) and C. dactylon (10.13±1.67) were recovered in high frequency. M.

azedarach (9.67±2.07), E. camaldulensis (9.18±0.99), S. halepense (7.79±0.85), C. melo

(7.58±0.00), S. vulgaris (7.41±0.00) and B. campestris (5.33±0.85) were consumed in

significant proportion. L. aphaca (4.94±0.00), Z. jujuba (3.97±0.20), P. juliflora

(3.84±1.12) and C. rotundus (2.47±0.00) appeared with decreasing frequency. Other

matters (1.50±0.14) were found to be less frequent while unidentified (5.24±1.10) and

unknown plants (9.39±1.51) were found to be significant.

The percentage of food items showed (Fig.25) that D. sissoo (11.66%) was the

most intensively consumed species. T. aestivum (9.04%), M. alba (8.05%), A. cepa

(7.59%), B. ceiba (7.40%), C. dactylon (6.44%), M. azedarach (6.15%), E. camaldulensis

(5.84%), S. halepense (4.95%), C. melo (4.82%), S. vulgaris (4.71%), B. campestris

(3.39%), L. aphaca (3.14%), Z. jujuba (2.53%), P. juliflora (2.44%) and C. rotundus

(1.57%) appeared with different percentages. Other matters (0.95%) were found less

frequently while unidentified (3.33%) and unknown plants (5.97%) were found to be

significant.

Fig.27 presents the summary of the food parts recovered from stomach contents of

porcupine. Stem (31.4%), leaf (16.5%), seed (13.4%), root (12.5%) and spike (11.9%) were

recovered with higher percentage while pod (5.1%), tuber (4.5%) and flower (4.4%) were of

less percentage.

The analysis (n=15) of the fecal pallets collected during this season (Table14)

suggested that D. sissoo (16.83±0.65) was consumed with the highest frequency. T.

aestivum (12.30±1.12), S. vulgaris (11.16±0.77) and C. dactylon (10.24±0.63) were also

98

recorded sufficiently. M. alba (9.53±0.90), B. ceiba (9.28±1.12), P. juliflora (9.26±0.55),

E. camaldulensis (8.44±0.44), M. azedarach (7.89±1.23), Z. jujuba (6.47±1.77), L.

aphaca (4.76±0.00), C. annulatum (4.71±0.59), B. campestris (4.70±0.65), C. melo

(3.04±0.57), C. rotundus (2.91±0.86) and A. cepa (2.90±0.51) were found in less

frequency. Other contents (1.63±0.17) were present in the lower order, while unidentified

(5.27±0.33) and unknown plants (9.72±0.71) were also found.

The analysis of the fecal pallets collected during this season (Fig.26) suggested that

D. sissoo (11.93%) was consumed with the highest percentage. T. aestivum (8.72%), S.

vulgaris (7.91%), C. dactylon (7.26%), M. alba (6.76%), B. ceiba (6.58%), P. juliflora

(6.75%), E. camaldulensis (5.98%), M. azedarach (5.59%), Z. jujuba (4.59%), L. aphaca

(3.37%), C. annulatum (3.34%), B. campestris (3.33%), C. melo (2.16%), C. rotundus

(2.06%) and A. cepa (2.06%) were found in different percentage. Other contents (1.16%)

were present in much less percentage while unidentified (3.74%) and unknown plant

(6.89%) were found in less percentage.

Analysis of fecal pellets (Fig.28) suggested that stem parts (37.9%) were represented

in sufficient amount. Spike (15.3%), leaf (14.5%) and root (12.4%) contributed significant

part of total fecal contents. Seed (9.6%), tuber (7.6%) and pod (2.4%) appeared in low

frequency in fecal pellets. It confirms the finding of Roberts (1997), Arshad et al. (1990) and

Brooks et al. (1988).

99

Table 13: Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Dapher plantation.

Food items Spring Summer Fall Winter Allium cepa 5.37 ± 0.92 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 2.90± 0.51 Bombix ceiba 11.18 ± 1.31 4.36± 0.48 6.94± 0.58 9.28± 1.12 Brassica campestris 5.89 ± 0.45 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 4.70± 0.65 Brassica oleracea 0.00 ± 0.00 3.36± 0.85 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Capsicum annulatum 0.00 ± 0.00 4.71± 1.14 0.00 ± 0.00 4.71± 0.59 Cucumis melo 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 4.00± 0.00 3.04± 0.57 Cynodom dactylon 4.46 ± 1.99 8.20± 0.61 7.80± 0.61 10.24± 0.63 Cyperus rotundus 1.97 ± 0.34 5.27± 0.41 4.83± 0.56 2.91± 0.86 Dalbergia sissoo 20.72 ± 1.38 13.71± 0.95 14.64± 0.71 16.83± 0.65 E. camaldulensis 7.93 ± 0.48 6.75± 0.47 7.40± 0.55 8.44± 0.44 Lathyrus aphaca 4.73 ± 0.66 0.00 ± 0.00 6.10± 0.00 4.76± 0.00 Melia azedarach 9.86 ± 1.63 5.21± 0.47 7.51± 0.69 7.89± 1.23 Morus alba 10.52 ± 1.30 5.94± 0.88 6.30± 0.61 9.53± 0.90 Prosopis juliflora 9.25 ± 1.56 7.89± 0.44 8.98± 0.50 9.26± 0.55 Saccharum officimale 0.00 ± 0.00 5.93± 1.07 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Solanum nigrum 0.00 ± 0.00 2.92± 0.31 5.46± 0.63 0.00 ± 0.00 Sorghum halepense 6.67 ± 0.00 3.17± 0.54 4.91± 0.33 0.00 ± 0.00 Sorghum vulgaris 0.00 ± 0.00 13.62± 0.76 14.20± 1.17 11.16± 0.77 Triticum aestivum 20.13 ± 1.51 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 12.30± 1.12 Zea mays 0.00 ± 0.00 16.40± 1.38 13.22± 0.81 0.00 ± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 12.90 ± 0.00 1.80± 0.60 2.22± 0.63 6.47± 1.77 *Other 1.65 ± 0.16 1.75± 0.24 1.59± 0.16 1.63± 0.17 **Unidentified 6.49 ± 0.57 6.01± 0.45 6.21± 0.39 5.27± 0.33 Unknown plant 11.49 ± 1.15 10.03± 0.45 10.32± 0.50 9.72± 0.71

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

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Table 14: Percentage Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Dapher Plantation

Food items Summer Spring Fall Winter Allium cepa 0.00 ± 0.00 9.49± 4.80 0.00 ± 0.00 11.94± 0.00 Bombix ceiba 4.60 ± 0.00 13.50± 3.69 5.23± 0.17 11.63± 2.80 Brassica campestris 0.00 ± 0.00 7.04± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 5.33± 0.85 Brassica oleracea 3.19 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Capsicum annulatum 8.10 ± 0.65 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Cucumis melo 2.75 ± 0.45 0.00 ± 0.00 8.20± 0.00 7.58± 0.00 Cynodom dactylon 6.17 ± 1.97 3.92± 0.00 7.53± 0.69 10.13± 1.67 Cyperus rotundus 6.16 ± 0.85 0.00 ± 0.00 7.04± 1.00 2.47± 0.00 Dalbergia sissoo 9.97 ± 0.22 21.28± 2.28 13.36± 2.31 18.33± 1.95 E. camaldulensis 7.15 ± 0.90 9.74± 1.40 6.04± 1.85 9.18± 0.99 Lathyrus aphaca 0.00 ± 0.00 5.63± 0.00 6.49± 0.00 4.94± 0.00 Melia azedarach 5.95 ± 0.95 9.77± 2.73 0.00 ± 0.00 9.67± 2.07 Morus alba 0.00 ± 0.00 21.84± 4.94 5.20± 0.00 12.66± 1.52 Prosopis juliflora 11.10 ± 1.53 3.35± 0.22 12.15± 1.62 3.84± 1.12 Solanum nigrum 3.76 ± 0.83 0.00 ± 0.00 4.92± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Sorghum halepense 1.25 ± 0.00 4.93± 0.49 5.19± 1.14 7.79± 0.85 Sorghum vulgaris 14.30 ± 1.35 0.00 ± 0.00 8.40± 0.99 7.41± 0.00 Triticum aestivum 0.00 ± 0.00 16.70± 3.44 0.00 ± 0.00 14.22± 2.49 Zea mays 15.45 ± 0.51 0.00 ± 0.00 18.25± 1.39 0.00 ± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 4.22 ± 0.78 7.84± 0.00 3.25± 0.55 3.97± 0.20 *Other 1.15 ± 0.05 1.68± 0.12 1.39± 0.09 1.50± 0.14 **Unidentified 5.33 ± 0.54 5.94± 1.04 7.04± 1.00 5.24± 1.10 Unknown plant 9.97 ± 0.22 10.06± 1.27 11.35± 0.36 9.39± 1.51

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

101

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Figure 25: Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Dapher Plantation.

102

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Figure 26: Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Dephar Plantation.

103

18.1

24.2

20.4

10.6

17.4

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1.8

4.4

19.7

23.8

12.5

18.4

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Figure 27: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the stomach contents oHystrix indica captured from Dapher plantation.

21.3

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15.5

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Figure 28: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Dapher plantation.

104

h. Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt:

i. Summer:

During the summer season stomach contents of (n=4) animals were examined

(Table16). The analysis of stomach contents of these specimens revealed 9 types of food

items of plant origin were consumed by porcupines. A. modesta (24.21±1.39) and S.

vulgaris (23.38±0.00) were the most consumed species. C. dactylon (15.68±5.27), P.

juliflora (14.26±8.89) and Z. jujuba (10.05±1.27) were recovered at high frequency. D.

viscose (9.63±0.54) and D. annulatum (7.48±0.99) were consumed in significant

proportions. Other matters (2.44±0.00) were in low frequency. Unidentified (5.62±0.59)

and unknown plants (10.17±2.33) formed significant proportion of the stomach contents.

During the summer season stomach contents showed the percentage of food items

(Fig.29) as A. modesta (19.70%), S. vulgaris (19.02%) were the most consumed species. C.

dactylon (12.16%), P. juliflora (11.60%), Z. jujuba (8.18%), D. viscose (7.83%) and D.

annulatum (6.09%) were consumed in different percentage. Other matters (1.19%) were in

low percentage. Unidentified (4.57%) and unknown plants (8.27%) found with significant

percentage of the stomach contents.

The analysis of plant parts during the summer season showed (Fig.31) that stem

(31.6%) appeared with higher frequency, followed by leaf (19.5%), seed (17.1%) and root

(15.7%) of different plants while spike (7.3%), pod (4.2%), flower (2.3) and tuber (2.1%)

were less frequently found.

The analysis (n=15) of the fecal pellets collected from Kalar Kahar showed the

plant tissues belonging to 10 species in this season (Table15). Among these, A. modesta

(27.57±2.16) was extensively consumed plant species. Z. mays (21.63±2.28), S. vulgaris

(21.35±4.31), C. dactylon (16.73±1.68) and P. juliflora (10.67±2.93) were recovered at

high frequency. C. annum (9.68±0.00), Z. jujuba (8.78±1.35), D. annulatum (7.32±1.15)

and D. viscose (6.22±1.03) were in low frequency. Other matters (2.03±0.41) found were

very small part of total stomach contents while unidentified (5.99±0.66) and unknown

plants (11.27±1.84) were found in significant proportion.

The percentage of the food items recovered from fecal pellets (Fig.30) were: A.

modesta (18.47%) was extensively consumed plant species while Z. mays (14.49%), S.

vulgaris (14.31%), C. dactylon (11.21%), P. juliflora (7.15%), C. annum (6.49%), Z.

105

jujuba (5.88%), D. annulatum (4.90%) and D. viscose (4.17%) were found in different

percentages. Other matters (1.36%) were present in small amount while unidentified

(4.01%) and unknown plants (7.55%) were also found.

The analysis of plant parts during the summer season showed (Fig.32) that stem

(25.8%) appeared with higher frequency followed by seed (18.2%), leaf (16.9%), spike

(14.2%), root (12.5%) and pod (10.1%) while tuber (2.1%) was less frequent. This confirm

the report of Bibi (2004).

ii. Spring:

In the spring season the stomach contents analysis showed that 7 types of food

items of plant origin were consumed by porcupines (Tab.16). Among these T. aestivum

(37.17±1.70) was the most intensively consumed species. A. modesta (19.91±2.21) was

recovered with high frequency. C. dactylon (8.33±1.63), H. vulgare (6.12±1.09), Z. jujuba

(5.34±1.80), P. juliflora (4.68±0.73) and D. viscose (3.24±0.88) were consumed in

significant proportions. Other matter (1.64±0.16) formed very small part of the total

contents while unidentified (9.53±1.45) and unknown plants (10.41±2.31) were consumed

in significant proportion.

In the spring season the stomach contents analysis showed the percentage of the

food items, (Fig.29) among these T. aestivum (34.94%) was the most intensively consumed

specie. A. modesta (18.72%), C. dactylon (7.83%), H. vulgare (5.75%), Z. jujuba

(5.02%), P. juliflora (4.40%) and D. viscose (3.05%) were consumed with different

percentages. Other matter (1.54%) constituted very small part of the total contents while

unidentified (8.96%) and unknown plants (9.79%) were consumed in significant

percentages.

Stems (26.6%) were consumed with higher percentage (Fig.31) while leaf (23.2%),

spike (22.7%) and root (10.4%). Seed (5.5%), flower (4.5%), pod (3.6%) and tuber (3.2%)

were also consumed in a significant proportion.

The fecal samples (n=15) of porcupine which were collected during the spring

season, showed (Fig.15) predominance of T. aestivum (38.61±3.02) which was consumed

at the highest frequency. A. modesta (21.16±3.11) and C. dactylon (11.36±2.42)

constituted sufficient proportions. H. vulgare (7.43±1.87), D. viscose (5.86±1.07), Z.

jujuba (5.48±1.24) and P. juliflora (5.05±1.14) recorded with different frequency. Other

106

matters (2.37±0.32) constituted the small part of the contents while unidentified

(10.79±1.12) and unknown plants (11.56±1.07) were found in high frequency.

The fecal percentage of the food items (Fig.30) showed predominance of T.

aestivum (32.26%) which was consumed at the highest percentage. A. modesta (11.68%),

C. dactylon (9.49%), H. vulgare (6.21%), D. viscose (4.90%), Z. jujuba (4.58%) and P.

juliflora (4.22%) recorded with different percentages. Other matters (1.98%) constituted

the small proportion of the total contents while unidentified (9.02%) and unknown plant

(9.66%) were found in high percentage.

Figure 32 shows the consumption of the percentage of different parts of the plant

species. Stem (33.6%), spike (19.4%), root (16.3%) and leaf (12.2%) appeared with higher

frequency while seed (9.3%), pod (5.4%) and tuber (3.5%) were found less frequently.

iii. Fall:

The specimens (n=4) were captured in the months of September, October and

November. Plant tissues belonging to 8 species were recovered from porcupine stomachs

in this season (Tab.16). A. modesta (31.78±2.56) was the most intensively consumed

species. P. juliflora (19.85±3.08) and C. dactylon (13.29±0.87) were recovered at higher

frequency. D. viscose (6.39±2.49), H. vulgare (4.65±1.87), S. vulgaris (4.35±0.00), C.

rotundus (4.17±0.17) and Z. jujuba (3.91±0.98) were consumed in significant

proportions. Unidentified (6.79±1.66) and unknown plant (13.48±1.65) formed significant

part of stomach contents. A. modesta has been reported to be consumed by the porcupines

(Taber et al., 1967; Chaudhary and Ahmad, 1975; Khan et al., 2000).

The specimens showed the percentage of the food items (Fig.29) among these A.

modesta (29.25%) was the most intensively consumed species. P. juliflora (18.27%), C.

dactylon (12.23%), D. viscose (5.88%), H. vulgare (4.28%), S. vulgaris (4.00%), C.

rotundus (3.84%) and Z. jujuba (3.60%) were consumed in different percentages.

Unidentified (6.25%) and unknown plants (12.41%) were present in significant

percentages.

Figure 31 shows the consumption of the percentage of different parts of the plant

species. Stem (28.1%), root (19.1%), seed (16.1%), leaf (14.9%) and spike (10.8%) appeared

with higher frequency while pod (6.5%) and tuber (4.3%) were found less frequently.

107

The fecal samples (n=15) of porcupines, showed predominance of A. modesta

(23.90±1.03) which remained the most intensively eaten food. Z. mays (18.64±0.00), S.

vulgaris (17.80±2.15), C. dactylon (16.59±0.85) and P. juliflora (11.34±1.34) appeared in

high frequency. Z. jujuba (8.27±1.92), H. vulgare (7.21±0.48) and D. viscose (4.52±0.96)

were found to be less frequent. Other matters (4.35±0.09) were found to be less frequent

while unidentified (8.52±1.05) and unknown plants (12.85±0.86) were found to be highly

significant. The consumption of Z. mays crop confirm the observations of Geddes and Iles

(1991) that porcupines cause extensive damage to maize crop in the northern areas of Azad

Kashmir, Potohwar plateau, Z. mays crops consumption also support the observation of

Ahmed et al. (1987) who reported that porcupine damage in maize fields in Faisalabad

district was widespread.

The percentage of food items of the fecal parts showed (Fig.30) that A. modesta

(17.84%) remained the most intensively eaten food. Z. mays (13.91%), S. vulgaris

(13.28%), C. dactylon (12.38%), P. juliflora (8.46%), Z. jujuba (6.17%), H. vulgare

(5.38%) and D. viscose (3.37%) were found in different percentages. Other matters

(3.25%) were found in less percentage while unidentified (6.36%) and unknown plants

(9.59%) were found relatively with high percentage.

Analysis of plant parts during the fall season showed (Fig.32) that stem (30.2%)

appeared with higher frequency, seed (19.1%), spike (18.3%), root (12.0%) and leaf (11.0%)

of different plants were also present in sufficient amount while pod (6.6%) and tuber (2.6%)

were less frequent.

iv. Winter:

The analysis of the winter sample of the stomach contents (n=5) revealed that 8

plant species were consumed by the porcupines. Among these, A. modesta (29.68±1.14)

was predominantly consumed plant specie, as it constituted a large percentage of the total

stomach contents. C. dactylon (24.12±2.88) and T. aestivum (11.84±0.00) were found to be

highly frequent. Z. jujuba (9.50±2.96), P. juliflora (6.58±0.00), D. viscose (5.56±1.02),

D. annulatum (3.95±1.32) and H. vulgare (3.51±0.00) were utilized less frequently. Other

matter (1.97±0.66) was less frequent. Unidentified (8.04±0.64) and unknown plant

(10.53±0.76) were found frequently. A. modesta has been reported to be damaged by the

porcupine (Taber et al., 1967; Chaudhary and Ahmad, 1975; Khan et al., 2000).

108

Analysis of the winter sample of the stomach contents showed the percentage of the

food items (Fig-29) among these, A. modesta (25.75%) was predominantly consumed plant

species, as it constituted a large percentage of the total stomach contents. C. dactylon

(20.92%), T. aestivum (10.27%), Z. jujuba (8.24%), P. juliflora (5.71%), D. viscose

(4.82%), D. annulatum (3.43%) and H. vulgare (3.04%) were utilized in different

percentages. Other matter (1.71%) was used in less percentage. Unidentified (6.97%) and

unknown plants (9.13%) were found in significant proportion.

Stem (35.8%), leaf (20.9%), root (19.4%) and spike (10.4%) were recovered with

high frequency. Seed (6.7%), pod (5.9%) and flower (1.1%) were less frequent.

The fecal samples (n=15) were collected from the study area during the winter

season. The analysis of the fecal pellets (Table15) revealed that A. modesta (30.14±2.22)

was consumed at highest frequency. C. dactylon (19.40±1.43) and T. aestivum

(17.23±2.52) constituted sufficient proportion of the diet. Z. jujuba (7.86±0.84), D.

viscose 5.69±0.64), S. vulgaris (5.26±0.00), P. juliflora (5.14±0.57), D. annulatum

(4.87±1.43) and H. vulgare (3.51±0.00) were recorded with different frequency. Other

matters (2.42±0.61) constituted a small portion of the contents while unidentified

(7.92±1.01) and unknown plant (10.81±1.72) were found to be less frequent. A. modesta

has been reported to be consumed by the porcupine (Taber et al., 1967; Chaudhary and

Ahmad, 1975; Khan et al., 2000).

The fecal samples (n=15) were collected from the study area during the winter

season. The percentage of food items of the fecal pellets (Fig-30) revealed that A. modesta

(25.06%) was consumed at the highest percentage. C. dactylon (16.13%), T. aestivum

(14.33%), Z. jujuba (6.54%), D. viscose (4.73%), S. vulgaris (4.37%), P. juliflora (4.27%),

D. annulatum (4.05%) and H. vulgare (2.92%) were recorded with different percentages.

Other matter (2.01%) constituted a small portion of the total contents while unidentified

(6.59%) and unknown plant parts (8.99%) were also found.

The analysis of plant parts during the winter season showed (Fig.32) that stem

(42.1%) appeared with higher frequency, followed by root (17.0%), leaf (14.6%) and spike

(10.4%) of different plants while pod (6.3%) and tuber (2.2%) were less frequent.

109

Table 15: Percentage Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Fecal pellets of Hystrix indica Collected from Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

Food items Summer Spring Fall Winter Acacia modesta 27.57 ± 2.16 21.16± 3.11 23.90± 1.03 30.14± 2.22 Capsicum annum 9.68 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Cynodom dactylon 16.73 ± 1.68 11.36± 2.42 16.59± 0.85 19.40± 1.43 Dichanthium annulatum 7.32 ± 1.15 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 4.87± 1.43 Dodonaca viscose 6.22 ± 1.03 5.86± 1.07 4.52± 0.96 5.69± 0.64 Hordeum vulgare 0.00 ± 0.00 7.43± 1.87 7.21± 0.48 3.51± 0.00 Prosopis juliflora 10.67 ± 2.93 5.05± 1.14 11.34± 1.34 5.14± 0.57 Sorghum vulgaris 21.35 ± 4.31 0.00 ± 0.00 17.80± 2.15 5.26± 0.00 Triticum aestivum 0.00 ± 0.00 38.61± 3.02 0.00 ± 0.00 17.23± 2.52 Zea mays 21.63 ± 2.28 0.00 ± 0.00 18.64± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 8.78 ± 1.35 5.48± 1.24 8.27± 1.92 7.86± 0.84 *Other 2.03 ± 0.41 2.37± 0.32 4.35± 0.09 2.42± 0.61 **Unidentified 5.99 ± 0.66 10.79± 1.12 8.52± 1.05 7.92± 1.01 Unknown plant 11.27 ± 1.84 11.56± 1.07 12.85± 0.86 10.81± 1.72

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

110

Table 16: Percentage Relative Frequency of different Food items Recovered from the Stomach Contents of Hystrix indica Captured from Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

Food items Summer Spring Fall Winter Acacia modesta 24.21 ± 1.39 19.91± 2.21 31.78± 2.56 29.68± 1.14 Cynodom dactylon 15.68 ± 5.27 8.33± 1.63 13.29± 0.87 24.12± 2.88 Cyperus rotundus 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 4.17± 0.17 0.00 ± 0.00 Dichanthium annulatum 7.48 ± 0.99 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 3.95± 1.32 Dodonaca viscose 9.63 ± 0.54 3.24± 0.88 6.39± 2.49 5.56± 1.02 Hordeum vulgare 0.00 ± 0.00 6.12± 1.09 4.65± 1.87 3.51± 0.00 Prosopis juliflora 14.26 ± 8.89 4.68± 0.73 19.85± 3.08 6.58± 0.00 Sorghum vulgaris 23.38 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 4.35± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.00 Triticum aestivum 0.00 ± 0.00 37.17± 1.70 0.00 ± 0.00 11.84± 0.00 Ziziphus jujuba 10.05 ± 1.27 5.34± 1.80 3.91± 0.98 9.50± 2.96 *Other 2.44 ± 0.00 1.64± 0.16 0.00 ± 0.00 1.97± 0.66 Unidentified 5.62 ± 0.59 9.53± 1.45 6.79± 1.66 8.04± 0.64 Unknown plant 10.17 ± 2.33 10.41± 2.31 13.48± 1.65 10.53± 0.76

*Other = Quill, Hair and Thread. ** Unidentified = Unidentified material. Values are (Means ± S.D.)

111

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Acac

ia m

odes

ta

Cyn

odom

dac

tylo

n

Cyp

erus

rotu

ndus

Dic

hant

hium

ann

ulat

um

Dod

onac

a vi

scos

e

Hor

deum

vul

gare

Pros

opis

julifl

ora

Sorg

hum

vul

garis

Tritic

um a

estiv

um

Zizi

phus

juju

be

zz.O

ther

zz.U

nide

ntifie

d

zz.U

nkno

wn

plan

t

Per

cent of fo

od it

ems

Summer Spring Fall Winter

Figure 29: Percentage of different food items recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

112

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35Ac

acia

mod

esta

Cap

sicu

m a

nnum

Cyn

odom

dac

tylo

n

Dic

hant

hium

ann

ulat

um

Dod

onac

a vi

scos

e

Hor

deum

vul

gare

Pros

opis

julifl

ora

Sorg

hum

vul

garis

Tritic

um a

estiv

um

Zea

may

s

Zizi

phus

juju

be

zz.O

ther

zz.U

nide

ntifie

d

zz.U

nkno

wn

plan

t

Per

cent of fo

od it

ems

Summer Spring Fall Winter

Figure 30: Percentage of different food items recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

113

28.2

14.9 16

.1

19.2

10.8

4.3

6.5

26.6

23.2

5.5

10.5

22.7

3.2 4.

6

3.6

31.6

19.6

17.1

15.7

7.4

2.1

2.3

4.2

35.1

20.9

6.8

19.6

10.5

0.0 1.

1

6.0

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Stem Leaf Seed Root Spike Tuber Flower Pod

Plant's part

Per

cen

t o

f p

lan

t's p

art

Fall Spring Summer Winter

Figure 31: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the stomach contents of Hystrix indica captured from Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

30.2

11.1

19.1

12.0

18.3

2.6

6.6

33.6

12.3

9.3

16.3

19.5

3.5

5.5

25.8

16.9 18

.2

12.5 14

.2

2.1

10.1

42.1

14.7

7.1

17.1

10.5

2.2

6.4

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Stem Leaf Seed Root Spike Tuber Flower Pod

Plant's part

Per

cen

t o

f p

lan

t's p

art

Fall Spring Summer Winter

Figure 32: Percentage of parts of plants recovered from the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica collected from Kalar Kahar Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

115

Relative Frequency of Feeding Among Location:

The relative frequency among location (n=8) maximum relative frequency of Kalar

Kahar 6.04 and Rakh chobara (4.27) had second highest relative frequency. Dapher

plantation (3.91) and rakh Gohar (3.99) have almost same relative frequency other locations

as Shorkot plantation shows 3.57, Qadirabad Balloky canal showed (3.23), Qaidabad showed

(3.12) and Faisalabad showed (3.05) less relative frequency (Fig.33).

The whole study period was divided into four seasons: spring (February – April);

summer (May–August); fall (September-October) and winter (November-January). Among

seasons the relation of food and feeding behavior showed the maximum relative frequency in

summer (3.78) followed by fall season (3.61), spring (3.67) and winter (3.67) spring and

winter relative frequency was equal in nature (Fig-34).

Sho

rkot

Pan

tati

on

Rak

h G

ohar

Rak

h C

hoba

ra

Qad

irab

ad B

allo

ky

cana

l

Qad

irab

ad

Kal

ar K

ahar

Fais

alab

ad

Dap

her

Pla

ntat

ion

6.0

5.5

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

Location

Rel

ativ

e fr

eque

ncy

Figure 33: Relative Frequency of Feeding among Locations

116

WinterSummerSpringFall

5

4

3

Season

Rel

ativ

e fr

eque

ncy

Figure 34: Relative Frequency of Feeding among the Seasons

StomachFecal

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

Group

Rel

ativ

e fr

eque

ncy

Figure 35: The Comparison of the Relative Frequency of Stomach contents and

Fecal Pallets.

117

Between the fecal pellets and stomach contents, the fecal (4.3) relative frequency was

more than stomach (2.37) as shown in figure 35. This was due to limited degree of trapping

for obtaining the stomach contents because porcupines are very cautious, human shy and

basically nocturnal, making its direct studies on feeding behavior difficult. This difference

confirm the findings of Roberts (1997), Bibi (2004) and Bibi et al. (2006).

Relative Frequency among Food Items:

Relative frequency among the food items were A. modesta (8.78), A. hypogea (1.90),

C. polygonoides (4.54), D. annulatum (0.28), D. viscose (1.69) and L. aphaca (0.57) were

found only in one location. A. tenuifolius (3.416), M. sativa (0.42), S. tuberosum (0.10), C.

ciliaris (5.419), B. campestris (1.570), P. sativum (0.21), C. jawarancusa (0.46) and T.

terrestris (5.02) were found in two locations. A. procera (3.00), C. annum (0.21), S.

melongena (0.63), V. mungo (1.04), P. guajava (0.71), L.esculentum (0.38) and C. maxima

(0.16) were found in three locations. B. oleracea (0.96), A. cepa (0.823), M. indica (1.35), M.

indica (0.34) and S. munja (1.15) were found in four locations. S. officinarum (0.69), B. ceiba

(4.11), S. nigrum (0.98), M. azedarach (4.16) and M. alba (3.98) were found in five

locations. H. vulgare (1.69), Z. mays (6.37) and E. camaldulensis (6.12) were found in six

locations. D. sissoo (6.39), S. halepense (3.83), D. bipinnata (0.54) and C. melo (0.68) were

found in seven locations. S. vulgaris (6.54), T. aestivum (8.56), C. dactylon (7.84), C.

rotundus (1.58), Z. jujuba (2.70), P. juliflora (9.85), unidentified (7.944), unknown plant

parts (11.12) and other (1.38) were found in eight locations.

Relative Frequency of Fecal pellets With Respect to Seasons:

Figure 37 line plot of the fecal pellets show the relative frequency of food items with

respect to seasons. A. modesta (27.40) was highest in winter season and lowest in spring

(21.16); A. procera (4.40) highest in summer and lowest in fall (1.43); A. cepa was found

almost similar in spring (1.76) and winter (1.53); A. hypogeal was 6.34, highest in winter

and lowest in summer (1.10); A. tenuifolius were highest in spring (7.57) and lowest in fall

(1.80); B. ceiba was highest in spring and lowest in fall (2.70); B. campestris was highest in

spring (2.92) and lowest in summer (1.11); B. oleracea was highest in winter (2.30) and

lowest in fall (0.46); C. polygonoides was highest in summer (6.57) and lowest in spring

(2.33); C. annum was highest in fall (0.83) and lowest in winter (0.35); C. ciliaris was

118

highest in spring (9.99) and lowest in fall (4.61); C. melo was highest in fall (0.91) and

lowest in winter (0.37); C. jawarancusa was highest in summer (1.22) and lowest in winter

(0.12); C. dactylon was highest in winter (10.04) and lowest in spring (4.50); C. rotundus

was highest in fall (2.02) and lowest in winter (0.89); D. sissoo was highest in winter (7.55)

and lowest in summer (5.66); D. bipinnata was highest in fall (1.60) and lowest in winter

(0.46); D. annulatum was highest in winter (0.97) and lowest in fall (0.73); D. viscose was

highest in winter (5.69) and almost similar in fall (4.35); spring (4.69) and summer (4.52)., E.

camaldulensis was highest in winter (8.40) and lowest in summer (5.20); H. vulgare was

highest in winter (2.53) and lowest in summer (0.83); L. aphaca was highest in spring (0.90)

and lowest in fall (0.04); M. indica was highest in winter (2.14) and lowest in spring (0.96);

M. sativa was found only in fall (0.57) and spring (4.10); M. azedarach was highest in winter

(5.48) and lowest in summer (3.63); M. indica was found only in spring (0.61) and summer

(0.07); M. alba was highest in winter (4.78) and lowest in summer (3.35); P. sativum was

highest in spring (1.30) almost equal in fall (0.13) and summer (0.12); P. juliflora was

highest in fall (12.81) and lowest in spring (7.40); P. guajava was almost equal in winter

(1.45) and spring (1.43) but lowest in fall (0.46); S. munja was highest in fall (1.41) and

lowest in spring (0.71); S. officinarum was highest in fall (1.10) and lowest in spring (0.29);

S. nigrum was highest in fall (1.50) and lowest in winter (0.31); S. tuberosum was found only

fall (0.39) and summer (0.30); S. halepense was highest in spring (6.46) and lowest in winter

(2.76); S. vulgaris was highest in spring (6.46) and lowest in winter (4.16); T. terrestris was

highest in fall (18.15) and lowest in summer (1.02); T. aestivum was highest in spring and

lowest in summer (0.05); V. mungo was highest in spring (2.19) and lowest in winter (0.57);

Z. mays was highest in summer (14.33) and lowest in spring (0.13); Z. jujuba was highest in

spring (3.40) and lowest in summer (2.07); other matter, unidentified and unknown plants

were also present in the four seasons.

119

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Acacia m

odesta

Alibizzia procera

Allium

cepa

Arachus hypogea

Asph

odelus tenuifolius

Bom

bix ceiba

Brassica com

pestris

Brassica oleracea

Calligon

um p

olygonoides

Capsicum

annum

Cenchrus ciliaris

Cucum

is melo

Cucurbita m

axim

a

Cym

bopogan jaw

arancu

sa

Cynodon

dactylon

Cyperus rotu

ndus

Dalb

ergia sissoo

Desm

ostachya bipinn

ata

Dichanthium

annulatum

Dodonaca viscose

E.cam

aldulensis

Hordeum

vulgare

L.esculentum

Lathyrus aph

aca

Mang

ifera indica

Medicag

o sativa

Melia azedarach

Melilotus indica

Moru

s alba

Other

Pisum

sativum

Proso

pis juliflora

Psidium

guajava

Saccharu

m m

unja

Saccharu

m o

fficinarum

Solan

um m

elongena

Solan

um nig

rum

Solan

um tub

erosum

Sorghum

helepense

Sorghum

vulgaris

Tribu

lus terrestris

Triticum

aestivum

Unid

entified

Unknow

n plant

Vigna m

ungo

Zea m

ays

Ziziphus juju

be

Food Items

Rel

ativ

e fr

equ

ency

Fiig. 36: Relative Frequency among Food Items

120

201510

50

201510

50

201510

50

201510

50

201510

50

201510

50

201510

50

201510

50

Win

ter

Su

mm

er

Sp

rin

g

Fall

201510

50

Win

ter

Su

mm

er

Sp

rin

g

Fall

Win

ter

Su

mm

er

Sp

rin

g

Fall

Win

ter

Su

mm

er

Sp

rin

g

Fall

Win

ter

Su

mm

er

Sp

rin

g

Fall

Acacia modesta

Mea

n o

f fo

od i

tem

s (F

ecal

gro

up)

Alibizzia procera Allium cepa Arachus hypogea Asphodelus tenuifolius

Bombix ceiba Brassica compestris Brassica oleracea C.jawarancusa Calligonum polygonoides

Capsicum annum Cenchrus ciliaris Cucumis melo Cymbopogan jawarancusa Cynodon dactylon

Cyperus rotundus Dalbergia sissoo Desmostachya bipinnata Dichanthium annulatum Dodonaca viscose

E.camaldulensis Hordeum vulgare Lathyrus aphaca Mangifera indica Medicago sativa

Melia azedarach Melilotus indica Morus alba Other Pisum sativum

Prosopis juliflora Psidium guajava Saccharum munja Saccharum officinarum Solanum nigrum

Solanum tuberosum Sorghum helepense Sorghum vulgaris Tribulus terrestris Triticum aestivum

Unidentified Unknown plant Vigna mungo Zea mays Ziziphus jujube

S eason

Figure 37: Relative Frequency of Fecal Pellets Contents With Respect to Seasons.

121

20

10

0

20

10

0

20

10

0

20

10

0

20

10

0

20

10

0

Win

ter

Su

mm

er

Sp

rin

g

Fall

Win

ter

Su

mm

er

Sp

rin

g

Fall

Win

ter

Su

mm

er

Sp

rin

g

Fall

Win

ter

Su

mm

er

Sp

rin

g

Fall

Win

ter

Su

mm

er

Sp

rin

g

Fall

Win

ter

Su

mm

er

Sp

rin

g

Fall

20

10

0

Win

ter

Su

mm

er

Sp

rin

g

Fall

Acacia modesta

Season

Food

item

(Sto

mac

h gr

oup)

Alibizzia procera Allium cepa Arachus hypogea Asphodelus tenuifolius Bombix ceiba Brassica compestris

Brassica oleracea Calligonum polygonoides Capsicum annum Cenchrus ciliaris Cucumis melo Cucurbita maxima Cymbopogan jawarancusa

Cynodon dactylon Cyperus rotundus Dalbergia sissoo Dichanthium annulatum Dodonaca viscose E.camaldulensis Hordeum vulgare

L.esculentum Lathyrus aphaca Mangifera indica Melia azedarach Melilotus indica Morus alba Other

Prosopis juliflora Psidium guajava Saccharum munja Saccharum officinarum Solanum melongena Solanum nigrum Solanum tuberosum

Sorghum helepense Sorghum vulgaris Tribulus terrestris Triticum aestivum Unidentified Unknown plant Vigna mungo

Zea mays Ziziphus jujube

Figure 38: Relative Frequency of Stomach Contents With Respect to Seasons.

122

Relative Frequency of Stomach Contents With Respect to Seasons:

Figure 38 line plot shows the relative frequency of stomach contents with respect to

seasons. A. modesta was found highest in summer (4.54) and lowest in fall (2.50)., A.

procera was highest in winter (3.14) and lowest in summer (1.91)., A. cepa was highest in

winter (1.84) and lowest in summer (0.42)., A. hypogeal was found almost same in winter

(1.46) and fall (1.69)., A. tenuifolius was highest in spring (2.26) and lowest in fall (0.58).,

B. ceiba was highest in spring (6.94) and lowest in summer (2.04)., B. campestris was

highest in spring (3.52) and lowest in winter (2.81)., B. oleracea was highest in winter (1.62)

and lowest in fall (0.11), C. polygonoides was highest in summer (5.52) and lowest in winter

(3.10), C. annum was found only in fall (0.51), C. ciliaris was highest in fall (5.28) and

lowest in winter (1.40)., C. melo was highest in summer (2.81) and lowest in fall (1.70)., C.

maxima was found only in summer (1.07) and C. jawarancusa was also found only in winter

(0.32)., C. dactylon was highest in winter (7.16) and lowest in spring (4.28), C. rotundus was

highest in fall (3.72) and lowest in spring (0.96)., D. sissoo was highest in fall (7.49) and

lowest in summer (3.64), D. annulatum was found only in fall (0.47) and winter (0.36)., D.

viscose was highest in summer (0.91) and lowest in spring (0.42)., E. camaldulensis was

highest in spring (5.71) and lowest in winter (4.72)., H. vulgare was highest in winter (5.28)

and lowest in summer (0.33)., L. esculentum was found only in summer (2.69)., L. aphaca

was highest in spring (2.42) and lowest in winter (0.15)., M. indica was highest in spring

(1.66) and lowest in summer (0.92)., M. azedarach was highest in winter (4.64) and lowest in

summer (1.98)., M. indica was found only in summer (2.51)., M. alba was highest in spring

(4.77) and lowest in fall (0.45)., P. juliflora was highest in summer (13.40) and lowest in

spring (5.59)., P. guajava was highest in winter (1.41) and lowest in summer (0.21)., S.

munja was highest in fall (1.60) and lowest in summer (0.30)., S. officinarum was highest in

fall (1.55) and lowest in summer (0.26)., S. melongena was found only in spring (2.46)., S.

nigrum was highest in summer and lowest in spring (2.46)., S. tuberosum was found only in

winter (0.24)., S. halepense was highest in spring (10.18) and lowest in summer (2.76)., S.

vulgaris was highest in summer (9.86) and lowest in winter (0.53)., T. terrestris was highest

in fall (5.66) and lowest in summer (0.45)., T. aestivum was highest in spring (18.72) and

lowest in winter (16.10)., V. mungo was highest in spring (1.48) and lowest in summer

(0.27)., Z. mays was highest in summer (10.33) and lowest in fall (10.23)., Z. jujuba was

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highest in winter (3.72) and lowest in summer (2.57)., other matter, unidentified and

unknown plants were also present in the four seasons.

Analysis of the All Variables:

The table 17 shows the different locations had significant effect on distribution of

food items. The four seasons did not differ statically so for as distribution of food items were

concerned. Similar groups (Fecal and Stomach) as well as food items contributed

significantly (P<0.05)

H. indica is basically herbivorous, and about 99% of its total diet consists of material

derived from plant source. Only some stomach contents exhibited the presence of quill,

thread and hair.

The overall picture of analysis of stomach contents of H. indica suggested that

species largely depends upon different parts of prevalent vegetation. A marked shift in the

intake of different materials during different seasons and areas can largely be attributed to the

availability of food species or parts of the plant.

This study confirms the observation of Amjad et al. (2009); Mian et al. (2007)

Inayatullah (2006); Pervez. (2005); Bibi, (2004); Khan et al. (2000); Roberts (1997); Ahmad

et al. (1987) and Chaudhary (1970).

Table 17: Analysis of Variance of Different Parameters

Source SS df Mean Squares F-ratio p-value

LOCATION 2173.772 7 310.539 11.106 0.000

SEASON 5.781 3 1.927 0.069 0.976

GROUP 3189.466 1 3189.466 114.065 0.000

FOOD ITEMS 160731.266 47 3090.986 110.543 0.000

Error 462683.248 16547 27.962

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Fig-39 Classification Tree of Total Food Items Analyzed with Respect to Seasons

Figure 39 shows the node 0 depicting total contents, 16532 were analyzed. Node 1

shows the total contents consumed 8112, 49.1% during winter and fall season. Node 2

consists of spring and summer showing the consumption of 8420 contents i.e. 50.9%. The

statistical analysis of food items among seasons showed significant difference (F-

value=10.244, P<0.05).

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Fig-40 Classification Tree of Total Food Items with Respect to Locations

Figure 40 shows the total food items that were analyzed, 16532 with respect to

locations Node 1 consists of the area of Kalar Kahar and Dapher plantation, where 2838 food

items (17.2%) were analysed. Node 2 consists of Shorkot plantation and Qadirabad Balloky

Canal where 4536 food items (27.4%) are analysed. Node 3 consists of Rakh Chobara, Rakh

Gohar and Faisalabad where 6677 food items (40.4%) were analysed. Node 4 consists of

Qaidabad where 2481 food items (15%) were analysed. The statistical analysis of food

contents with respect to locations showed significant difference (F-value = 61.284, P<0.05)

126

Fig-41 Classification Tree of Comparison Fecal and Stomach Contents.

Figure 41 shows classification tree of fecal and stomach contents. Node shows the

fecal pellet particles 10988 i.e 66.5% of the total particles analyzed. Node 2 shows the

stomach content particles 5544 i.e. 33.5% of the total particles analyzed. The comparison of

the results of the stomach content analysis and those derived from the fecal pellet study

suggested that the two modes of study are significantly different from one another. No

previous study is available on comparison of two routes of study in porcupine. The fecal

pellets are more easily available and may be used reliably, as it provides a larger sample. In

porcupine the stomach contents provide large pieces of the food consumed, which can be

identified microscopically by comparison with reference materials. Thus the stomach

contents studies on food and feeding are more reliable, while the fecal pellet studies are

though, indirect can be conducted on a larger sample, easier to collect.

The analysis of the stomach contents and fecal pellet samples collected during

different seasons and geographical locations suggested some degree of variation in

composition and prevalence of food species. This is expected under the seasonal and

geographical variation in the prevalence of different plant species in different localities and

during different seasons, keeping to the available physic-biotic conditions.

127

Diversity in Diet of Hystrix indica in Irrigated Forest Habitat: Berger-Parker index was calculated for stomach samples of porcupine which showed

the diversity of diet in four seasons. In order to ensure the variation in diet, diversity index

was calculated from Berger-Parker equation. Berger-Parker index of fall and winter were

almost similar i.e. 5.68 and 5.94 while summer had lowest values i.e. 4.85 which showed the

less diversity (Tab-18). It showed that porcupine tended to have more diversity during spring

seasons (6.38). Therefore porcupine consumed 17 different plant species during spring

season, indicating more diversity than other seasons.

Table 19 shows the analysis of fecal pellets of porcupine collected during the four

seasons. The Berger-Parker index (d) of each season was calculated by the dominance of

species according to the habitat. Berger-Parker index of winter and fall were almost similar

i.e. 5.60 and 5.66 while spring was also 5.25. It showed that the diet of porcupine during

summer was more diverse. Therefore, porcupines consumed 18 different plant species during

summer season, which had more diversity as compared to other seasons. It confirms the

findings of Inayatullah (2006).

Table 18: Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the stomach

contents of Hystrix indica in irrigated forest habitat.

Seasons Total No. of food particles (N)

Max. abundant food items (N max)

Berger-Parker index d = N max / N

1/d

Winter 571 96 0.1681 5.94 Spring 434 68 0.1566 6.38 Summer 505 104 0.2059 4.85 Fall 625 110 0.1760 5.68 Table 19: Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the fecal pellets of

Hystrix indica in irrigated forest habitat. Seasons

Total No. of food particles (N)

Max. abundant food items (N max)

Berger-Parker index d = N max /N

1/d

Winter 1832 327 0.1784 5.60 Spring 1434 273 0.1903 5.25 Summer 1634 246 0.1505 6.64 Fall 1892 334 0.1765 5.66

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Diversity in Diet of Hystrix indica in Irrigated Sandy Habitat: Thal represents sandy desert ecosystem of Punjab. Annual precipitation in these areas

is less than 75 mm and natural vegetation is scarce. Water table is generally very low. Rakh

Gouharwala and Rakh Chobara were selected for the desert ecosystem.

Berger-Parker index was calculated for the stomach samples of porcupines which

showed the diversity of diet in the four seasons. In order to ensure the variation in diet,

diversity index was calculated from Berger-Parker equation. Berger-Parker index of spring

and fall were almost similar i.e. 5.95 and 5.83 while winter had lowest values i.e. 3.68 which

showed less diversity in diet (Tab-20). It showed that porcupines tend to have more diverse

diet during fall and spring seasons. Therefore, porcupine consumed 16 different plant species

during spring season, which were more diverse than other seasons.

In table 21 the analysis of fecal pellets of porcupines collected during the four seasons

is presented. The Berger-Parker index (d) of each season was calculated by the species

dominance according to habitat of porcupines. Berger-Parker index of fall and spring were

almost similar i.e. 3.93 and 3.74 while summer was 4.05. It showed that porcupine tended to

have more diversity during the winter 5.30. Therefore, porcupines consumed 17 different

plant species during winter season, which were more diverse than other seasons.

Table 20: Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the stomach contents of Hystrix indica in Sandy habitat.

Seasons Total No. of food particles (N)

Max. abundant food items (N max)

Berger-Parker index d = Nmax /N

1/d

Winter 1010 274 0.2712 3.68 Spring 1012 170 0.1679 5.95 Summer 834 204 0.2446 4.08 Fall 758 130 0.1715 5.83 Table 21: Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the fecal pellet of

Hystrix indica in Sandy habitat.

Seasons

Total No. of food particles (N)

Max. abundant food items N (max)

Berger-Parker index d = N max /N

1/d

Winter 2280 430 0.1885 5.30 Spring 1956 522 0.2668 3.74 Summer 2212 546 0.2468 4.05 Fall 1770 450 0.2542 3.93

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Diversity in Diet Hystrix indica in Agriculture Lands Habitat: Faisalabad and Qaidabad were selected for the agriculture lands. Berger-Parker index

was calculated for stomach samples of porcupines which showed the diversity of diet in the

four seasons. In order to ensure the variation in diet, diversity index was calculated from

Berger-Parker equation. Berger-Parker index of spring was lowest in diversity 3.94 while

summer had second lowest 4.64 (Tab-22). Berger-Parker index showed that porcupines tend

to have more diverse diet during winter season (6.38). Therefore, porcupines consumed 18

different plant species during winter season, which were more diverse than other seasons.

The table 23 shows the analysis of fecal pellets collected during the four seasons. The

Berger-Parker index (d) of each season was calculated by the species dominance according to

their habitats. Berger-Parker index of winter and summer were almost similar i.e. 4.24 and

4.48. The spring season had lowest values i.e. 3.46 while it was highest value of fall season

5.37. It showed that porcupines tend to have more diverse diet during fall. Therefore,

porcupines consumed 15 different plant species during summer season, which were more

diversed than other seasons. It confirms the findings of Inayatullah (2006).

Table 22: Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the stomach

contents of Hystrix indica in Agriculture habitat. Seasons Total No. of food

particles (N) Max. abundant food items

(N max) Berger-Parker index

d = N max /N 1/d

Winter 1368 258 0.1885 5.30 Spring 1514 384 0.2536 3.94 Summer 1300 280 0.2153 4.64 Fall 1172 232 0.1979 5.05 Table 23: Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the fecal pellets of

Hystrix indica in Agriculture habitat. Seasons Total No. of food

particles (N) Max. abundant food items

(N max) Berger-Parker index

d = N max /N 1/d

Winter 3046 718 0.2357 4.24 Spring 2712 782 0.2883 3.46 Summer 2986 666 0.2230 4.48 Fall 2956 550 0.1860 5.37

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Diversity in Diet of Hystrix indica in Link Canal Habitat:

The canal irrigation extends in some areas, where irrigated agriculture is exercised,

there are sufficiently large tracts under wild undulating sand dunes, even in the extensively

irrigated/ arable tracts, which provide denning habitat for the porcupines. The embankments

along the canals also provide favourite denning sites for the porcupines. The seepage water

from the adjacent canals causes the problem of water logging and creation of small water

bodies in certain tracts. Qadirabad Ballokey canal was selected for the link canal eco-system.

In order to ensure the variation in diet, diversity index was calculated from Berger-

Parker equation. Berger-Parker index of spring and fall (Tab. 24) were almost similar i.e.

4.67 and 4.28. Summer diversity was 6.04 while winter (8.71) showed maximum diversity.

Therefore, porcupines consumed 20 different plant species during winter season, which were

more diverse than other seasons.

In table 25 the fecal pellets of porcupines collected during four seasons were

subjected to analysis. The Berger-Parker index (d) of each season was calculated by the

species dominance according to occurrence of species. Berger-Parker index of spring, winter

and summer were almost similar i.e. 4.57, 4.47 and 4.27, respectively. In fall season highest

value was 5.12. It showed that porcupines tend to have more diversity during the fall diet.

Therefore, porcupine consumed 14 different plant species during fall season, which were

more diversed than other seasons.

Table 24: Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the stomach contents of Hystrix indica in link canal habitat.

Seasons Total No. of food particles (N)

Max. abundant food items (N max)

Berger-Parker index d = N max /N

1/d

Winter 802 92 0.1147 8.71 Spring 776 166 0.2139 4.67 Summer 580 96 0.1655 6.04 Fall 566 132 0.2332 4.28

Table 25: Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica in link canal habitat.

Seasons Total No. of food particles (N)

Max. abundant food items (N max)

Berger-Parker index d = N max /N

1/d

Winter 1530 342 0.2235 4.47 Spring 1722 376 0.2183 4.57 Summer 1496 350 0.2339 4.27 Fall 1804 352 0.1951 5.12

131

Diversity in Diet of Hystrix Indica in Rainfed Pothohar Belt Habitat: Berger-Parker index was calculated for stomach samples of porcupine which showed

the diversity of diet in four seasons. In order to ensure the variation in diet, diversity index

was calculated from Berger-Parker equation. Berger-Parker index of winter and summer

were almost similar i.e. 2.69 and 2.37 while spring had lowest value i.e. 1.59 which showed

the low diversity (Tab-26). It showed that porcupines tend to have more diverse diet during

fall season (3.69). Therefore, porcupines consumed 6 different plant species during fall

season, which were more diverse than other seasons.

In table 27 the results of analysis of fecal pellets of porcupine collected during the

four seasons are presented. The Berger-Parker index (d) of each season was calculated by the

species dominance according to occurrence of species. Berger-Parker index of summer and

fall were almost similar i.e. 3.30 and 3.23 while winter was also i.e. 2.62. Spring had lowest

value i.e. 1.62 which showed the low diversity. Therefore, porcupine consumed 7 different

plant species during summer and fall seasons, which were more diversed than other seasons.

Table 26: Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the stomach

contents of Hystrix indica in Rainfed Pothohar Belt. Seasons Total No. of food

particles (N) Max. abundant food items

(N max) Berger-Parker index

d = N max /N 1/d

Winter 167 62 0.3712 2.69 Spring 132 83 0.6287 1.59 Summer 83 35 0.42 2.37 Fall 107 29 0.2710 3.68

Table 27: Berger-Parker index of diversity in seasonal samples of the fecal pellets of Hystrix indica in Rainfed Pothohar Belt.

Seasons Total No. of food

particles (N) Max. abundant food items

(Nmax) Berger-Parker index

d = Nmax /N 1/d

Winter 276 105 0.3804 2.62 Spring 242 149 0.6157 1.62 Summer 251 76 0.3027 3.30 Fall 294 91 0.3095 3.23

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Nature and Extent of the Porcupine Damage to Different Trees and Cultivated Crops: A. Crops:

i. Wheat:

The collected data revealed that porcupine damage was observed in 41 fields of wheat

crop out of 105 fields in growing areas of Punjab. The damage was 4.58±1.14 % in

Faisalabad, 6.82±2.03 % in Quaidaabad and 5.88±1.53 % in Sheikhupura. The previous

estimates on wheat damage in Pothowar belt was 8.50±0.96% (Mia et al., 2007). This

appeared a heavy damage, but it was quite as expected from such a large rodent. Porcupine is

herbivorous in diet. The natural vegetation in the area is limited during the winter while at

the same time the wheat is available in the fields to be damaged by porcupine. The damage

was usually confined to the boundaries of the fields rather deep into the wheat fields.

However, the degree of damage to crops in Punjab is non-significant (F-value=3.97, P<0.05).

ii. Groundnut:

Groundnut (A. hypogea) is one of the major oilseed crops grown in Pakistan. The nuts

are not used generally for oil extraction but are consumed locally in fresh or roasted form.

These are also added to sweets and biscuits to make them more delicious and nutritious.

The damaged data collected from Quaidaabad showed relatively higher damage

(4.82±2.07%). However, it varied from 3.19% to 11.92%. Relatively higher damage was

expected from the porcupine; because the species has an extensive digging habit moreover

groundnut is relished by the rodents and provides a rich source of energy for the animal. A

high damage to groundnut, 30-40 plants per night was also reported by Brooks et al. (1988)

whereas Mia et al. (2007) estimated groundnut damage (20.2±7.2%) caused by porcupine in

Chakwal.

Damaging and killing of groundnut plants was made by porcupines through digging

out the nuts from roots in the ground (Plate 8). The damage was observed into the soil up to

2.5 to 7.25 cm. The clawed area generally resembles loose soil under the plant. Intact

partially consumed and empty groundnut shells were found scattered in the clawed area. The

attack was found confined to plants present in the corner of a field. Footprints of the animal

or burrow opening confirmed its presence in the surrounding area.

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iii. Onion:

The porcupine damaged onions in Bhakhar (Table 28) which was relatively low

damage 2.72±1.15%. The major part of the damage was inflicted when the onion crop was

still very young, whereas the ripe and marketable onions faced considerably less damage

(1.82±1.15%). Mian et al. (2007) studied the onion damage in Bhakhar, during 2004. The

estimated range of damage was reported as 0.9%to 5.4%. Low damage inflicted to onions is

hard to be explained, except for a lower preference of the species due to its taste/smell. It has

been observed that porcupines did not attack the green foliage of the onion crop, which

remain above the ground. This part remained unconsumed even when the plants were

uprooted by the rodent (Plate 7).

iv. Maize:

Maize is the third most important cereal crop grown in Pakistan. A part of the maize

production is used as animal fodder and the remainder is for human consumption. In the

Punjab the crop is mainly planted during the mid-monsoon rains and harvested in October

and late November. It is one of the few crops that can be grown in the irrigated areas during

this period and still leave ample time for wheat crop cultivation.

During the survey, a total number of 60 maize fields were visited. Porcupine

infestations were noted in 37 fields. In Faisalabad the damage range of maize was 6.37

±2.77%, 16 fields out 30 were damaged. In Sheikhupura the damage was 5.51±2.68%, 21

fields out of 30 were infested by porcupine. Khan et al. (1997) estimated 10.7% porcupine

damage in Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Earlier to this Ahmad et al. (1987) recored 0.83%

damage in central Punjab. In this study only few fields were sampled in Faisalabad district.

During this survey porcupine damage pattern was also noted. Porcupine (Hystrix

indica) could not reach the cobs because of their small size. So first, they cut the stem from

the base and when the plant was in the reach of animals, they will eat the cobs.

v. Melon:

The porcupine inflicted a comparatively heavier damage to melon fruits, whereas the

vegetative part of the plants was not damaged. Data revealed that 4.44±3.39% of the ripe

melons were partially damaged by the porcupines in Bhakhar. Earlier to this no damage data

was collected.

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vi. Sugarcane:

Very little information on damage by porcupine to sugarcane was published. A total

of 60 fields were visited and 12 fields were found damaged. In Faisalabad the damage (4.65±

2.28%) was observed in five fields. In Sheikhupura the damage (5.51±2.68%) was found in 7

fields. The damage pattern in sugarcane showed that porcupine first attacked on the roots of

the crops and then they damaged the stem of the crop. The damage extended into the soil

about 2.5 to 7.5 cm. The clawed area generally resembled loose soil under the plant. The

attack usually was restricted to the center of a field. Positive proof of porcupine presence was

the presence of the footprints of the animal or burrow opening in the area.

vii. Cotton:

No damage was observed in the cotton crop.

viii. Vegetables/Fruits:

On the basis of information collected through the farmers, the porcupine inflicted

significant damage to cauliflower, cabbage, potato seed, orange and mango fruit (picked

from lower branches), roots of pepper, sorghum, turnip, radish, carrot and okara (lady

finger). The porcupine has also been reported to cause damage to millet, barley, clover,

mustard, gram, lucerine, mongi, pea flower, potato, radish, rice, sweet potato, sunflower and

tara mera. Khan et al. (2000) reported 17.56% porcupine damage to potatoes near Attack,

Punjab while Pervez (2006) reported 2.20% damage to potatoes and 4-36% damage to sweet

potatoes in Balochistan. Damage to cabbage, pea and carrot was estimated at 1-4% in

different areas of Balochistan.

According to Mia et al. (2007) damage decreased with increase in distance of the

cultivated field from the nearby burrow opening of the rodent, and little damage was caused

in the field located beyond 5 km of the hills or burrowing habitat (Roberts, 1997). The same

observation was reported in the studies of Saltz (1985) and Sever and Mendelsohn (1991).

They concluded that the nocturnal course of porcupine in desert averaged to 5.5 km.

B. Forest Plantations

i. Nursery/stocking damage

The damage to the nursery plantation of Shisham (D. sissoo) (Table 29) was around

11.00±2.93% in Rakh Gouharwala and 8.63±2.45% in Daphar plantations .Data collected on

the Simal (B. ceiba) nursery in Daphar plantations revealed a very heavy damage

135

(58.4±4.00%) to the nursery plantation (Plate. 5). In Rakh Gouharwala the damage to A.

porcera was 8.36±2.19% and 5.22±2.28% in Rakh Chobara. It appeared that both A. porcera

and D. sissoo were equally susceptible to the porcupine damage. Heavy damage in Bombax

ceiba stock and the reported variation in the damage can be mainly attributed to the age of

nursery plantation. According to Mia et al. (2007), porcupine attack starts with the

development of the woody stem in the plantation. The younger plantations do not attract the

porcupine, while the older trees, with fleshy roots and woody stem, are more vulnerable to

the damage. Earlier to this, Ahmad and Chaudhry (1977) reported that in a 4 ha, six months

old D. sissoo nursery at Kundian, only 25% plants escaped porcupine damage while the rest

were found clipped and thrown on the ground. They also observed that porcupine damage

has become a limiting factor in raising D. sissoo and B. ceiba nurseries in Jhang where only

11% living plants could be recorded in a mixed nursery of the two affected species. Greaves

and Khan (1978) observed the same type of damage to M. azedarach in a nursery at

Chichawatni with more than 90% of the seedlings destroyed, while the seedlings of D. sissoo

were virtually untouched, showing a preference to M. azedarach. During the survey the

Forest Officer of Chichawanti informed that damage to M. azedarach nurseries was 100%

and 75% in 1972 and 1973, respectively. Reports from India indicate that 30% seedlings of

Neem (A. indica) and 12% of Eucalyptus spp. were damaged by cutting the plants at 5-7 cm

above the ground level in Aravelli hills near Jodhpur.

Up-rooting and pulling out of transplants/stockings is a characteristic behaviour of

Indian crested porcupine. Ahmad and Chaudhry (1977) reported that in scrub forests Agave

spp. was completely wiped out several times soon after transplanting but A. modesta was

quite safe from this kind of damage. Also, newly planted D. sissoo stumps were usually

pulled. Nawaz and Ahmad (1974) reported up-rooting of 4700 B. ceiba plants from two

compartments (31 ha) at Changa Manga plantation. Damage to suckers of date palm (P.

dactylifera) by up-rooting is also very serious in Punjab and Balochistan. One of the farmers

(Dr. Jasra per. comm.) reported the loss of 500 suckers (100% damage) within a month on a

farm near Bhakhar.

ii. Damage to trees

The data on debarking of mature irrigated plantation (Table 30) showed that M. alba,

D. sissoo, E. camaldulensis and M. azedarach are the most susceptible trees species to

136

porcupine damage, while P. deltodes and T. aphylla are not attacked by this rodent. Higher

debarking (15.35±2.10%), significantly infested by the porcupine, was observed in

Eucalyptus camaldulensis.

This is quite contrary to previous reports which pointed out a complete absence of

damage to Eucalyptus in Pakistan (Mia et al., 2007; Khan et al., 2000). This indicates a

natural phenomenon moreover exotic Eucalyptus spp. has started adopting the ecosystem of

the area, and local pests/parasites have started attacking the species too. This trend is

expected to increase with the passage of time. There has been virtually no debarking of T.

aphylla in Rakh Gouharwala. There is no explanation for a complete immunity of the

Tamarix to porcupine attack.

Summary of the results on damage estimates on major forest plantations suggested

that different forest trees are differently prone to porcupine damage. E. camaldulensis faced

the highest damage (15.35±2.10%) in Daphar plantation followed by D. sissoo (15.18±1.79)

and M. alba (12.38±1.86%). Shorkot plantation faced the damage of E. camaldulensis

(14.97±1.98%) and Rakh Chaubara plantation showed the damage of A. procera

(3.44±0.04%). P. deltoides are facing almost no damage due to porcupine attack. The

damage in most of the cases was in the form of debarking of the lower parts of the trees, up

to the height of 25 cm. Sometimes it results in complete girdling. The complete girdling may

sometimes causes death of the trees, yet in most cases the girdling and partial debarking may

effect the radial growth of the plant (Storm and Halvorson, 1967) and hence renders it to

secondary termite attack which also affects the quality of wood.

The damage to tree plantation of the same species appears to vary in different areas.

This can be expected under the difference in the density of porcupine population and

different degree of the food available in wild area around the plantation. It happens when

porcupine prefers wild vegetation rather than opting for the forested plantation/agricultural

crops, having a higher human activity, risking the life of the organism.

The general observation suggests that dead bark of tree is not favoured by porcupines.

It just peals off the bark in order to access the inner part, i.e., cortex, xylem and phloem. The

characteristic sign on the inner bark appear as scratching /engravings, are prominent through

the collective efforts of both upper and lower incisors. However, in case of tree stocking

(<one year age) and mature nurseries of D. sissoo there is a complete cutting of the parts

137

above ground at an angle of 45º which is a characteristic sign of porcupine damage. Eglitis

and Hennon (1987) observed that Sitka spruce (33% damage) appeared to be preferred over

western hemlock (15% damage) by E. dorsatum, as a host tree in conifer stands in southeast

Alaska. Similarly, Woods and Zeglen (2003) reported E. dorsatum damage to Sitka spruce

(80% damage) forests of north-costal British Columbia, Canada, where the coniferous host

Sitka spruce was most preferred. In Kundian, D. sissoo was preferred over E. camaldulensis

and opposite of it appeared in Bhakhar plantation. In AJ&K, Ahmad (1990) observed that P.

roxburghii and M. azedarach were the most preferred trees while Ailanthus altissima and R.

pseudoacacia were least preferred ones to porcupine damage. In India, porcupine preference

to coconut palms (46% damage) was significant over Agave americana (15-30%) and

Caryota urens (15-20%) in Dakshina in Kannada region of Karnataka (Girish et al., 2005).

The debarking activity varied within young palms (<5 years) and old palms (>30 years),

young receiving more damage than the old ones.

It has been concluded from the all above discussion:

Conclusion:

Indian crested porcupine, Hystrix indica, is a pest which causes severe damage to

forest plantation as well as to farm crops in various agro-eco-zones. The analysis of the

stomach contents and fecal pellet samples collected during different seasons and

geographical locations suggest some degree of variation in composition and prevalence of the

food species. This is expected that the available physico-biotic conditions cause seasonal and

geographic variations in the prevalence of different plant species in different localities and

during different seasons.

According to the results of this study it damages the crops like Zea mays, Triticum

aestivum, Saccharum officinarum, Arachus hypogea, Brassica oleracea, Hordeum vulgare

and Sorghum vulgaris. As for as damage to natural and irrigated forest plantations are

concerned, this pest particularly damage bark, roots and shoots of Morus alba, Dalbergia

sissoo, Melia azedarach, E. camaldulensis, Bombax ceiba and Alibizzia procera, which

ultimately affect supply line of timber to sports, furniture and wood based industries, all of

which are of great economic concern in this country. In forest nurseries, it severely damages

the young nursery plants which seriously hamper the productivity of the forest and

reforestation efforts. Regarding the diversity of food of porcupine, it was observed that

138

porcupine has more diverse diet in irrigated embankments of link canals and less diverse diet

in rainfed Pothowar belt.

Table 28: Estimates of Indian crested porcupine, Hystrix indica, damage to the crops in

different area, Punjab, Pakistan.

No. Fields Examined

No. of Damaged

fields

Crop Locality Quadrates

No. of Total Plants

Damage Plants

Extent of Damage

(%) 35 10

Wheat Faisalabad 16(edge) 3813 174 4.58±1.14

35 14 Quaidaabad 16(edge) 2674 167 6.82±2.03 35 17 Sheikhupura 16(edge) 3402 181 5.88±1.53 30 4 Groundnut Quaidaabad 6 3809 174 4.82±2.07 10 4 Onion

(mature) Bhakhar

6 668 10 1.82±1.15

10 4 Onion (young)

Bhakhar

6 1038 31 2.72±1.15

30 16 Maize

Faisalabad 14 191 14 6.37±2.77 30 21 Sheikhupura 14 187 12 7.01±2.61 30 5 Sugarcane Faisalabad 14 126 6 4.65±2.28 30 7 Sheikhupura 14 120 6 5.51±2.68 10 7 Melon Bhakhar 14 75 3 4.44±3.39

Table 29: Estimates of Indian crested porcupine, Hystrix indica, damage to nursery plants

in man-made irrigated forest plantations and range areas, Punjab, Pakistan. Plant species Locality Quadrats

Total Plants

Damage/Uprooted Plants

Damage (%)

Dalbergia sissoo Rakh Gouharwala 5 616 70 11.00±2.93 Daphar Plantation 10 1159 95 8.63±2.45

Bombax ceiba Daphar Plantation 2 360 135 58.4±4.00 Albizzia procera Rakh Chaubara 5 134 7 5.22±2.28

Rakh Gouharwala 5 187 19 8.36±2.19

Table 30: Estimates of Indian crested porcupine, Hystrix indica, damage to trees in man-made irrigated forest plantations and range areas, Punjab, Pakistan.

Species Locality Compartments (#)

Number of plants Examined

Damage (%)

Total Damaged Dalbergia sissoo Daphar Plantation 5 1272 190 15.18±1.79 Morus alba Daphar Plantation 2 620 77 12.38±1.86

E. camaldulensis Daphar Plantation 4 1030 156 15.35±2.10 Shorkot Plantation 4 885 137 14.97±1.98

Tamarix aphylla Rakh Gouharwala 1 305 0 0.00±0.00 Albizzia procera Rakh Chaubara 2 522 18 3.44±0.04

139

Recommendations:

In Pakistan, Hystrix indica is abundant and distributed all over the country. It has

been identified as a serious pest of traditional as well as non-traditional crops. So to avoid the

damage caused by porcupine, the measures should be adopted for its control as mentioned

below:

The control of porcupine should be achieved by carbon monoxide and aluminium

phosphide (7 tablets of 3 g) fumigation effective only in loamy and silty soils.

In the stony and hilly areas like rainfed Pothowar belt where porcupine burrows have

many smaller openings, causing the fumes leakage leading to failure of control

campaign. So poison baiting should be done instead of aluminium phophide

fumigation in such areas.

Anticoagulants like coumaletralyl bait can also be used for control of porcupine

population although its results are delayed yet 100% mortality occurs.

The agro-forestry practices should be adopted in irrigation plantations and

reforestation areas to have minimum seedling loss.

The control of porcupine must start from October, to avoid winter damage to forest

plantations.

A sustained pest vigilance coupled with constant monitoring is suggested to check for

any recurrence of the pests after implementing control measures.

143

MAP OF PUNJAB WITH INDICATE STUDY AREAS

Rakh Goharwala and Rakh Chobara

Selected for the Agriculture Lands

Qadirabad-Ballokey Canal

Dapher Plantation

Shorkot Plantation

Rainfed Pothohar Belt

Formatted: Left, Indent: Left: 0", Hanging: 1", Line spacing: single, Tab stops: Not at 0.5"

145

MAP OF PUNJAB WITH INDICATE STUDY AREAS

Rakh Goharwala and Rakh Chobara

Selected for the Agriculture Lands

Qadirabad-Ballokey Canal

Dapher Plantation

Shorkot Plantation

Rainfed Pothohar Belt

Formatted: Line spacing: single, Tab stops:Not at 0.5"

146

Chapter - V SUMMARY

The Indian crested porcupine (H. indica) is a serious vertebrate pest in Pakistan. Little

has been studied about the food habits of this species because of its shy nature and nocturnal

habit. In present endeavour the study of food habits, feeding seasonality and assessment of

damage was made. One hundred thirty one porcupines were trapped and 480 fecal pellets

were collected from different agro-ecological zones of the Punjab (Pakistan). The overall

picture based upon analysis of stomach contents and fecal pellets revealed that the

porcupines were mainly dependent upon plant material mostly pertaining to species like Z.

mays, T. aestivum, S. officinarum, M. alba, M. azedarach, H. vulgare, E. camaldulensis, D.

sissoo , B. compestris and A. modesta .

The whole study period was divided into four seasons: spring (February – April);

summer (May–August); fall (September-October) and winter (November-January). During

these periods the relation of food and feeding behavior showed maximum relative frequency

in summer (3.78) followed by fall season (3.61), spring (3.67) and winter (3.67); spring and

winter relative frequency was equal in nature.

Relative frequencies among the food items noted in different locations are as under:

A. modesta (8.78), A. hypogea (1.90), C. polygonoides (4.54), D. annulatum (0.28), D.

viscose (1.69) and L. aphaca (0.57) were found only in one location. A. tenuifolius (3.416),

M. sativa (0.42), S. tuberosum (0.10), C. ciliaris (5.419), B. campestris (1.570), P. sativum

(0.21), C. jawarancusa (0.46) and T. terrestris (5.02) were found in two locations. A. procera

(3.00), C. annum (0.21), S. melongena (0.63), V. mungo (1.04), P. guajava (0.71), L.

esculentum (0.38) and C. maxima (0.16) were found in three locations. B. oleracea (0.96), A.

cepa (0.823), Mangifera indica (1.35), M. indica (0.34) and S. munja (1.15) were found in

four locations. S. officinarum (0.69), B. ceiba (4.11), S. nigrum (0.98), M. azedarach (4.16)

and M. alba (3.98) were found in five locations. H. vulgare (1.69), Z. mays (6.37) and E.

camaldulensis (6.12) were found in six locations. D. sissoo (6.39), S. halepense (3.83), D.

bipinnata (0.54) and C. melo (0.68) were found in seven locations. S. vulgaris (6.54), T.

aestivum (8.56), C. dactylon (7.84), C. rotundus (1.58), Z. jujube (2.70), P. juliflora (9.85),

unidentified (7.944), unknown plant parts (11.12) and other (1.38) were found in eight

locations.

147

Regarding the diversity of food of porcupine, it was observed that porcupine had

more diverse diet in irrigated embankments of link canals and less diverse diet in rainfed

Pothowar belt.

The most important porcupine damage, however, occurred in forestry. Damage

estimate of M. alba 12.38±1.86, A. procera 3.44±0.04, D. sissoo15.18±1.79 and E.

camldulensis 15.35±2.10% in different irrigated forest plantations of Punjab. Crops of

economic importance such as maize, wheat and groundnut were found severely damaged in

irrigated plains and rainfed Pothowar belt. Among the vegetable, pumpkin, okara, bitter

gourd and onions were badly damaged. In rangelands, different species of grasses such as S.

helepense, C. ciliaris and C. jawarancusa were severely affected. Dirt raised embankments

of link and irrigated canals became weakened because of most favourable denning sites for

porcupine.

A marked shift in diet of H. indica occurred with seasonal and geographical

variations which could largely be attributed to availability of food species or their parts.

Hope fully our findings will help in overcoming the menace of porcupine attack on

commercial species of crops and trees by introducing species of lesser economic importance

within our crop/tree regimes. The results of this study will, help to devise strategies for its

management and preventing damages to crops of economic importance.

.

148

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Appendix-I: List of Vegetation

Scientific Name Local Name English Name Acacia modesta Phulai Alibizzia procera Siris Allium cepa Paiz Onion Arachus hypogea Mong phalli Ground nut Asphodelus tenuifolius Bobat Bombix ceiba Simbal Silk cotton tree Brassica campestris Sarso Mustard Brassica oleracea Gobi Cabbage C.jawarancusa Khawi Calligonum polygonoides Phog Capsicum annum Merch chili Cenchrus ciliaris Daman Grass Buffel Grass Cucumis melo Chibber Melon Cymbopogan jawarancusa Khavi grass ----- Cynodon dactylon Khabal Lawn grass Cyperus rotundus Deela coco-grass Dalbergia sissoo Tahli Indian rosewood. Desmostachya bipinnata Darbha Grass Dichanthium annulatum sheda grass Dodonaca viscose Sanatha E.camaldulensis Sufada Hordeum vulgare Joe Lathyrus aphaca Jngali Mater yellow pea Mangifera indica Aam Mango Medicago sativa Alfalfa Melia azedarach Bakain Melilotus indica sweet clover Morus alba Toot Mulberry Pisum sativum Mater Peas Prosopis juliflora Kabli Keekar Mesquite Psidium guajava Amrod Guava Saccharum munja Sarkanda Saccharum officinarum Kamad Sugar cane Solanum nigrum Mako Black night shade Solanum tuberosum Allo Potato Solanum melongena Bangan Brinjal Sorghum halepense Baru Johnson grass Sorghum vulgaris Jawar Tribulus terrestris Bakhara Puncture clover Triticum aestivum Gandum Wheat Vigna mungo Chaney Black gra Zea mays Maki Maize Ziziphus jujuba Beri Cucurbita maxima Pumpkin Orobanchi nicotianae Gider tabako Broom wort

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Appendix-II: Correlations between plant’s parts consumed by porcupine Stem Leaf Seed Root Spike Tuber Flower Pod Other Total

Stem 1 .303** .081** .297** .163** -.014* -.020** -.011 -.091** .749** .000 .000 .000 .000 .035 .006 .070 .000 .000

Leaf .303** 1 .296** .156** .357** .005 -.012 -.001 -.075** .682** .000 .000 .000 .000 .249 .058 .443 .000 .000

Seed .081** .296** 1 -.047** -.032** -.021** -.012 -.008 -.045** .370** .000 .000 .000 .000 .003 .061 .154 .000 .000

Root .297** .156** -.047** 1 -.040** -.029** -.017* -.011 -.061** .441** .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .012 .084 .000 .000

Spike .163** .357** -.032** -.040** 1 -.014* -.009 -.005 -.029** .448** .000 .000 .000 .000 .036 .137 .253 .000 .000

Tuber -.014* .005 -.021** -.029** -.014* 1 -.006 -.003 -.019** .034** .035 .249 .003 .000 .036 .233 .329 .006 .000

Flower -.020** -.012 -.012 -.017* -.009 -.006 1 -.002 -.012 .065** .006 .058 .061 .012 .137 .233 .394 .064 .000

Pod -.011 -.001 -.008 -.011 -.005 -.003 -.002 1 -.007 .035** .070 .443 .154 .084 .253 .329 .394 .178 .000

Other -.091** -.075** -.045** -.061** -.029** -.019** -.012 -.007 1 .131** .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .006 .064 .178 .000

Total .749** .682** .370** .441** .448** .034** .065** .035** .131** 1 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level, N= 16532