Week 6 Best Practices in Teaching Writing

Benedictine University

Week 6 Best Practices in Teaching Writing

1Gambrell, L. B., & Morrow, L. M. (2011). Best Practices in Literacy Instruction, Fourth Edition. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press. All material in the following section is directly quoted from Best Practices in Literacy Instruction unless otherwise noted

Benedictine University2

BEST PRACTICES IN TEACHING WRITING

Gambrell, L. B., & Morrow, L. M. (2011). Best Practices in Literacy Instruction, Fourth Edition. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press. All material in the following section is directly quoted from Best Practices in Literacy Instruction unless otherwise noted


What Is Writing?

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Writing is a complex interaction of cognitive and physical factors:

PHYSICAL FACTORS COGNITIVE FACTORS

It involves the hand and eyeIt involves both sides of the brain as one makes connections and constructs meaning

It involves small-muscle development and eye-hand coordination to physically form: Letters, words, and

paragraphs with a pen, pencil or on a keyboard

It is a way to explore thinking and create new knowledgeIt requires knowing the conventions of grammar, spelling, punctuation, and formIt requires having a vocabulary that permits effective self-expression and communication

Writing can be a personal process done solely for oneself or a social process done for and with others


Writing Theory

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It is important to possess a framework for understanding writing (Cambourne’s model of learning literacy, 1988)

Cambourne suggests that authentic engagement accompanied by immersion and demonstration result in learning

Students learn to write when they are: Surrounded with examples and models Given expectations Allowed to make decisions and mistakes Provided feedback Allowed time to practice in realistic ways


Writing Theory

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Engagement and relevance are basic to Graves’ (1983,1994) model of the writing process that is based on the repetitive steps of:Planning, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing

for a real audienceThis process approach to writing is part of a writing

workshop format (Fletcher &Portaluppi, 2001) in which the teacher sets up the structure and allows students plenty of choice about what they write

Atwell’s (1998, 2002) work with middle school students also supports the use of writing process in a writing workshop format


Oral Language-Vygotsky

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Oral language is an important contributor to writing because both oral language and writing depend on the same cognitive abilities

Vygotsky (1978) theorized that children’s early speech is a precursor to inner speech:Which in turn results in the ability to think in

wordsThis self-talk is like an inner commentator

that develops into a mature writer’s voice


Writing: It’s A Social Act!

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Vygotsky believed thought and knowledge emerge from oral language that is embedded in social interaction

This co-construction of meaning leads to learning

Thus, when writing is a social act…It is often stronger because of

interactions that occur as students talk and create new meanings together


Social interaction that occurs around a shared experience is the foundation of the language experience approach

When students talk about an experience and that talk is transcribed, they can then read the written story or report

Young children learn how to write and how to read as a result of the social interaction that is part of the language experience approach



Middle school students participating in similar substantive discussions or “curricular conversations” that are focused on content Can strengthen their writing as well as their reading,

speaking, and thinking abilities (Angelis, 2003)

This kind of demonstration and immersion in talking, writing, and reading as students create meaning together is the engagement that Cambourne (1988) puts at the Heart of all learning! Demonstration

+Immersion



GRAMMAR INSTRUCTIONIT COULD PRODUCE HARMFUL EFFECTS!

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Research shows grammar instruction to have little positive effect on writingStudies over time indicate that teaching formal grammar to

students has a “negligible or even harmful effect on improving students’ writing” (Routman, 1996, p.119)

In fact, “…a heavy emphasis on mechanics and usage results in significant losses in overall quality”

Thus, the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) published a resolution urging teachers to discard traditional school grammar instruction (Brozo, 2003)

(Hillocks, 1987, p.74)


However, in a climate of standards-based mandated tests that often requires students to correct errors…

Teachers may need to focus student attention on identifying and correcting errors (Smith, Cheville, &Hillocks, 2006) Alerting students to the pattern of errors they commit within

and across their own writing assignments is one way to focus students’ attention

Using strategies for examining and correcting errors gives teachers and students another window into learning about standard grammar and conventions in writing

GRAMMAR INSTRUCTIONWhat about Standardized Testing?


Research suggests a strong relationship between spelling and writing (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2010)

Good writing depends on the automatic use of spelling skillsWhen students struggle with spelling, they use up valuable

cognitive resources that they might otherwise use for other aspects of writing (Singer & Bashir, 2004)

Students who try to use standard spelling, but do not possess this skill, may labor over every word and use words that they can readily spell rather than words that are more difficult

Thus, accurate and automatic spelling can improve fluency (McCutcheon, 2006), and the quality and length of a written piece is affected, as well as a writer’s confidence

The Impact Of Spelling on Writing


WAIT…AND RELATE

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Students who try to use standard spelling, but do not possess this skill, may labor over every word and use words that they can readily spell rather than words that are more difficult

How is spelling then related to vocabulary usage?


Writing Conventions

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Moats (2005-2006) calls for automatic knowledge of spelling and other conventions. Her position is:“Even more than reading, writing is a mental juggling act

that depends on automatic deployment of basic skills such as handwriting, spelling, grammar, and punctuation so that the writer can keep track of such concerns as topic, organization, word choice, and audience needs”

While grammar checkers may find grammatical problems and spell checkers may correct misspellings of commonly used wordsThese devices do not catch all errors, and students still must

know standard grammar and spellingKnowledge of conventions is important whether students write

with pencil and paper or use a computer and word processor


Good News About the Computer!

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Berninger and Winn (2006) report that students can become metacognitively aware of their own thinking and may produce better writing when they use a word processorDue to the computer’s ability to change some spelling and

correct some grammar for the studentBaker (2000) found that word processors eased the difficulties

many young children have with fine motor control and helped them better understand revision

Baker also found that, through student interaction with the Internet and the digital world, their writing abilities improved

Students found support for their writing efforts, increased their awareness of audience, and gained useful feedback


WRITING: Boys vs. Girls

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Research on gender differences in the writing of elementary and middle school students is striking

On standardized writing tests, girls in the fourth, eighth, and twelfth grades consistently outperformed boys in narrative, persuasive, and informative writing

(National Center for Education Statistics, 2002; nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pubs/)


WRITING: Boys vs. Girls

BOYS GIRLS

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Writing is action filledWriting is competitiveWriting is assertiveWrite in 1st PersonWrite shorter pieces

Writing is nurturingWriting focuses on

domestic topicsWrite in 3rd PersonWrite longer pieces

with more adjectivesMore ConfidentViewed as better

writers by both boys and girls

Learning Disabilities


Students with learning disabilities possess more limited metacognitive awareness of the knowledge, skills, and strategies necessary to be good writers (Troia, 2006)Writing instruction that incorporates self-monitoring, goal

setting, and self-evaluation is important for these studentsThese students often:

Skip the planning stageHave problems generating and transcribing ideasDo not revise their work

These students with learning disabilities need:More time for writingIntensive, individualized and explicit instruction in self-

regulation skills and writing strategies (Troia, 2006)


A Process vs. Skills-Product Approach

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Mandated assessments, higher standards, and accountability issues cause some teachers to:Reduce time for writingTeach writing artificially Fragment the curriculum (Strickland et al.,2001)

In some classrooms, the focus is away from the writing process and toward writing skills and the written product

Proponents of a process approach to writing instruction are criticized for overlooking direct instruction, conventions, and legibility

A skills-product approach is criticized for its teacher centeredness and tendency to overlook student motivation, purpose, and voice

Good writers need simultaneous opportunities to engage in the process and to learn the skills of writing


Structure & Freedom

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A 10-year study of students from third grade to high school graduation was conducted by Casey and Hemenway (2001)

They found that a balance between structure and freedom results in “more dynamic writers excited about their abilities” (p.68)

Their study suggests that instruction that is intentional, socially interactive and authentic builds a bridge between structure and freedom that supports good writing


BEST PRACTICES IN WRITING

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Three areas should be included in a best practices writing program:

1. Context for Writing2. Intentional Writing Instruction3. Writing Assessment


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CONTEXT FOR WRITING


CONTEXT FOR WRITING

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A context or environment for writing that includes individual, physical, and social aspects that affect instruction is critical to best-practices instruction

The individual teacher’s attitude and commitment are critical!For example, when teachers identify and commit to improving student

writing as a school-wide goal, the focus of professional development efforts can be on writing

Teachers can… Study writing Have conversations about students’ writing Analyze writing tests and test results to see what students do and don’t do Develop writing curriculaCreate a vision of exemplary student performance and specify criteria for it


CONTEXT FOR WRITING

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A starting point for teaching writing well is to examine present practices with questions like these:What choices do my students have in their writing? How much and what kind of writing do they do daily?Who do my students write for besides me? What other

audiences do they have?Who gives students feedback on their writing? Are they writing in a variety of formats in all content areas? How do I use the writing process? What kind of direct

instruction do I provide? What opportunities do I provide students to use word

processors and e-mail?


SELF-EVALUATION

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Self-evaluation is important because it encourages students to take responsibility for their own writing progress

Periodic self-evaluation with questions like these also helps students reflect and set goals for themselves:What do I do well as a writer? What is one thing I have learned most recently as a writer? What do I need to learn to be a better writer?


WRITING WORKSHOP

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Writing workshops should include:Mini-lessonsWork time for writingPeer conferring and/or response groupsShare sessionsPublication celebrations (Calkins, 1994)

Spend an hour a day in writing workshops that include a brief lesson on a demonstrated need of a group of students (Atwell, 1998, 2002 and Fletcher and Portaluppi, 2001)


LITERATURE IN WRITING

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Spend time sharing and discussing a well-written piece of literature to help students improve their writing and learn to respond to a piece of work

Integrate writing with content-area learning so students are writing to learn as they are learning to write


What About ELLs?

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Encourage buddy reading, discussion, and collaborative writingThis is particularly helpful for students who may

have ideas to contribute but who may not yet have the language skills, motivation, or confidence to write without this stimulation

Working in pairs with students who possess strong skills supports and encourages students who are learning English and those who struggle to develop their abilities


A WRITING COMMUNITY

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Establishing a writing community in the classroom and school builds a social context and improves student writingCalling students “authors” and “writers” can have a

positive effect on how students view themselves, and on whether and how they write

Posting the writing of every student in the class validates (and motivates) them as writers as well

Inviting authors and illustrators of children’s books to share their work with students can nudge even the most reluctant writer to write

The entire school can study the work of an author before a visit so students know the author’s style and content and can interact in substantive ways with him or her


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INTENTIONAL WRITING INSTRUCTION


INTENTIONAL WRITING

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Writers need direct intentional instruction in writing as well as time to write (Tompkins, 2007)

Students must learn how to use the traits of writing effectively: Ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency,

conventions, and presentation (Culham, 2003)

They need opportunities for enough instruction, guidance, and practice to allow them to become accomplished

Good writing teachers balance writing process and product as they celebrate and encourage clarity of meaning, creativity, and standard English

NCTE promotes teaching standard conventions and correctness by having students edit their own writing (Brozo, 2003)


INTENTIONAL WRITING

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Alternatives to isolated grammar instruction include:Teaching grammar during writing instructionHaving grammar debatesTeaching students to use style manualsCreating assignments that require writing for

real audiencesStudying grammar controversies (Dunn & Lindblom, 2003)

Teachers must… Engage students in the writing process Teach and discuss word usage Teach students to construct sentences using their own workStudents can learn to use grammar and improve their writing


INTENTIONAL WRITING

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Incorporate direct instruction into composing and the conventions of grammar, spelling, form, and handwriting into writing workshops (Peterson, 2000)

Teaching terms like purpose, audience, form, voice, noun, verb, and adjective gives students a common vocabulary for discussing and improving their writing

Sentence construction, grammar, and usage make sense to students when they are writing for a real audience

“Fix-the-error exercises” teach specific grammar skills with examples from real literature with which students are familiar (Kane, 1997)


INTENTIONAL WRITING

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A mini-lesson is an effective way for teachers to share a piece of writing as a model to demonstrate what good writing looks and sounds like (Calkins, 1994; McElveen & Dierking, 2001)

Reading and listening to literature also helps students think like writers and write with an audience in mind

Good narrative and expository writing lets students see how an author holds readers’ attention and uses conventions Students then begin to use this knowledge in their own writing

Writing teachers need to be writers themselves


GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

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Graphic organizers: Are visual representations of information that show

relationships and contain key vocabulary They make excellent planning tools for writing

(Bromley, 2006; Irwin-DeVitis, Bromley, & Modlo, 1999)

Appear on many mandated tests, thus making it important that even young students learn to use them

Support inquiry through visual cluesAre particularly useful for students learning English or

those with learning disabilities in literacy because:They simplify informationUse key wordsHelp organize ideas before writing


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WRITING ASSESSMENT


WRITING ASSESSMENT

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Writing instruction has improved dramatically over the past several decades

Much of this improvement can be attributed to better writing assessments that inform more effective writing instructionOf course, not all writing needs formal assessment but,

whether formal or informal, assessment should be ongoingPortfolios, rubrics, and checklists offer opportunities for

writing assessment by both students and teachersStudents often keep their writing in all its stages in writing

folders or portfoliosThis collection of work creates a record of student progress

and can show a student’s growth as a writer


YOUNG WRITERS

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Just saying “Great job!” or “Need to improve” does not help young students know how to be better writers

Young students need feedback on the important aspects of communicating effectively, and a basic checklist or rubric can provide this feedbackSee Figures 12.1 and 12.2 on p. 308-309 in

Best Practices in Literacy Instruction More sophisticated rubrics are

appropriate for older students


PEER ASSESSMENT

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Peers can assess one another’s written work and provide feedback In addition to conferencing with students one-on-one, use

peer conferences to give students real and immediate audience feedback on their work

When students read his/her work to a peer or hears it read to him/her, the student can more easily discover what to revise

Use a checklist when conferencing with students during writing workshops to more effectively and consistently assess and improve writing


SELF ASSESSMENT

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Along with writing portfolios, rubrics, checklists, peer feedback, and conferencingStudents must become accurate in self-assessment

Students must regularly ask questions about their writingSelf-assessment should be ongoing because

students improve as writers when they regularly examine their work with an eye toward making it more organized, fluent, and clear


CONCLUSIONS

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Ongoing technology and the digital world continue to transform writingWriting practices in classrooms of the future will need to reflect

the roles that the internet, computers and smart devices increasingly play in writing that occurs out of school and at work

The “new” literacies of e-mail, text messaging, and Twitter do not always conform to standard grammar, spelling, or punctuation, however…Students must still possess basic skills in

the conventions of standard English in order to succeed in many aspects of the adult world


CONCLUSIONS

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Accountability, mandates, and tests will undoubtedly continue to affect what and how writing is taught

Teachers must therefore be:FlexibleOpen to collaboration with othersCreative in blending out-of-school literacies with in-school writing

Research is needed that examines technology, writing, and best-practices instruction for increasingly diverse classrooms

We must fundamentally understand what ‘sound’ instruction looks like for students who differ in cultural, ethnic, language, learning backgrounds, and gender

Documents

Week 6 Best Practices in Teaching Writing