Unit IChapter 1POPULATIONDistribution, Density, Growthand CompositionThe people are very important component of a country. India is the second most populous country after China in the world with its total population of 1,028 million (2001). India’s population is larger than the total population of North America, South America and Australia put together. More often, it is argued that such a large population invariably puts pressure on its limited resources and is also responsible for many socio-economic problems in the country.How do you perceive the idea of India? Is it simply a territory? Does this signify an amalgam of people? Is it a territory inhabited by people living under certain institutions of governance?In this chapter, we will discuss the patterns of distribution, density, growth and composition of India’s population.Sources of Population DataPopulation data are collected throughCensus operation held every 10 years in our

country. The first population Census in India was conducted in 1872 but its first complete Census was conducted only in 1881.Distribution of PopulationExamine Fig. 1.1 and try to describe the patterns of spatial distribution of population shown on it. It is clear that India has a highly uneven pattern of population distribution. The percentage shares of population of the states and Union Territories in the country (Appendix –iA) show that Uttar Pradesh has the highest population followed by Maharashtra, Bihar andWest Bengal.Looking at the data in Appendix (i) and iA arrange theIndian states and union territories according to theirsizes and population and find out :2015-162 India : People and EconomyFig. 1.1 : India – Distribution of Population2015-16

Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition 3States/UTs of large size and large population States/UTs of large size but small population States/UTs of smaller size but larger populationCheck from the table (Appendix–iA) that U.P., Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh along with Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Gujarat, together account for about 76 per cent of the total population of the country. On the other hand, share of population is very small in the states like Jammu & Kashmir (1.04%), Arunachal Pradesh (0.11%) and Uttarakhand(0.84%) inspite of theses states having fairlylarge geographical area.Such an uneven spatial distribution of population in India suggests a close relationshipbetween population and physical, socioeconomicand historical factors. As far as the physical factors are concerned, it is clear that climate along with terrain and availability ofwater largely determines the pattern of thepopulation distribution. Consequently, we

observe that the North Indian Plains, deltas andCoastal Plains have higher proportion ofpopulation than the interior districts of southernand central Indian States, Himalayas, some ofthe north eastern and the western states.However, development of irrigation (Rajasthan),availability of mineral and energy resources(Jharkhand) and development of transportnetwork (Peninsular States) have resulted inmoderate to high concentration of populationin areas which were previously very thinlypopulated.Among the socio-economic and historicalfactors of distribution of population, importantones are evolution of settled agriculture andagricultural development; pattern of humansettlement; development of transport network,industrialisation and urbanisation. It isobserved that the regions falling in the riverplains and coastal areas of India have remainedthe regions of larger population concentration.Even though the uses of natural resources likeland and water in these regions have shownthe sign of degradation, the concentration ofpopulation remains high because of an early

history of human settlement and developmentof transport network. On the other hand, theurban regions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,Bangalore, Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai andJaipur have high concentration of populationdue to industrial development andurbanisation drawing a large numbers ofrural-urban migrants.Density of PopulationDensity of population, is expressed as numberof persons per unit area. It helps in getting a better understanding of the spatial distributionof population in relation to land. The density ofpopulation in India (2011) is 382 persons persq km. There has been a steady increase of morethan 200 persons per sq km over the last 50years as the density of population increasedfrom 117 persons/ sq km in 1951 to 382persons/sq km in 2011.The data shown in Appendix (i)A give anidea of spatial variation of population densitiesin the country which ranges from as low as 17persons per sq km in Arunachal Pradesh to11,320 persons in the National Capital Territoryof Delhi. Among the northern Indian States,Bihar (1106), West Bengal (1028) and and Uttar

Pradesh (829) have higher densities, whileKerala (860) and Tamil Nadu (555) have higherdensities among the peninsular Indian states.States like Assam, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,Haryana, Jharkhand, Odisha have moderatedensities. The hill states of the Himalayan regionand North eastern states of India (excludingAssam) have relatively low densities while theUnion Territories (excluding Andaman andNicobar islands) have very high densities ofpopulation (Appendix–iA).The density of population, as discussedin the earlier paragraph, is a crude measureof human and land relationship. To get a betterinsight into the human-land ratio in terms ofpressure of population on total cultivable land,the physiological and the agricultural densitiesshould be found out which are significant fora country like India having a large agriculturalpopulation.2015-164 India : People and EconomyFig. 1.2 : India – Density of PopulationActivity: Construct a choropleth map to represent Density of population in India-2011 based on data given inAppendix– iA and compare that with the above map.2015-16

Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition 5Physiological density = total population /net cultivated areaAgricultural density = total agriculturalpopulation / net cultivable areaAgricultural population includes cultivatorsand agricultural labourers and their familymembers.With the help of data given in Appendix (ii), Calculatethe Physiological and Agricultural densities ofpopulation of Indian States and Union Territories.Compare them with density of population and see howare these different?Growth of PopulationGrowth of population is the change in the

number of people living in a particular areabetween two points of time. Its rate is expressedin percentage. Population growth has twocomponents namely; natural and induced.While the natural growth is analysed byassessing the crude birth and death rates, theinduced components are explained by thevolume of inward and outward movement ofpeople in any given area. However, in thepresent chapter, we will only discuss thenatural growth of India’s population.The decadal and annual growth rates ofpopulation in India are both very high andsteadily increasing over time. The annualgrowth rate of India’s population is 1.64 percent (2011).Population Doubling TimePopulation doubling time is the time takenby any population to double itself at itscurrent annual growth rate.The growth rate of population in India overthe last one century has been caused by annualbirth rate and death rate and rate of migrationand thereby shows different trends. There are

four distinct phases of growth identified withinthis period:* Decadal growth rate: 2 12p -pg = ×100pwhere P1 = population of the base yearP2 = population of the present year** Source : Census of India, 2011(Provisional)Table 1.1 : Decadal Growth Rates in India, 1901-2001Census Total Population Growth Rate*Years Absolute Number % of Growth1901 238396327 ------------ ------------1911 252093390 (+) 13697063 (+) 5.751921 251321213 (-) 772117 (-) 0.311931 278977238 (+) 27656025 (+) 11.601941 318660580 (+) 39683342 (+) 14.221951 361088090 (+) 42420485 (+) 13.311961 439234771 (+) 77682873 (+) 21.511971 548159652 (+) 108924881 (+) 24.801981 683329097 (+) 135169445 (+) 24.661991 846302688 (+) 162973591 (+) 23.852001 1028610328 (+) 182307640 (+) 21.542011** 1210193422 (+) 181583094 (+) 17.642015-166 India : People and EconomyFig. 1.3 : India – Growth of Population

Activity: Construct a choropleth map to represent Growth of population in India (2001-2011) based on data given inAppendix– iA and compare it with the above map.2015-16Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition 7Phase I : The period from 1901-1921 isreferred to as a period of stagnantor stationary phase of growth ofIndia’s population, since in thisperiod growth rate was very low,even recording a negative growthrate during 1911-1921. Both thebirth rate and death rate were highkeeping the rate of increase low(Appendix–iii). Poor health andmedical services, illiteracy of peopleat large and inefficient distributionsystem of food and other basicnecessities were largely responsiblefor a high birth and death rates inthis period.Phase II : The decades 1921-1951 arereferred to as the period of steadypopulation growth. An overallimprovement in health andsanitation throughout the countrybrought down the mortality rate. At

the same time better transport andcommunication system improveddistribution system. The crudebirth rate remained high in thisperiod leading to higher growth ratethan the previous phase. This isimpressive at the backdrop of GreatEconomic Depression, 1920s andWorld War II.Phase III : The decades 1951-1981 arereferred to as the period ofpopulation explosion in India,which was caused by a rapid fallin the mortality rate but a highfertility rate of population in thecountry. The average annualgrowth rate was as high as 2.2 percent. It is in this period, after theIndependence, that developmentalactivities were introduced througha centralised planning process andeconomy started showing upensuring the improvement of livingcondition of people at large.Consequently, there was a highnatural increase and higher growthrate. Besides, increasedinternational migration bringing in

Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepaliesand even people from Pakistancontributed to the high growth rate.Phase IV : In the post 1981 till present, thegrowth rate of country’s populationthough remained high, has startedslowing down gradually (Table 1.1).A downward trend of crude birthrate is held responsible for such apopulation growth. This was, inturn, affected by an increase in themean age at marriage, improvedquality of life particularly educationof females in the country.The growth rate of population is, however,still high in the country, and it has beenprojected by World Development Report thatpopulation of India will touch 1,350 million by2025.The analysis done so far shows the averagegrowth rate, but the country also has widevariation (Appendix–iv) in growth rates from onearea to another which is discussed below.Regional Variation inPopulation GrowthThe growth rate of population during 1991-2001 in Indian States and Union Territories

shows very obvious pattern.The States like Kerala, Karnataka, TamilNadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Puducherry,and Goa show a low rate of growth not exceeding20 per cent over the decade. Kerala registeredthe lowest growth rate (9.4) not only in this groupof states but also in the country as a whole.A continuous belt of states from west toeast in the north-west, north, and north centralparts of the country has relatively high growthrate than the southern states. It is in this beltcomprising Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan,Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand,Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal,Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand, the growthrate on the average remained 20-25 per cent.During 2001-2011, the growth rates ofalmost all States and Union Territories haveregistered a lower figure compared to theprevious decade, namely, 1991-2001. Thepercentage decadal growth rates of the six mostpopulous States, namely, Uttar Pradesh,Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra2015-168 India : People and Economy

Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have all fallenduring 2001-2011 compared to 1991-2001,the fall being the lowest for Andhra Pradesh(3.5% percentage points) and highest forMaharashtra (6.7 percentage points). TamilNadu (3.9 percentage points) and Puducherry(7.1 percentage points) have registered someincrease during 2001-2011 over the previousdecade.With the help of data given in Appendix i and iA, comparethe growth rate of population of different States/UTsbetween 1990-2001 and 2001-2011.Take the population growth data of the districts/selecteddistricts of your respective state for total male and femalepopulation and represent them with the help ofComposite Bar Graph.An important aspect of population growthin India is the growth of its adolescents. Atpresent the share of adolescents i.e., up to the

age group of 10-19 years is about 20.9 per cent(2011), among which male adolescentsconstitute 52.7 per cent and female adolescentsconstitute 47.3 per cent. The adolescentpopulation, though, regarded as the youthfulpopulation having high potentials, but at thesame time they are quite vulnerable if not guidedand channelised properly. There are manychallenges for the society as far as theseadolescents are concerned, some of which arelower age at marriage, illiteracy – particularlyfemale illiteracy, school dropouts, low intake ofnutrients, high rate of maternal mortality ofadolescent mothers, high rates of HIV/AIDSinfections, physical and mental disability orretardedness, drug abuse and alcoholism, juveniledelinquency and commitence of crimes, etc.In view of these, the Government of Indiahas undertaken certain policies to impartproper education to the adolescent groups sothat their talents are better channelised andproperly utilised. The National Youth Policy isone example which has been designed to lookinto the overall development of our large youth

and adolescent population.The National Youth Policy of Governmentof India, launched in 2003, stresses on an allroundimprovement of the youth andadolescents enabling them to shoulderresponsibility towards constructivedevelopment of the country. It also aims atreinforcing the qualities of patriotism andresponsible citizenship.The thrust of this policy is youthempowerment in terms of their effectiveparticipation in decision making and carryingthe responsibility of an able leader. Specialemphasis was given in empowering women andgirl child to bring parity in the male-femalestatus. Moreover, deliberate efforts were madeto look into youth health, sports and recreation,creativity and awareness about new innovationsin the spheres of science and technology.It appears from the above discussion thatthe growth rate of population is widely variantover space and time in the country and alsohighlights various social problems related to the

growth of population. However, in order to havea better insight into the growth pattern ofpopulation it is also necessary to look into thesocial composition of population.Population CompositionPopulation composition is a distinct field ofstudy within population geography with a vastcoverage of analysis of age and sex, place ofresidence, ethnic characteristics, tribes,language, religion, marital status, literacy andeducation, occupational characteristics, etc. Inthis section, the composition of Indianpopulation with respect to their rural-urbancharacteristics, language, religion and patternof occupation will be discussed.Rural – Urban CompositionComposition of population by their respectiveplaces of residence is an important indicator ofsocial and economic characteristics. This becomeseven more significant for a country where about68.8 per cent of its total population lives in village(2011).2015-16

Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition 9Compare the data given in Appendix (iv) and iv Acalculate the percentages of rural population of thestates in India and represent them cartographically ona map of India.Do you know that India has 640,867villages according to the Census 2011 out ofwhich 597,608 (93.2 per cent) are inhabitedvillages? However, the distribution of ruralpopulation is not uniform throughout thecountry. You might have noted that the stateslike Bihar and Sikkim have very highpercentage of rural population. The states ofGoa and Maharashtra have only little over halfof their total population residing in villages.The Union Territories, on the other hand,have smaller proportion of rural population,except Dadra and Nagar Haveli (53.38 per cent).The size of villages also varies considerably. Itis less than 200 persons in the hill states ofnorth-eastern India, Western Rajasthan and

Rann of Kuchchh and as high as 17 thousandpersons in the states of Kerala and in parts ofMaharashtra. A thorough examination of thepattern of distribution of rural population ofIndia reveals that both at intra-State and inter-State levels, the relative degree of urbanisationand extent of rural-urban migration regulatethe concentration of rural population.You have noted that contrary to ruralpopulation, the proportion of urban population(31.16 per cent) in India is quite low but it isshowing a much faster rate of growth over thedecades. The growth rate of urban populationhas accelerated due to enhanced economicdevelopment and improvement in health andhygienic conditions.The distribution of urban population too,as in the case of total population, has a widevariation throughout the country (Appendix–iv).Compare the data of Appendix (iv) and iv A and identifythe states/UTs with very high and very low proportion ofurban population.It is, however, noticed that in almost all

the states and Union Territories, there has beena considerable increase of urban population.This indicates both development of urban areasin terms of socio-economic conditions and anincreased rate of rural-urban migration. Therural-urban migration is conspicuous in thecase of urban areas along the main road linksand railroads in the North Indian Plains, theindustrial areas around Kolkata, Mumbai,Bengaluru – Mysuru, Madurai – Coimbatore,Ahmedabad – Surat, Delhi – Kanpur andLudhiana – Jalandhar. In the agriculturallystagnant parts of the middle and lower GangaPlains, Telengana, non-irrigated WesternRajasthan, remote hilly, tribal areas of northeast,along the flood prone areas of PeninsularIndia and along eastern part of MadhyaPradesh, the degree of urbanisation hasremained low.Linguistic CompositionIndia is a land of linguistic diversity. Accordingto Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 1903 –1928) there were 179 languages and as manyas 544 dialects in the country. In the context ofmodern India, there are about 22 scheduledlanguages and a number of non-scheduled

languages. See how many languages appearon a ten Rs note. Among the scheduledlanguages, the speakers of Hindi have thehighest percentage. The smallest languagegroups are Kashmiri and Sanskrit speakers.However, it is noticed that the linguistic regionsin the country do not maintain a sharp anddistinct boundary, rather they gradually mergeand overlap in their respective border zones.Linguistic ClassificationThe speakers of major Indian languagesbelong to four language families, which havetheir sub-families and branches or groups.This can be better understood from Table 1.2.Religious CompositionReligion is one of the most dominant forcesaffecting the cultural and political life of the mostof Indians. Since religion virtually permeatesinto almost all the aspects of people’s family andcommunity lives, it is important to study thereligious composition in detail.2015-1610 India : People and EconomyMuslims, the largest religious minority, areconcentrated in Jammu & Kashmir, certaindistricts of West Bengal and Kerala, many

districts of Uttar Pradesh , in and around Delhiand in Lakshadweep. They form majority inKashmir valley and Lakshadweep.Family Sub-Family Branch/Group Speech AreasAustric(Nishada)1.38%Austro-Asiatic Mon-Khmer Meghalaya, Nicobar IslandsMunda West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Assam,Madhya Pradesh, MaharashtraAustro- Nesian Outside IndiaSouth-Dravidian Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, KeralaCentral Dravidian Andhra Pradesh, M.P., Orissa,MaharashtraDravidian(Dravida)20% North Dravidian Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal,Madhya PradeshSino-Tibetan(Kirata)0.85%Tibeto – Myanmari Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,SikkimTibeto-HimalayanNorth Assam Arunachal PradeshSiamese-Chinese Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram,Tripura, MeghalayaAssam- Myanmari

Indo –European(Aryan) 73%Indo-Aryan Iranian Outside IndiaDardic Jammu & KashmirJammu & Kashmir, Punjab, HimachalPradesh, U.P., Rajasthan, Haryana, M.P.,Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam,Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa.Indo-AryanTable 1.2 : Classification of Modern Indian LanguagesSource : Ahmed, A. (1999) : Social Geography, Rawat Publication, New DelhiThe spatial distribution of religiouscommunities in the country (Appendix–v) showsthat there are certain states and districts havinglarge numerical strength of one religion, whilethe same may be very negligibly represented inother states.Hindus are distributed as a major group inmany states (ranging from 70 - 90 per cent andabove) except the districts of states along Indo-Bangladesh border, Indo-Pak border, Jammu &

Kashmir, Hill States of North-East and in scatteredareas of Deccan Plateau and Ganga Plain.Look at Table 1.2 and prepare a pie diagram of linguisticcomposition of India showing the sectoral shares ofeach linguistic group.OrPrepare a qualitative symbol map of India showing thedistribution of different linguistic groups in the country.Table 1.3 : Religious Communities of India, 2001Religious 2001Groups Population % of Total(in million)Hindus 827.6 80.5Muslims 138.2 13.5Christians 24.1 2.3Sikhs 19.2 1.9Buddhists 8.0 0.9Jains 4.2 0.4Others 6.6 0.62015-16

Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition 11The Christian population is distributedmostly in rural areas of the country. The mainconcentration is observed along the Westerncoast around Goa, Kerala and also in the hillstates of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,Chotanagpur area and Hills of Manipur.Sikhs are mostly concentrated in relativelysmall area of the country, particularly in thestates of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi.Jains and Buddhists, the smallest religiousgroups in India have their concentration onlyin selected areas of the country. Jains havemajor concentration in the urban areas ofRajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra, while theBuddhists are concentrated mostly inMaharashtra. The other areas of Buddhistmajority are Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir, Tripura, andLahul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh.The other religions of India includeZoroastrians, tribal and other indigenous faithsand beliefs. These groups are concentrated insmall pockets scattered throughout the country.Composition of Working PopulationThe population of India according to their

economic status is divided into three groups,namely; main workers, marginal workers andnon-workers.It is observed that in India, the proportionof workers (both main and marginal) is only 39.8per cent (2011) leaving a vast majority of about60 per cent as non-workers. This indicates aneconomic status in which there is a largerproportion of dependent population, furtherindicating possible existence of large number ofunemployed or under employed people.What is work participation rate?The proportion of working population, ofthe states and Union Territories show amoderate variation from about 39.6 per cent inGoa to about 49.9 per cent in Daman and Diu.The states with larger percentages of workersare Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh,Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, ArunachalPradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya.Among the Union Territories, Dadra and NagarHaveli and Daman and Diu have higherparticipation rate. It is understood that, in thecontext of a country like India, the work

participation rate tends to be higher in the areasof lower levels of economic development sincenumber of manual workers are needed toperform the subsistence or near subsistenceeconomic activities.The occupational composition (see box)of India’s population (which actually meansengagement of an individual in farming,manufacturing trade, services or any kind ofprofessional activities) shows a large proportionof primary sector workers compared tosecondary and tertiary sectors. About 54.6 percent of total working population are cultivatorsand agricultural labourers, whereas only 3.8%of workers are engaged in household industriesand 41.6 % are other workers including nonhouseholdindustries, trade, commerce,construction and repair and other services. Asfar as the occupation of country’s male andfemale population is concerned, male workersout-number female workers in all the threesectors (Fig.1.4 and Table 1.4).Religion and LandscapeFormal expression of religions on

landscape is manifested through sacredstructures, use of cemetries andassemblages of plants and animals, grovesof trees for religious purposes. Sacredstructures are widely distributed throughoutthe country. These may range frominconspicuous village shrines to large Hindutemples, monumental masjids or ornatelydesigned cathedrals in large metropolitancities. These temples, masjids, gurudwaras,monastries and churches differ in size,form, space – use and density, whileattributing a special dimension to the totallandscape of the area.

Standard Census DefinitionMain Worker is a person who works foratleast 183 days ( or six months) in a year.Marginal Worker is a person who works forless than 183 days ( or six months) in a year.2015-1612 India : People and EconomyFig. 1.4 : India – Occupational Structure, 2011Identify some issues in whichIndia is ahead of or laggingbehind its neighbours.2015-16Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition 13Categories PopulationPersons % to Male FemaletotalWorkersPrimary 26,30,22,473 54.6 16,54,47,075 9,75,75,398Secondary 1,83,36,307 3.8 97,75,635 85,60,672Tertiary 20,03,84,531 41.6 15,66,43,220 4,37,41,311

Table 1.4 : Sectoral Composition of work force in India, 2011Occupational CategoriesThe 2001 Census has divided the workingpopulation of India into four major categories:1. Cultivators2. Agricultural Labourers3. Household Industrial Workers4. Other Workers.The number of female workers is relativelyhigh in primary sector, though in recent yearsthere has been some improvement in workparticipation of women in secondary andtertiary sectors.It is important to note that the proportionof workers in agricultural sector in India hasshown a decline over the last few decades (58.2%in 2001 to 54.6% in 2011). Consequently, theparticipation rate in secondary and tertiary sectorhas registered an increase. This indicates a shiftof dependence of workers from farmbased

occupations to non-farmbased ones, indicating a sectoral shiftin the economy of the country.The spatial variation of workparticipation rate in different sectorsin the country (Appendix–v and vA)is very wide. For instance, the stateslike Himachal Pradesh and Nagalandhave very large shares of cultivators.On the other hand states like Bihar,Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengaland Madhya Pradesh have higher proportion ofagricultural labourers. The highly urbanisedareas like Delhi, Chandigarh and Puducherryhave a very large proportion of workers beingengaged in other services. This indicates not onlyavailability of limited farming land, but also largescale urbanisation and industrialisationrequiring more workers in non-farm sectors.EXERCISES1. Choose the right answers of the followings from the given options.(i) India’s population as per 2011 census is :(a) 1028 million (c) 3287 million(b) 3182 million (d) 1210 million

Prepare composite bar graphs, one for India and theother for your respective states showing the proportionof male and female workers in agriculture, householdindustries and other sectors, and compare.2015-1614 India : People and Economy(ii) Which one of the following states has the highest density of population inIndia?(a) West Bengal (c) Uttar Pradesh(b) Kerala (d) Punjab(iii) Which one of the following states has the highest proportion of urbanpopulation in India according to 2011 Census?(a) Tamil Nadu (c) Kerala(b) Maharashtra (d) Goa(iv) Which one of the following is the largest linguistic group of India?(a) Sino – Tibetan (c) Austric(b) Indo – Aryan (d) Dravidian2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) Very hot and dry and very cold and wet regions of India have low densityof population. In this light, explain the role of climate on the distributionof population.(ii) Which states have large rural population in India? Give one reason forsuch large rural population.(iii) Why do some states of India have higher rates of work participation thanothers?(iv) ‘The agricultural sector has the largest share of Indian workers.’ – Explain.3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) Discuss the spatial pattern of density of population in India.(ii) Give an account of the occupational structure of India’s population.2015-16Unit IChapter 2MIGRATIONTypes, Causes andConsequencesRam Babu, working as an engineer in BhilaiSteel Plant, Chhattisgarh, was born in a smallvillage of district Bhojpur, Bihar. At an early

age of twelve he moved to a nearby town Ara tocomplete his intermediate level studies. He wentto Sindri, Jharkhand for his engineering degreeand he got a job at Bhilai, where he is living forthe last 31 years. His parents were illiterate andthe only source of their livelihood was meagreincome from agriculture. They spent their wholelife in that village.Ram Babu has three children who got theireducation up to the intermediate level at Bhilaiand then moved to different places for highereducation. First one studied at Allahabad andMumbai and is presently working in Delhi as ascientist. The second child got her highereducation from different universities in Indiaand is now working in USA. The third one afterfinishing her education settled at Surat aftermarriage.This is not a story of only Ram Babu andhis children but such movements areincreasingly becoming universal trend. Peoplehave been moving from one village to another,from villages to towns, from smaller towns tobigger towns and from one country to another.

In your Book Fundamentals of HumanGeography you have already learnt about theconcept and definition of migration. Migrationhas been an integral part and a very importantfactor in redistributing population over timeand space. India has witnessed the waves ofmigrants coming to the country from Centraland West Asia and also from Southeast Asia.In fact, the history of India is a history of wavesof migrants coming and settling one afteranother in different parts of the country. In thewords of a renowned poet Firaque Gorakhpuri;SAR ZAMIN-E-HIND PAR AQWAM-E-ALAM KEFIRAQUECARVAN BASTE GAYE, HINDOSTAN BANTAGAYA(The carvans of people from all parts of theworld kept on coming and settling in India andled to the formation of India.)Similarly, large numbers of people fromIndia too have been migrating to places in search16 India : People and Economyof better opportunities specially to the countriesof the Middle-East, Western Europe, America,Australia and East and South East Asia.Indian Diaspora

During colonial period (British period)millions of the indentured labourers weresent to Mauritius, Caribbean islands(Trinidad, Tobago and Guyana), Fiji andSouth Africa by British from Uttar Pradeshand Bihar; to Reunion Island, Guadeloupe,Martinique and Surinam by French andDutch and by Portuguese from Goa, Damanand Diu to Angola, Mozambique to work asplantation workers. All such migrations werecovered under the time-bound contractknown as Girmit Act (Indian Emigration Act).However, the living conditions of theseindentured labourers were not better thanthe slaves.The second wave of migrants ventured out intothe neighbouring countries in recent times asprofessionals, artisans, traders and factoryworkers, in search of economic opportunitiesto Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia,Brunei and African countries, etc. and the

trend still continues. There was a steadyoutflow of India’s semi-skilled and skilled labourin the wake of the oil boom in West Asia inthe 1970s. There was also some outflow ofentrepreneurs, storeowners, professionals,businessmen to Western Countries.Third wave, of migrant was comprisedprofessionals like doctors, engineers (1960sonwards), software engineers, managementconsultants, financial experts, mediapersons (1980s onwards), and othersmigrated to countries such as USA, Canada,UK, Australia, New Zealand and Germany,etc. These professional enjoy the distinctionof being one of highly educated, the highestearning and prospering groups. Afterliberalisation, in the 90s education andknowledge–based Indian emigration hasmade Indian Diaspora one of the mostpowerful diasporas in the world.In all these countries, Indian diaspora hasbeen playing an important role in the

development of the respective countries.MigrationYou are familiar with Census in India. It containsinformation about migration in the country.Actually migration was recorded beginningfrom the first Census of India conducted in1881. This data were recorded on the basis ofplace of birth. However, the first majormodification was introduced in 1961 Censusby bringing in two additional components viz;place of birth i.e. village or town and durationof residence (if born elsewhere). Further in1971, additional information on place of lastresidence and duration of stay at the place ofenumeration were incorporated. Information onreasons for migration were incorporated in1981 Census and modified in consecutiveCensuses.In the Census the following questions areasked on migration :• Is the person born in this village ortown? If no, then further informationis taken on rural/urban status of theplace of birth, name of district and stateand if outside India then name of thecountry of birth.• Has the person come to this village or

town from elsewhere? If yes, thenfurther questions are asked about thestatus (rural/urban) of previous placeof residence, name of district and stateand if outside India then name of thecountry.In addition, reasons for migration from theplace of last residence and duration of residencein place of enumeration are also asked.In the Census of India migration isenumerated on two bases : (i) place of birth, ifthe place of birth is different from the place ofenumeration (known as life-time migrant);(ii) place of residence, if the place of lastresidence is different from the place ofenumeration (known as migrant by place of lastresidence). Can you imagine the proportion ofmigrants in the population of India? As per2001 census, out of 1,029 million people in thecountry, 307 million (30 per cent) were reportedas migrants by place of birth. However, thisfigure was 315 million (31 per cent) in case ofplace of last residence.Migration: Types, Causes and Consequences 17

Conduct a survey of five households in yourneighbourhood to find out their migration status. Ifmigrants, classify these on the basis of the two criteriamentioned in the text.Streams of MigrationA few facts pertaining to the internalmigration (within the country) andinternational migration (out of the countryand into the country from other countries)are presented here. Under the internalThe distribution of male and femalemigrants in different streams of intra-state andinter-state migration is presented inFig. 2.1 a and 2.1 b. It is clearly evident thatfemales predominate the streams of shortdistance rural to rural migration in both typesof migration. Contrary to this, men predominatethe rural to urban stream of inter-statemigration due to economic reasons.Apart from these streams of internalmigration, India also experiences immigrationfrom and emigration to the neighbouringcountries. Table 2.1 presents the details ofmigrants from neighbouring countries. Indian

migration, four streams are identified: (a)rural to rural (R-R); (b) rural to urban (R-U);(c) urban to urban (U-U); and (d) urban torural (U-R). In India, during 2001, out of315 million migrants, enumerated on thebasis of the last residence, 98 million hadchanged their place of residence in the lastten years. Out of these, 81 million were intrastatemigrants. The stream was dominatedby female migrants. Most of these weremigrants related to marriage.Census 2001 has recorded that more than 5million person have migrated to India fromother countries. Out of these, 96 per cent camefrom the neighbouring countries: Bangladesh(3.0 million) followed by Pakistan (0.9 million)and Nepal (0.5 million). Included in this are 0.16million refugees from T ibet, Sri Lanka,Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, andMyanmar. As far as emigration from India isconcerned it is estimated that there are around20 million people of Indian Diaspora, spreadacross 110 countries.Source: Census of India, 2001Fig. 2.1 a : Intra State Migration by Place ofLast Residence Indicating Migration Streams(Duration 0-9 years), India, 2001

Fig. 2.1 b : Inter State Migration by Place ofLast Residence Indicating Migration Streams(Duration 0-9 years), India, 2001Examine Fig. 2.1 a and 2.1 b showing intra-state and inter-state migration in India according to the Census 2001and find out:(i) Why are the numbers of females migrating from rural to rural areas in both the diagrams higher?(ii) Why is the male migration higher from rural to urban?18 India : People and EconomyCountries% No of % ofimmigrants totalimmigrantsTotal internationalmigration 5,155,423 100Migration fromneighbouringcountries 4,918,266 95.5Afghanistan 9,194 0.2Bangladesh 3,084,826 59.8Bhutan 8,337 0.2China 23,721 0.5Myanmar 49,086 1.0Nepal 596,696 11.6Pakistan 997,106 19.3Sri Lanka 149,300 2.9Table 2.1 : Immigrants by last residencefrom neighbouring countries by all

duration in India, 2001Source : Census of India, 2001Represent the data given in Table 2.1 by pie diagramsassuming the migration from neighbouring countries(4,918,266 persons as 100 per cent).Spatial Variation in MigrationSome states like Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat andHaryana attract migrants from other states suchas Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, etc. (see Appendix–vii fordetail). Maharashtra occupied first place in thelist with 2.3 million net in-migrants, followed byDelhi, Gujarat and Haryana. On the other hand,Uttar Pradesh (-2.6 million) and Bihar(-1.7 million) were the states, which had the largestnumber of net out-migrants from the state.Among the urban agglomeration (UA),Greater Mumbai received the higher number ofin migrants. Intra-states migration constitutedthe largest share in it. These differences arelargely due to the size of the state in which theseUrban Agglomeration are located.From the given news

items try to identifythe political andeconomic causes ofmigration.Migration: Types, Causes and Consequences 19Statewise in-migration and out-migration data are givenin Appendix (vii). Calculate net migration for all the statesof India.Causes of MigrationPeople, generally are emotionally attached totheir place of birth. But millions of people leavetheir places of birth and residence. There couldbe variety of reasons. These reasons can be putinto two broad categories : (i) push factor, thesecause people to leave their place of residence ororigin; and (ii) pull factors, which attract thepeople from different places.In India people migrate from rural to urbanareas mainly due to poverty, high populationpressure on the land, lack of basic infrastructuralfacilities like health care, education, etc. Apartfrom these factors, natural disasters such as,

flood, drought, cyclonic storms, earthquake,The four stories describe different situations of migrants.Enumerate the push and pull factors for Aarif?What are the pull factors for Mohan Singh?Study the story of Subbalakshmi and Manish Gawarkar. Compare their cases on the basis of types ofmigration, causes of migration and their living conditions.20 India : People and Economytsunami, wars and local conflicts also give extrapush to migrate. On the other hand, there arepull factors which attract people from rural areasto cities. The most important pull factor formajority of the rural migrants to urban areas isthe better opportunities, availability of regularwork and relatively higher wages. Betteropportunities for education, better healthfacilities and sources of entertainment, etc. arealso quite important pull factors.Examine the reasons for migration formales and females separately in Fig. 2.2. Onthe basis of the figures, it can be seen thatreason for migration of males and females are

different. For example, work and employmenthave remained the main cause for malemigration (38 per cent) while it is only three percent for the females. Contrary to this, about 65per cent of females move out from their parentalhouses following their marriage. This is themost important cause in the rural areas of Indiaexcept in Meghalaya where reverse is the case.Why is the female marriage migration lawin Meghalaya different?In comparison to these marriage migrationof the male, is only 2 per cent in the country.Consequences of MigrationMigration is a response to the unevendistribution of opportunities over space. Peopletend to move from place of low opportunity andlow safety to the place of higher opportunityand better safety. This, in turn, creates bothbenefits and problems for the areas, peoplemigrate from and migrate to. Consequences canbe observed in economic, social, cultural,political and demographic terms.Economic Consequences

A major benefit for the source region is theremittance sent by migrants. Remittances fromthe international migrants are one of the majorsources of foreign exchange. In 2002, Indiareceived US$ 11 billion as remittances frominternational migrants. Punjab, Kerala andTamil Nadu receive very significant amountfrom their international migrants. The amountof remittances sent by the internal migrants isvery meagre as compared to internationalmigrants, but it plays an important role in thegrowth of economy of the source area.Remittances are mainly used for food,repayment of debts, treatment, marriages,children’s education, agricultural inputs,construction of houses, etc. For thousands ofthe poor villages of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa,Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, etc.remittance works as life blood for their economy.Migration from rural areas of Eastern UttarPradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissato the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, WesternUttar Pradesh accounted for the success of theirgreen revolution strategy for agriculturaldevelopment. Besides this, unregulated

migration to the metropolitan cities of India hascaused overcrowding. Development of slums inindustrially developed states such asMaharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Naduand Delhi is a negative consequence ofunregulated migration within the country.Can you name some other positive andnegative consequences of migration?Demographic ConsequencesMigration leads to the redistribution of thepopulation within a country. Rural urbanmigration is one of the important factorscontributing to the population growth of cities.Age and skill selective out migration from therural area have adverse effect on the ruraldemographic structure. However, high outmigration from Uttaranchal, Rajasthan,Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Maharashtrahave brought serious imbalances in age andsex composition in these states. Similarimbalances are also brought in the recipientsstates. What is the cause of imbalance in sexratio in the place of origin and destination ofthe migrants?Social ConsequencesMigrants act as agents of social change. Thenew ideas related to new technologies, family

Migration: Types, Causes and Consequences 21planning, girl’s education, etc. get diffused fromurban to rural areas through them.Migration leads to intermixing of peoplefrom diverse cultures. It has positivecontribution such as evolution of compositeculture and breaking through the narrowconsiderations and widens up the mentalhorizon of the people at large. But it also hasserious negative consequences such asanonimity, which creates social vacuum andsense of dejection among individuals.Continued feeling of dejection may motivatepeople to fall in the trap of anti-social activitieslike crime and drug abuse.Environmental ConsequencesOvercrowding of people due to rural-urbanmigration has put pressure on the existingsocial and physical infrastructure in the urbanareas. This ultimately leads to unplannedgrowth of urban settlement and formation ofslums shanty colonies.Apart from this, due to over-exploitationof natural resources, cities are facing the acuteproblem of depletion of ground water, airpollution, disposal of sewage and management

of solid wastes.OthersMigration (even excluding the marriagemigration) affects the status of women directlyor indirectly. In the rural areas, male selectiveout migration leaving their wives behind putsextra physical as well mental pressure on thewomen. Migration of ‘women’ either foreducation or employment enhances theirautonomy and role in the economy but alsoincreases their vulnerability.If remittances are the major benefits ofmigration from the point of view of the sourceregion, the loss of human resourcesparticularly highly skilled people is the mostserious cost. The market for advanced skillshas become truly a global market and themost dynamic industrial economies areadmitting and recruiting significantproportions of the highly trained professionalsfrom poor regions. Consequently, the existingunderdevelopment in the source region getsreinforced.Fig. 2.2 a : Reasons for Male Migration by LastResidence with Duration (0-9 years), India, 2001Fig. 2.2 b : Reasons for Female Migration by lastResidence with Duration (0-9 years), India, 200122 India : People and Economy

EXERCISES1 . Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.(i) Which one of the following is the main reason for male migration in India?(a) Education (c) Work and employment(b) Business (d) Marriage(ii) Which one of the following states receives maximum number ofimmigrants?(a) Uttar Pradesh (c) Maharashtra(b) Delhi (d) Bihar(iii) Which one of the following streams is dominated by male migrants inIndia?(a) Rural-rural (c) Rural-urban(b) Urban-rural (d) Urban-Urban(iv) Which one of the following urban agglomeration has the highest share ofin migrant population?(a) Mumbai UA (c) Bangalore UA(b) Delhi UA (d) Chennai UA2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) Differentiate between life-time migrant and migrant by last residence.(ii) Identify the main reason for male/female selective migration.

(iii) What is the impact of rural-urban migration on the age and sex structureof the place of origin and destination?3 . Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) Discuss the consequences of international migration in India.(ii) What are the socio demographic consequences of migration?Unit IChapter 3H U M A NDEVELOPMENTSixty years ago, Rekha was born in a family ofsmall farmer in Uttarakhand. She helped hermother in household chores. While her brotherswent to school, she did not receive anyeducation. She was dependent on her in lawsafter she was widowed immediately aftermarriage. She could not be economicallyindependent and faced neglect. Her brotherhelped her to migrate to Delhi.For the first time, she travelled by bus andtrain and was exposed to a large city like Delhi.After a while, the same city which attracted herwith its buildings, roads, avenues and facilitiesand amenities disillusioned her.

With greater familiarity of the city, shecould comprehend the paradoxes. The jhuggiand slum clusters, traffic jams, congestion,crimes, poverty, small children begging ontraffic lights, people sleeping on footpaths,polluted water and air revealed another face ofdevelopment. She used to think whetherdevelopment and under-development coexist?Whether development help some segments ofpopulation more than the other? Doesdevelopment create haves and have nots? Letus examine these paradoxes and try tounderstand the phenomena.Of all the paradoxes of our timesmentioned in the story, development is the mostsignificant one. Development of a few regions,individuals brought about in a short span oftime leads to poverty and malnutrition for manyalong with large scale ecological degradation.Is development class biased?Apparently, it is believed that“Development is freedom” which is oftenassociated with modernisation, leisure, comfortand affluence. In the present context,computerisation, industrialisation, efficienttransport and communication network, large

education system, advanced and modernmedical facilities, safety and security ofindividuals, etc. are considered as the symbolsof development. Every individual, communityand government measures its performance orlevels of development in relation to theavailability and access to some of these things.But, this may be partial and one-sided view ofdevelopment. It is often called the western oreuro-centric view of development. For a24 India : People and Economyexistence of our society. Consequently, the poorare being subjected to three inter-relatedprocesses of declining capabilities; i.e. (1) socialcapabilities – due to displacement andweakening social ties (social capital),(2) environmental capabilities – due to pollutionand, (3) personal capabilities – due toincreasing incidence of diseases and accidents.This, in turn, has adverse effects on their qualityof life and human development.Based on the above experiences, it can besaid that the present development has not been

able to address the issues of social injustice,regional imbalances and environmentaldegradation. On the contrary, it is being widelyconsidered as the prime cause of the socialdistributive injustices, deterioration in thequality of life and human development,ecological crisis and social unrest. Doesdevelopment create, reinforce and perpetuatethese crises? Thus, it was thought to take uphuman development as a separate issue againstthe prevalent western views of developmentwhich considers development as the remedy toall the ills including human development,regional disparities and environmental crisis.Concerted efforts were made to look atdevelopment critically at various times in thepast. But, most systematic effort towards thiswas the publication of the First HumanDevelopment Report by United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP) in 1990.Since then, this organisation has been bringingout World Human Development Report everyyear. This report does not only define humandevelopment, make amendments and changesits indicators but also ranks all the countriespostcolonial country like India, colonisation,marginalisation, social discrimination and

regional disparity, etc. show the other face ofdevelopment.Thus, for India, development is a mixedbag of opportunities as well as neglect anddeprivations. There are a few areas like themetropolitan centres and other developedenclaves that have all the modern facilitiesavailable to a small section of its population. Atthe other extreme of it, there are large ruralareas and the slums in the urban areas that donot have basic amenities like potable water,education and health infrastructure availableto majority of this population. The situation ismore alarming if one looks at the distributionof the development opportunities amongdifferent sections of our society. It is a wellestablishedfact that majority of the scheduledcastes, scheduled tribes, landless agriculturallabourers, poor farmers and slums dwellers, etc.are the most marginalised lot. A large segmentof female population is the worst sufferersamong all. It is also equally true that the relativeas well as absolute conditions of the majorityof these marginalised sections have worsened

with the development happening over the years.Consequently, vast majority of people arecompelled to live under abject poverty and subhumanconditions.There is yet another inter-related aspectof development that has direct bearings on thedeteriorating human conditions. It pertains tothe environmental pollution leading toecological crisis. Air, soil, water and noisepollutions have not only led to the ‘tragedy ofcommons’ but these have also threatened theWhat is Human Development?“Human development is a process of enlarging the range of people’s choices, increasing theiropportunities for education, health care, income and empowerment and covering the full range ofhuman choices from a sound physical environment to economic, social and political freedom.”Thus, enlarging the range of people’s choices is the most significant aspect of human development.People’s choices may involve a host of other issues, but, living a long and healthy life, to be educated

and have access to resources needed for a decent standard of living including political freedom,guaranteed human rights and personal self-respect, etc. are considered some of the non-negotiableaspects of the human development.Human Development 25of the world based on the calculated scores.According to the Human Development Report1993, “progressive democratisation andincreasing empowerment of people are seen asthe minimum conditions for humandevelopment”. Moreover, it also mentions that“development must be woven around people,not the people around development” as was thecase previously.You have already studied the concepts,indicators and approaches to humandevelopment and methods of calculating theindex in your book, “Fundamentals of HumanGeography.” In this chapter, let us try tounderstand the applicability of these conceptsand indicators to India.Human Development in IndiaIndia with a population of over 1.09 billion isranked 127 among 172 countries of the world

in terms of the Human Development Index(HDI). With the composite HDI value of O.602India finds herself grouped with countriesshowing medium human development(UNDP 2005).Low scores in the HDI is a matter of seriousconcern but, some reservations have beenexpressed about the approach as well asindicators selected to calculate the index valuesand ranking of the states/countries. Lack ofsensitivity to the historical factors likecolonisation, imperialism and neo-imperialism,socio-cultural factors like human rightsviolation, social discrimination on the basis ofrace, religion, gender and caste, social problemslike crimes, terrorism, and war and politicalfactors like nature of the state, forms of thegovernment (democracy or dictatorship) levelof empowerment are some factors that are verycrucial in determining the nature of humandevelopment. These aspects have specialsignificance in case of India and many otherdeveloping countries.Using the indicators selected by the UNDP,the Planning Commission of India also

prepared the Human Development Report forIndia. It used states and the Union Territoriesas the units of analysis. Subsequently, eachstate government also started preparing thestate level Human Development Reports, usingdistricts as the units of analysis. Although, thefinal HDI by the Planning Commission of Indiahas been calculated by taking the threeindicators as discussed in the book entitled,“Fundamentals of Human Geography”, yet,this report also discussed other indicators likeeconomic attainment, social empowerment,social distributive justice, accessibility, hygieneand various welfare measures undertaken bythe state. Some of the important indicators havebeen discussed in the following pages.Indicators of Economic AttainmentsRich resource base and access to theseresources by all, particularly the poor, downtrodden and the marginalised is the key toproductivity, well-being and humandevelopment. Gross National Product (GNP)and its per capita availability are taken asmeasures to assess the resource base/endowment of any country. For India, it isestimated that its GDP was Rs. 3200 thousandcrores (at current Price) and accordingly, per

capita income was Rs. 20,813 at current prices.Apparently, these figures indicate an impressiveCountry HDI valueNorway 0.963Australia 0.955Sweden 0.949Switzerland 0.947U.S.A. 0.944Japan 0.943U.K. 0.939France 0.938Germany 0.93Argentina 0.863Cuba 0.817Russia 0.795Brazil 0.792Country HDI valueThailand 0.778Sri Lanka 0.751Iran 0.736Indonesia 0.697Egypt 0.659India 0.602Myanmar 0.578Pakistan 0.527Nepal 0.526Bangladesh 0.52Kenya 0.474Zambia 0.394Chad 0.341

Niger 0.281Table 3.1 : Human Development IndexValues of India and some other CountriesSource: UNDP Human Development Report 2005, OxfordUniversity Press. pp.219-222.26 India : People and Economyperformance but, prevalence of poverty,deprivation, malnutrition, illiteracy, varioustypes of prejudices and above all socialdistributive injustices and large-scale regionaldisparities belie all the so-called economicachievements.There are a few developed States likeMaharashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat andDelhi that have per capita income more thanRs. 4,000 (figure at 1980-81 prices) per yearand there are a large number of poorer Stateslike Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, MadhyaPradesh, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, etc.which have recorded per capita income lessthan Rs. 2,000. Corresponding to thesedisparities, the developed states have higher percapita consumption expenditure as comparedto the poorer states. It was estimated to be morethan Rs. 690 per capita per month in Stateslike Punjab, Haryana, Kerala, Maharashtra and

Gujarat and below Rs. 520 per capita permonth in States like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,Orissa and Madhya Pradesh, etc. Thesevariations are indicative of some other deepseatedeconomic problems like poverty,unemployment and under-employment.The disaggregated data of poverty forthe states show that there are States likeOrissa and Bihar which have recorded morethan 40 per cent of their population livingbelow the poverty line. The States of MadhyaPradesh, Sikkim, Assam, Tripura, ArunachalPradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland have morethan 30 per cent of their population belowpoverty line. “Poverty is a state ofdeprivation. In absolute terms it reflects theinability of an individual to satisfy certainbasic needs for a sustained, healthy andreasonably productive living.” Employmentrate for educated youth is 25 per cent. Joblessgrowth and rampant unemployment are someState % of Populationbelowpoverty lineAndhra Pradesh 15.77Arunachal Pradesh 33.47Assam 36.09Bihar 42.60

Goa 4.40Gujarat 14.07Haryana 8.47Himachal Pradesh 7.63West Bengal 27.02Andaman & Nicobar 20.99Chandigarh 5.75Jammu & Kashmir 3.48Karnataka 20.04Kerala 12.72Madhya Pradesh 37.43Maharashtra 25.02Manipur 28.54Meghalaya 33.87Mizoram 19.47Dadra & Nagar Haveli 17.14Daman & Diu 4.44Delhi 8.23Nagaland 32.67Orissa 47.15Punjab 6.16Rajasthan 15.28Sikkim 36.55Tamil Nadu 21.12Tripura 34.44Uttar Pradesh 31.15Lakshadweep 15.60Pondichery 21.67India 26.10Source: Planning Commission of India, (2001): IndiaNational Human Development Report, p.166.

Table 3.2 : Poverty in India, 1999-2000Which one of the states in India has the highest proportion of population below poverty line?Arrange the states on the basis of their percentage of population below poverty line in ascending order.Select 10 states which have the high proportion of population below poverty line and represent the data by bardiagram.Human Development 27of the important reasons for higher incidencesof poverty in India.Indicators of a Healthy LifeLife free from illness and ailment and living areasonably long life span are indicative of ahealthy life. Availability of pre and post natalhealth care facilities in order to reduce infantmortality and post delivery deaths amongmothers, old age health care, adequate nutritionand safety of individual are some importantmeasures of a healthy and reasonably long life.India has done reasonably well in some of thehealth indicators like decline in death rate from25.1 per thousand in 1951 to 8.1 per thousandin 1999 and infant mortality from 148 perthousand to 70 during the same period.

Similarly, it also succeeded in increasing lifeexpectancy at birth from 37.1 years to 62.3years for males and 36.2 to 65.3 years forfemales from 1951 to 1999. Though, these aregreat achievements, a lot needs to be done.Similarly, it has also done reasonably well inbringing down birth rate from 40.8 to 26.1during the same years, but it still is much higherthan many developed countries.The situation is more alarming when seenin the context of gender specific and rural andurban health indicators. India has recordeddeclining female sex ratio. The findings of 2001Census of India are very disturbing particularlyin case of child sex ratio between 0-6 agegroups. The other significant features of thereport are, with the exception of Kerala, thechild sex ratio has declined in all the statesand it is the most alarming in the developedstate of Haryana and Punjab where it isbelow 800 female children per thousandmale children. What factors are responsible forit? Is it the social attitude or scientific methodsof sex-determination?Indicators of Social Empowerment“Development is freedom”. Freedom fromhunger, poverty, servitude, bondage,

ignorance, illiteracy and any other forms ofdomination is the key to human development.Freedom in real sense of the term is possibleonly with the empowerment and participationof the people in the exercise of their capabilitiesand choices in the society. Access to knowledgeabout the society and environment areState Total Femaleliteracy literacyAndaman & Nicobar 81.18 75.29Andhra Pradesh 61.11 51.17Arunachal Pradesh 54.74 44.24Assam 64.28 56.03Bihar 47.53 33.57Chandigarh 85.65 76.65Chhattisgarh 65.18 52.4Dadra & Nagar Haveli 60.03 42.99Daman & Diu 81.09 70.37Delhi 81.82 75Goa 82.32 75.51Gujarat 69.97 58.6Haryana 68.59 56.31Himachal Pradesh 77.13 68.08Jammu & Kashmir 54.46 41.82Jharkhand 54.13 39.38Karnataka 67.04 57.45Kerala 90.92 87.86Lakshadweep 87.52 81.56

Madhya Pradesh 64.11 50.28Maharashtra 77.27 67.51Manipur 68.87 59.7Meghalaya 63.31 60.41Mizoram 88.49 86.13Nagaland 67.11 61.92Orissa 63.61 50.97Pondicherry 81.49 74.13Punjab 69.95 63.55Rajasthan 61.03 44.34Sikkim 69.68 61.46Tamil Nadu 73.47 64.55Tripura 73.66 65.41Uttar Pradesh 57.36 42.98Uttaranchal 72.28 60.26West Bengal 69.22 60.22India 65.38 54.16Table 3.3 : India Literacy Rates, 2001Source: Census of India, 2001; Provisional PopulationTables Series -1, p.142.28 India : People and Economyfundamental to freedom. Literacy is thebeginning of access to such a world ofknowledge and freedom.Represent the literacy rates for states having more thanthe national average by bar diagram after arranging thedata in descending order.

Why is the total literacy rates in Kerala, Mizoram,Lakshadweep and Goa are higher than other states?Can literacy reflect the status of Human Developments?Debate.Table 3.3 showing the percentage ofliterates in India reveals some interestingfeatures:• Overall literacy in India isapproximately 65. 4 per cent (2001).while female literacy is 54.16 per cent.• Total literacy as well as female literacyis higher than the national average inmost of the states from south India.• There are wide regional disparities inliteracy rate across the states of India.There is a state like Bihar which hasvery low (47.53 per cent) literacy andthere are states like Kerala andMizoram which have literacy rates of90.92 and 88.49 per cent respectively.Apart from the spatial variations,percentage of literates in the rural areas andamong the marginalised sections of our societysuch as females, scheduled castes, scheduledtribes, agricultural labourers, etc. is very low.

It is worth mentioning here that though, therehas been improvement in the percentage ofliterates among the marginalised section yet thegap between the richer and the marginalisedsections of the population has increased overthe years.Human Development Index in IndiaIn the backdrop of the above-mentionedimportant indicators the Planning Commissioncalculated the human development index bytaking states and union territories as the unitof analysis.India has been placed among thecountries showing medium humandevelopment. What is the rank of India amongthe 172 countries of the world? As indicatedin table 3.4 Kerala with the composite indexvalue of 0.638 is placed at the top rankfollowed by Punjab (0.537), Tamil Nadu (0.531)Maharashtra (0.523) and Haryana (0.509). Asexpected, states like Bihar (0.367), Assam(0.386), Uttar Pradesh (0.388), MadhyaPradesh (0.394) and Orissa (0.404) are at thebottom among the 15 major states in India.There are several socio-political, economicand historical reasons for such a state of

affairs. Kerala is able to record the highest valuein the HDI largely due to its impressiveperformance in achieving near hundred percent literacy (90.92 per cent) in 2001. In adifferent scenario the states like Bihar, MadhyaPradesh, Orissa, Assam and Uttar Pradeshhave very low literacy. For example, totalliteracy rate for Bihar was as low as 60.32 percent during the same year. States showinghigher total literacy rates have less gapsbetween the male and female literacy rates. ForKerala, it is 6.34 per cent, while it is 26.75 percent in Bihar and 25.95 per cent in MadhyaPradesh.State HDI ValueAndhra Pradesh 0.416Assam 0.386Bihar 0.367Gujarat 0.479Haryana 0.509Karnataka 0.478Kerala 0.638Madhya Pradesh 0.394Maharashtra 0.523Orissa 0.404Punjab 0.537Rajasthan 0.424

Tamil Nadu 0.531Uttar Pradesh 0.388West Bengal 0.472Table 3.4 : India – Human DevelopmentIndex-2001Source: Planning Commission of India (2001): IndiaNational Human Development Report 2001, p.25Human Development 29Apart from the educational attainment, thelevels of economic development too playsignificant impacts on HDI. Economicallydeveloped states like Maharashtra, Tamil Naduand Punjab and Haryana have higher value ofHDI as compared to states like Assam, Bihar,Madhya Pradesh, etc.Regional distortions and socialdisparities which developed during thecolonial period continue to play an importantrole in the Indian economy, polity and society.The Government of India has made concertedefforts to institutionalise the balanceddevelopment with its main focus on socialdistributive justice through planneddevelopment. It has made significantachievements in most of the fields but, theseare still below the desired level.PopulationE , nvirironmenta ndD evelopmentDevelopment in general and human

development in particular is a complex conceptused in social sciences. It is complex becausefor ages it was thought that development is asubstantive concept and once it is achieved itwill address all the socio-cultural andenvironmental ills of the society. Though,development has brought in significantimprovement in the quality of life in more thanone way but increasing regional disparities,social inequalities, discriminations, deprivations,displacement of people, abuse of human rightsand undermining human values andenvironmental degradation have also increased.Considering the gravity and sensitivity ofthe issues involved, the UNDP in its HumanCan you find out thecauses of the aboveproblems?30 India : People and EconomyDevelopment Report 1993, tried to amend someof the implicit biases and prejudices which wereentrenched in the concept of development.People’s participation and their security were the

major issues in the Human Development Reportof 1993. It also emphasised on progressivedemocratisation and increasing empowermentof people as minimum conditions for humandevelopment. The report recognised greaterconstructive role of ‘Civil Societies’ in bringingabout peace and human development. The civilsociety should work for building up opinion forreduction in the military expenditure, demobilisationof armed forces, transition fromdefence to production of basic goods and servicesand particularly disarmament and reduction inthe nuclear warheads by the developedcountries. In a nuclearised world, peace andwell-being are major global concerns.At the other extreme of this approach liethe views expressed by the Neo-Malthusians,environmentalists and radical ecologists. Theybelieve that for a happy and peaceful social lifeproper balance between population andresources is a necessary condition. Accordingto these thinkers, the gap between the resourcesand population has widened after eighteenthcentury. There have been marginal expansion

in the resources of the world in the last threehundred years but there has been phenomenalgrowth in the human population. Developmenthas only contributed in increasing the multipleuses of the limited resources of the world whilethere has been enormous increase in the demandfor these resources. Therefore, the prime taskbefore any development activity is to maintainparity between population and resources.Scholar like Sir Robert Malthus was the firstone to voice his concern about the growingscarcity of resources as compared to the humanpopulation. Apparently this argument lookslogical and convincing, but a critical look willreveal certain intrinsic flaws such as resourcesare not a neutral category. It is not theavailability of resources that is as important astheir social distribution. Resources everywhereare unevenly distributed. Rich countries andpeople have access to large resource basketswhile the poor find their resources shrinking.Moreover, unending pursuit for the control ofmore and more resources by the powerful anduse of the same for exhibiting ones prowess isthe prime cause of conflicts as well as the

apparent contradictions between populationresourceand development.Indian culture and civilisation have beenvery sensitive to the issues of population,resource and development for a long time. Itwould not be incorrect to say that the ancientscriptures were essentially concerned about thebalance and harmony among the elements ofnature. Mahatma Gandhi in the recent timesadvocated the reinforcement of the harmony andbalance between the two. He was quiteapprehensive about the on-going developmentparticularly the way industrialisation hasinstitutionalised the loss of morality, spirituality,self-reliance, non-violence and mutual cooperationand environment. In his opinion,austerity for individual, trusteeship of socialwealth and non-violence are the key to attainhigher goals in the life of an individual as well asthat of a nation. His views were also re-echoedin the Club of Rome Report “Limits to Growth”(1972), Schumacher’s book “Small is

Beautiful” (1974), Brundtland Commission’sReport “Our Common Future” (1987) andfinally in the “Agenda-21 Report of the RioConference” (1993).

Human Development 31EXERCISES1 . Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.(i) Which one of the following is India’s rank in terms of Human DevelopmentIndex among the countries of the world in 2005?(a) 126 (c) 128(b) 127 (d) 129(ii) Which one of the following states of India has the highest rank in theHuman Development Index?(a) Tamil Nadu (c) Kerala(b) Punjab (d) Haryana(iii) Which one of the following states of India has the lowest female literacy?(a) Jamu and Kashmir (c) Jharkhand(b) Arunachal Pradesh (d) Bihar(iv) Which one of the following states of India has the lowest female child sexratio 0-6 years?

(a) Gujarat (c) Punjab(b) Haryana (d) Himachal Pradesh(v) Which one of the following Union Territories of India has the highestliteracy rate?(a) Lakshadweep (c) Daman and Diu(b) Chandigarh (d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) Define Human Development.(ii) Give two reasons for low levels of Human Development in most of theNorthern States of India.(iii) Give two reasons for declining child sex ratio in India.3 . Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) Discuss the spatial patterns of female literacy in India in 2001 and bringout the reasons responsible for it.(ii) Which factors have caused spatial variations in the levels of HumanDevelopment among the 15 major states in India? Unit IIChapter 4HUMANSETTLEMENTSHuman Settlement means cluster of dwellings

of any type or size where human beings live.For this purpose, people may erect houses andother structures and command some area orterritory as their economic support-base. Thus,the process of settlement inherently involvesgrouping of people and apportioning of territoryas their resource base.Settlements vary in size and type. Theyrange from a hamlet to metropolitan cities. Withsize, the economic character and social structureof settlements changes and so do its ecology andtechnology. Settlements could be small andsparsely spaced; they may also be large andclosely spaced. The sparsely located smallsettlements are called villages, specialising inagriculture or other primary activities. On theother hand, there are fewer but larger settlementswhich are termed as urban settlementsspecialising in secondary and tertiary activities.The basic differences between rural and urbansettlements are as follows :• The rural settlements derive their lifesupport or basic economic needs from

land based primary economic activities,whereas, urban settlements, depend onprocessing of raw materials andmanufacturing of finished goods on theone hand and a variety of services on theother.• Cities act as nodes of economic growth,provide goods and services not only tourban dwellers but also to the people ofthe rural settlements in their hinterlandsin return for food and raw materials. Thisfunctional relationship between the urbanand rural settlements takes place throughtransport and communication network.• Rural and urban settlements differ interms of social relationship, attitude andoutlook. Rural people are less mobile andtherefore, social relations among them areintimate. In urban areas, on the otherhand, way of life is complex and fast, andsocial relations are formal.Types of Rural SettlementTypes of the settlement are determined by theextent of the built-up area and inter-house2015-16Semi-Clustered SettlementsSemi-clustered or fragmented settlements mayresult from tendency of clustering in a

restricted area of dispersed settlement. Moreoften such a pattern may also result fromsegregation or fragmentation of a large compactvillage. In this case, one or more sections ofthe village society choose or is forced to live alittle away from the main cluster or village. Insuch cases, generally, the land-owning anddominant community occupies the central partof the main village, whereas people of lowerstrata of society and menial workers settle onthe outer flanks of the village. Such settlementsare widespread in the Gujarat plain and someparts of Rajasthan.distance. In India compact or clustered villageof a few hundred houses is a rather universalfeature, particularly in the northern plains.However, there are several areas, which haveother forms of rural settlements. There arevarious factors and conditions responsible forhaving different types of rural settlements inIndia. These include: (i) physical features –nature of terrain, altitude, climate andavailability of water (ii) cultural and ethenicfactors – social structure, caste and religion(iii) security factors – defence against thefts and

robberies. Rural settlements in India canbroadly be put into four types:• Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated,• Semi-clustered or fragmented,• Hamleted, and• Dispersed or isolated.Clustered SettlementsThe clustered rural settlement is a compact orclosely built up area of houses. In this type ofvillage the general living area is distinct andseparated from the surrounding farms, barnsand pastures. The closely built-up area and itsintervening streets present some recognisablepattern or geometric shape, such asrectangular, radial, linear, etc. Such settlementsare generally found in fertile alluvial plains andin the northeastern states. Sometimes, peoplelive in compact village for security or defencereasons, such as in the Bundelkhand region ofcentral India and in Nagaland. In Rajasthan,scarcity of water has necessitated compactsettlement for maximum utilisation of availablewater resources.Hamleted SettlementsSometimes settlement is fragmented into severalunits physically separated from each other

bearing a common name. These units are locallycalled panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. invarious parts of the country. This segmentationof a large village is often motivated by socialand ethnic factors. Such villages are morefrequently found in the middle and lower Gangaplain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of theHimalayas.Dispersed SettlementsDispersed or isolated settlement pattern in Indiaappears in the form of isolated huts or hamletsof few huts in remote jungles, or on small hillsFig. 4.1 : Clustered Settlements in the North-eastern statesFig. 4.2 : Semi-clustered settlementsHuman Settlements 332015-1634 India : People and EconomyAncient TownsThere are number of towns in India havinghistorical background spanning over 2000years. Most of them developed as religious andcultural centres. Varanasi is one of the importanttowns among these. Prayag (Allahabad),

Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai are some otherexamples of ancient towns in the country.Medieval TownsAbout 100 of the existing towns have their rootsin the medieval period. Most of them developedas headquarters of principalities and kingdoms.These are fort towns which came up on theruins of ancient towns. Important among themare Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agraand Nagpur.Modern TownsThe British and other Europeans havedeveloped a number of towns in India.Starting their foothold on coastal locations,they first developed some trading ports suchas Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc. TheBritish later consolidated their hold aroundthree principal nodes – Mumbai (Bombay),Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta) –and built them in the British style. Rapidlywith farms or pasture on the slopes. Extremedispersion of settlement is often caused byextremely fragmented nature of the terrain andland resource base of habitable areas. Manyareas of Meghalaya, Uttaranchal, Himachal

Pradesh and Kerala have this type of settlement.Urban SettlementsUnlike rural settlements, urban settlementsare generally compact and larger in size.They are engaged in a variety of nonagricultural,economic and administrativefunctions. As mentioned earlier, cities arefunctionally linked to rural areas aroundthem. Thus, exchange of goods and servicesis performed sometimes directly andsometimes through a series of market townsand cities. Thus, cities are connected directlyas well as indirectly with the villages and alsowith each other. You can see the definitionof towns in Chapter 10 of the book,“Fundamentals of Human Geography.”Evolution of Towns in IndiaTowns flourished since prehistoric times inIndia. Even at the time of Indus valleycivilisation, towns like Harappa andMohanjodaro were in existence. The followingperiod has witnessed evolution of towns. Itcontinued with periodic ups and downs untilthe arrival of Europeans in India in theeighteenth century. On the basis of their

evolution in different periods, Indian towns maybe classified as:• Ancient towns, • Medieval towns, and• Modern towns.extending their domination either directly orthrough control over the princely states, theyestablished their administrative centres, hilltownsas summer resorts, and added new civil,Fig. 4.3 : Dispersed settlements in NagalandFig. 4.4 : A view of the modern city2015-16Human Settlements 35Fig. 4.5 : India – Metropolitan Cities, 20012015-1636 India : People and EconomyYear Number of Urban Population % of Total DecennialTowns/UAs (in Thousands) Population Growth (%)1901 1,827 25,851.9 10.84 —-1911 1,815 25,941.6 10.29 0.351921 1,949 28,086.2 11.18 8.271931 2,072 33,456.0 11.99 19.121941 2,250 44,153.3 13.86 31.971951 2,843 62,443.7 17.29 41.421961 2,365 78,936.6 17.97 26.411971 2,590 1,09,114 19.91 38.231981 3,378 1,59,463 23.34 46.14

1991 4,689 2,17,611 25.71 36.472001 5,161 2,85,355 27.78 31.132011* 7,935 3,77,000 31.16 31.08Table 4.1 : India – Trends of Urbanisation 1901-2011administrative and military areas to them.Towns based on modern industries alsoevolved after 1850. Jamshedpur can be citedas an example.After independence, a large number oftowns have been developed as administrativeheadquarters, e.g. Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar,Gandhinagar, Dispur, etc. and industrialcentres such as Durgapur, Bhilai, Sindri,Barauni. Some old towns also developedas satellite towns around metropolitancities such as Ghaziabad, Rohtak, Gurgaonaround Delhi. With increasing investmentin rural areas, a large number of mediumand small towns have developed all overthe country.Urbanisation in IndiaThe level of urbanisation is measured interms of percentage of urban population tototal population. The level of urbanisation inIndia in 2001 was 28 per cent, which is quitelow in comparison to developed countries.Total urban population has increased eleven

fold during twentieth century. Enlargementof urban centres and emergence of new townshave played a significant role in the growthof urban population and urbanisation in thecountry. (Table 4.1). But the growth rate ofurbanisation has slowed down during lasttwo decades.Classification of Towns on the basis ofPopulation SizeCensus of India classifies urban centres intosix classes as presented in Table 4.2. Urbancentre with population of more than one lakhis called a city or class I town. Citiesaccommodating population size between oneto five million are called metropolitan cities andmore than five million are mega cities. Majorityof metropolitan and mega cities are urbanagglomerations. An urban agglomeration mayconsist of any one of the following threeFig. 4.6 : India : Distribution of urbanpopulation (%), according to size class ofurban centre — 2001*Source: Census of India, 2011 http.//www.censusindia.gov.in (Provisional)2015-16Human Settlements 37combinations: (i) a town and its adjoiningurban outgrowths, (ii) two or more

contiguous towns with or without theiroutgrowths, and (iii) a city and one or moreadjoining towns with their outgrowthstogether forming a contiguous spread.Examples of urban outgrowth are railwaycolonies, university campus, port area,military cantonment, etc. located within therevenue limits of a village or villagescontiguous to the town or city.It is evident from Table 4.2 that more than60 per cent of urban population in India livesin Class I towns. Out of 423 cities, 35 cities/urban agglomerations are metropolitan cities(Fig.4.6). Six of them are mega cities withpopulation over five million each. More thanone-fifth (21.0%) of urban population lives inthese mega cities.Among them, Greater Mumbai is thelargest agglomeration with 16.4 millionpeople. Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Bangaloreand Hyderabad are other mega cities in thecountry.Functional Classification of TownsApart from their role as central or nodal places,many towns and cities perform specialisedservices. Some towns and cities specialise incertain functions and they are known forsome specific activities, products or services.

However, each town performs a number offunctions. On the basis of dominant orspecialised functions, Indian cities and townscan be broadly classified as follows:Class Population Size Number Population % of total % Growth(Million) Urban 1991-2001PopulationAll classesTotal 5161 285.35 100 31.13I 1,00,000 and more 423 172.04 61.48 23.12II 50,000 – 99,999 498 34.43 12.3 43.45III 20,000 – 49,999 1386 41.97 15.0 46.19IV 10,000 – 9,999 1560 22.6 8.08 32.94V 5,000 – 9,999 1057 7.98 2.85 41.49VI Less than 5,000 227 0.8 0.29 21.21Table 4.2 : India – Class-wise number of towns and citiesand their population, 2001Administrative towns and citiesTowns supporting administrative headquartersof higher order are administrative towns, suchas Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong,Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar,Jaipur Chennai, etc.Industrial townsIndustries constitute prime motive force of thesecities such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore,

Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc.Transport CitiesThey may be ports primarily engaged in exportand import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi,Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc. or hubs ofinland transport such as Agra, Dhulia, MughalSarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.Commercial townsTowns and cities specialising in trade andcommerce are kept in this class. Kolkata,Saharanpur, Satna, etc. are some examples.Mining townsThese towns have developed in mineral richareas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi,Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.Garrisson Cantonment townsThese towns emerged as garrisson towns suchas Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina,Udhampur, etc.2015-1638 India : People and EconomyRank Name of Urban PopulationAgglomeration/ (in million)Cities1 Greater Mumbai 16.372 Kolkata 13.223 Delhi 12.794 Chennai 6.425 Bangalore 5.69

6 Hyderabad 5.537 Ahmedabad 4.528 Pune 3.769 Surat 2.8110 Kanpur 2.6911 Jaipur 2.3212 Lucknow 2.2713 Nagpur 2.1214 Patna 1.7115 Indore 1.6416 Vadodara 1.4917 Bhopal 1.4518 Coimbatore 1.4519 Ludhiana 1.3920 Kochchi 1.3621 Vishakhapatnam 1.3322 Agra 1.3223 Varanasi 1.2124 Madurai 1.1925 Meerut 1.1726 Nashik 1.1527 Jabalpur 1.1228 Jamshedpur 1.1029 Asansol 1.0930 Dhanbad 1.0631 Faridabad 1.0532 Allahabad 1.0533 Amritsar 1.0134 Vijayawada 1.0135 Rajkot 1.00Total 107.88

Table 4.3 : India – Population of Millionplus Cities/Urban Agglomeration, 2001Educational townsStarting as centres of education, some of thetowns have grown into major campus townssuch as Roorki, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani,Allahabad etc.Religious and cultural townsVaranasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri,Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati, Kurukshetra,Haridwar, Ujjain came to prominence due totheir religious/cultural significance.Tourist townsNainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi,Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty),Mount Abu are some of the tourist destinations.The cities are not static in their function. Thefunctions change due to their dynamic nature.Even specialised cities, as they grow intometropolises become multifunctional whereinindustry, business, administration, transport,etc. become important. The functions get sointertwined that the city can not be categorisedin a particular functional class.List the urban agglomerations/cities statewiseand see the state-wise populationunder this category of cities.EXERCISES

1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.(i) Which one of the following towns is NOT located on a river bank?(a) Agra (c) Patna(b) Bhopal (d) KolkataFor Census of India 2011 see appendix on Page No. 1612015-16Human Settlements 39(ii) Which one of the following is NOT the part of the definition of a town asper the census of India?(a) Population density of 400 persons per sq km.(b) Presence of municipality, corporation, etc.(c) More than 75% of the population engaged in primary sector.(d) Population size of more than 5,000 persons.(iii) In which one of the following environments does one expect the presenceof dispersed rural settlements?(a) Alluvial plains of Ganga(b) Arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan(c) Lower valleys of Himalayas(d) Forests and hills in north-east(iv) Which one of the following group of cities have been arranged in thesequence of their ranks i.e. 1, 2, 3 and 4 in size?(a) Greater Mumbai, Bangalore, Kolkata, Chennai(b) Delhi, Greater Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata

(c) Kolkata, Greater Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata(d) Greater Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) What are garrisson towns? What is their function?(ii) How can one identify an urban agglomeration?(iii) What are the main factors for the location of villages in desert regions?(iv) What are metropolitan cities? How are they different from urbanagglomerations?3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) Discuss the features of different types of rural settlements. What are thefactors responsible for the settlement patterns in different physicalenvironments?(ii) Can one imagine the presence of only one-function town? Why do thecities become multi-functional?2015-16Unit IIIChapter 5LAND RESOURCESAND AGRICULTUREYou must have observed that the land aroundyou is put to different uses. Some land is

occupied by rivers, some may have trees andon some parts roads and buildings have beenbuilt. Different types of lands are suited todifferent uses. Human beings thus, use landas a resource for production as well as residenceand recreation. Thus, the building of yourschool, roads on which you travel, parks inwhich you play, fields in which crops are grownand the pastures where animals graze representdifferent uses to which land is put.Land Use CategoriesLand-use records are maintained by landrevenue department. The land use categoriesadd up to reporting area, which is somewhatdifferent from the geographical area. TheSurvey of India is responsible for measuringgeographical area of administrative units inIndia. Have you ever used a map prepared bySurvey of India? The difference between the twoconcepts are that while the former changessomewhat depending on the estimates of theland revenue records, the latter does not changeand stays fixed as per Survey of Indiameasurements. You may be familiar with land

use categories as they are also included in yourSocial Science textbook of Class X.The land-use categories as maintained inthe Land Revenue Records are as follows :(i) Forests : It is important to note thatarea under actual forest cover isdifferent from area classified as forest.The latter is the area which theGovernment has identified anddemarcated for forest growth. The landrevenue records are consistent withthe latter definition. Thus, there maybe an increase in this category withoutany increase in the actual forest cover.(ii) Land put to Non-agricultural Uses :Land under settlements (rural andurban), infrastructure (roads, canals,etc.), industries, shops, etc. areincluded in this category. An expansionin the secondary and tertiary activities

2015-16would lead to an increase in thiscategory of land-use.(iii) Barren and Wastelands : The landwhich may be classified as awasteland such as barren hillyterrains, desert lands, ravines, etc.normally cannot be brought undercultivation with the availabletechnology.(iv) Area under Permanent Pastures andGrazing Lands : Most of this type landis owned by the village ‘Panchayat’ orthe Government. Only a smallproportion of this land is privatelyowned. The land owned by the villagepanchayat comes under ‘CommonProperty Resources’.(v) Area under Miscellaneous TreeCrops and Groves(Not included isNet sown Area) : The land underorchards and fruit trees are included

in this category. Much of this land isprivately owned.(vi) Culturable Waste-Land : Any landwhich is left fallow (uncultivated) formore than five years is included in thiscategory. It can be brought undercultivation after improving it throughreclamation practices.(vii) Current Fallow : This is the landwhich is left without cultivation for oneor less than one agricultural year.Fallowing is a cultural practice adoptedfor giving the land rest. The landrecoups the lost fertility through naturalprocesses.(viii) Fallow other than Current Fallow :This is also a cultivable land which isleft uncultivated for more than a yearbut less than five years. If the land isleft uncultivated for more than fiveyears, it would be categorised as

culturable wasteland.(ix) Net Area Sown : The physicalextent of land on which crops aresown and harvested is known as netsown area.Land-use Changes in IndiaLand-use in a region, to a large extent, isinfluenced by the nature of economicactivities carried out in that region. However,while economic activities change over time,land, like many other natural resources, isfixed in terms of its area. At this stage, oneneeds to appreciate three types of changesthat an economy undergoes, which affectland-use.(i) The size of the economy (measuredin terms of value for all the goods andservices produced in the economy)grows over time as a result ofincreasing population, change inincome levels, available technologyand associated factors. As a result, thepressure on land will increase withtime and marginal lands would comeunder use.(ii) Secondly, the composition of the

economy would undergo a change overtime. In other words, the secondary andthe tertiary sectors usually grow muchfaster than the primary sector, specificallythe agricultural sector. This type ofchange is common in developingcountries like India. This process wouldresult in a gradual shift of land fromagricultural uses to non-agriculturaluses. You would observe that suchchanges are sharp around large urbanareas. The agricultural land is being usedfor building purposes.(iii) Thirdly, though the contribution of theagricultural activities reduces over time,the pressure on land for agriculturalactivities does not decline. The reasonsfor continued pressure on agriculturalland are:(a) In developing countries, theshare of population dependenton agriculture usually declinesmuch more slowly compared tothe decline in the sector’s sharein GDP.(b) The number of people that theagricultural sector has to feed isincreasing day by day.

Land Resources and Agriculture 412015-1642 India : People and EconomyCompare the change in shares of primary, secondaryand tertiary sectors in GDP between 1960-61 and 1999-2000 with the changes of land-use between 1960-61and 2008-09 using Appendix (vii) Tables 1 and 2.India has undergone major changes withinthe economy over the past four or five decades,and this has influenced the land-use changesin the country. These changes between 1960-61 and 2008-09 have been shown in Fig. 5.1.There are two points that you need to rememberbefore you derive some meaning from thisfigure. Firstly, the percentages shown in thefigure have been derived with respect to thereporting area. Secondly, since even thereporting area has been relatively constant overthe years, a decline in one category usually

leads to an increase in some other category.Four categories have undergone increases,while four have registered declines. Share ofarea under forest, area under non-agriculturaluses, current fallow lands and net area sownhave shown an increase. The followingobservations can be made about theseincreases:(i) The rate of increase is the highest in caseof area under non-agricultural uses. Thisis due to the changing structure ofIndian economy, which is increasinglydepending on the contribution fromindustrial and services sectors andexpansion of related infrastructuralfacilities. Also, an expansion of areaunder both urban and rural settlementshas added to the increase. Thus, the areaunder non-agricultural uses isincreasing at the expense of wastelandsand agricultural land.(ii) The increase in the share under forest,as explained before, can be accountedfor by increase in the demarcated areaunder forest rather than an actualincrease in the forest cover in the country.(iii) The increase in the current fallow cannotbe explained from information

pertaining to only two points. The trendof current fallow fluctuates a great dealover years, depending on the variabilityof rainfall and cropping cycles.(iv) The increase in net area sown is a recentphenomenon due to use of culturablewaste land for agricultural pupose.Before which it was registering a slowdecrease. There are indications thatmost of the decline had occurred due tothe increases in area under nonagriculturaluse. (Note : the expansionof building activity on agricultural landin your village and city).Note : Categories (iv) and (v) of Section I have been clubbed together in the graph.Fig. 5.12015-16Land Resources and Agriculture 43The four categories that have registered adecline are barren and wasteland, culturablewasteland, area under pastures and tree cropsand fallow lands.The following explanations can be givenfor the declining trends:(i) As the pressure on land increased, bothfrom the agricultural and nonagriculturalsectors, the wastelands and

culturable wastelands have witnesseddecline over time.(ii) The decline in land under pastures andgrazing lands can be explained bypressure from agricultural land. Illegalencroachment due to expansion ofcultivation on common pasture lands islargely responsible for this decline.What is the difference between actual increase andrate of increase? Work out the actual increase andrate of increases for all the land use categories between1960-61 and 2008-09 from the data given in the Appendix(vii) (Table 1). Explain the results.Note for TeacherFor calculating actual increase, the difference of theland-use categories should be worked out over the twoperiods.

For deriving the rate of increase, simple growth rate i.e.(difference of values between the two time points i.e.value of terminal year minus base year / base year or1960-61 value) should be used, e.g.100Net sown Area in 2008-09 Net sown Area in 1960-61Net sown Area in 1960-61-´Common Property ResourcesLand, according to its ownership can broadlybe classified under two broad heads – privateland and common property resources (CPRs).While the former is owned by an individual or agroup of individuals, the latter is owned by thestate meant for the use of the community. CPRsprovide fodder for the livestock and fuel for thehouseholds along with other minor forestproducts like fruits, nuts, fibre, medicinalplants, etc. In rural areas, such land is ofparticular relevance for the livelihood of thelandless and marginal farmers and other

weaker sections since many of them depend onincome from their livestock due to the fact thatthey have limited access to land. CPRs also areimportant for women as most of the fodder andfuel collection is done by them in rural areas.They have to devote long hours in collecting fueland fodder from a degraded area of CPR.CPRs can be defined as community’s naturalresource, where every member has the right ofaccess and usage with specified obligations,without anybody having property rights overthem. Community forests, pasture lands, villagewater bodies and other public spaces where agroup larger than a household or family unitexercises rights of use and carries responsibilityof management are examples of CPRs.Agricultural Land Use in IndiaLand resource is more crucial to the livelihoodof the people depending on agriculture:(i) Agriculture is a purely land basedactivity unlike secondary and tertiaryactivities. In other words, contributionof land in agricultural output is morecompared to its contribution in the

outputs in the other sectors. Thus, lackof access to land is directly correlatedwith incidence of poverty in rural areas.(ii) Quality of land has a direct bearing onthe productivity of agriculture, which isnot true for other activities.(iii) In rural areas, aside from its value as aproductive factor, land ownership hasa social value and serves as a securityfor credit, natural hazards or lifecontingencies, and also adds to the socialstatus.An estimation of the total stock ofagricultural land resources (i.e. total cultivableland) can be arrived at by adding up net sownarea, all fallow lands and culturable wasteland.It may be observed from Table 5.1 that over theyears, there has been a marginal decline in theavailable total stock of cultivable land as apercentage to total reporting area. There has beena greater decline of cultivated land, in spite of acorresponding decline of cultivable wasteland.2015-1644 India : People and EconomyIt is clear from the above discussion that

the scope for bringing in additional land undernet sown area in India is limited. There is, thus,an urgent need to evolve and adopt land-savingtechnologies. Such technologies can be classifiedunder two heads – those which raise the yieldof any particular crop per unit area of land andthose which increase the total output per unitarea of land from all crops grown over oneagricultural year by increasing land-useintensity. The advantage of the latter kind oftechnology is that along with increasing outputfrom limited land, it also increases the demandfor labour significantly. For a land scarce butlabour abundant country like India, a highcropping intensity is desirable not only for fullerutilisation of land resource, but also forreducing unemployment in the rural economy.The cropping intensity (CI) is calculated asfollows :100GCACropping Intensity in percentageNSA= ´Cropping Seasons in India

There are three distinct cropseasons in the northern andinterior parts of country, namelykharif, rabi and zaid. The kharifseason largely coincides withSouthwest Monsoon under whichthe cultivation of tropical cropssuch as rice, cotton, jute, jowar,bajra and tur is possible. The rabiseason begins with the onset ofwinter in October-November andends in March-April. The lowtemperature conditions duringthis season facilitate the cultivation of temperateand subtropical crops such as wheat, gram andmustard. Zaid is a short duration summercropping season beginning after harvesting ofrabi crops. The cultivation of watermelons,cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops duringthis season is done on irrigated lands. However,this type of distinction in the cropping seasondoes not exist in southern parts of the country.Here, the temperature is high enough to growtropical crops during any period in the yearprovided the soil moisture is available.

Therefore, in this region same crops can begrown thrice in an agricultural year providedthere is sufficient soil moisture.Types of FarmingOn the basis of main source of moisture forcrops, the farming can be classified as irrigatedand rainfed (barani). There is difference in thenature of irrigated farming as well based onobjective of irrigation, i.e. protective orproductive. The objective of protective irrigationAgricultural Land-use As a percentage of As percentage ofCategories Reporting Area total cultivated land1960-61 2008-09 1960-61 2008-09Culturable Waste Land 6.23 4.17 10.61 7.14Fallow other than Current Fallow 3.5 3.37 5.96 5.75Current Fallow 3.73 4.76 6.35 8.13Net Area Sown 45.26 46.24 77.08 78.98Total Cultivable Land 58.72 58.54 100.00 100.00Table 5.1 : Composition of Total Cultivable LandCropping Season Major Crops CultivatedNorthern States Southern StatesKharif Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Rice, Maize, Ragi,June-September Maize, Jowar, Tur Jowar, GroundnutRabi Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds Rice, Maize, Ragi,

October – March and Mustard, Barley Groundnut, JowarZaid Vegetables, Fruits, Rice, Vegetables,April–June Fodder FodderTable 5.2 : Cropping Seasons in India2015-16Land Resources and Agriculture 45is to protect the crops from adverse effects of soilmoisture deficiency which often means thatirrigation acts as a supplementary source of waterover and above the rainfall. The strategy of thiskind of irrigation is to provide soil moisture tomaximum possible area. Productive irrigation ismeant to provide sufficient soil moisture in thecropping season to achieve high productivity. Insuch irrigation the water input per unit area ofcultivated land is higher than protective irrigation.Rainfed farming is further classified on the basisof adequacy of soil moisture during croppingseason into dryland and wetland farming. InIndia, the dryland farming is largely confinedto the regions having annual rainfall less than 75

cm. These regions grow hardy and droughtresistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gramand guar (fodder crops) and practise variousmeasures of soil moisture conservation and rainwater harvesting. In wetland farming, therainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirementof plants during rainy season. Such regions mayface flood and soil erosion hazards. These areasgrow various water intensive crops such as rice,jute and sugarcane and practise aquaculture inthe fresh water bodies.FoodgrainsThe importance of foodgrains in Indianagricultural economy may be gauged from thefact these crops occupy about two-third of totalcropped area in the country. Foodgrains aredominant crops in all parts of the countrywhether they have subsistence or commercialagricultural economy. On the basis of thestructure of grain the foodgrains are classifiedas cereals and pulses.Cereals

The cereals occupy about 54 per cent of totalcropped area in India. The country producesabout 11 per cent cereals of the world and ranksthird in production after China and U.S.A. Indiaproduces a variety of cereals, which areclassified as fine grains (rice, wheat) and coarsegrains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi), etc. Accountof important cereals has been given in thefollowing paragraphs :RiceRice is a staple food for the overwhelmingmajority of population in India. Though, it isconsidered to be a crop of tropical humid areas,it has about 3,000 varieties which are grown indifferent agro-climatic regions. These aresuccessfully grown from sea level to about2,000 m altitude and from humid areas ineastern India to dry but irrigated areas ofPunjab, Haryana, western U.P. and northernRajasthan. In southern states and West Bengalthe climatic conditions allow the cultivation oftwo or three crops of rice in an agricultural year.In West Bengal farmers grow three crops of rice

called ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’. But inHimalayas and northwestern parts of thecountry, it is grown as a kharif crop duringsouthwest Monsoon season.India contributes 21.6 per cent of riceproduction in the world and ranked secondafter China in 2008-09. About one-fourth ofthe total cropped area in the country is underrice cultivation. West Bengal, Punjab andUttar Pradesh were the leading rice producingstates in the country in 2009-10. The yield levelof rice is high in Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana,Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, West Bengal andKerala. In the first four of these states almost theentire land under rice cultivation is irrigated.Punjab and Haryana are not traditional ricegrowing areas. Rice cultivation in the irrigatedareas of Punjab and Haryana was introducedin 1970s following the Green Revolution.Genetically improved varieties of seed, relativelyhigh usage of fertilisers and pesticides and lowerlevels of susceptibility of the crop to pests dueFig. 5.2 : Rice transplantation in southern parts of India

2015-1646 India : People and EconomyFig. 5.3 : India – Distribution of Rice2015-16Land Resources and Agriculture 47to dry climatic conditions are responsible forhigher yield of rice in this region. The yield ofthis crop is very low in rainfed areas of MadhyaPradesh, Chhattisgarh and Odisha.WheatWheat is the second most important cereal cropin India after rice. India produces about 12 percent of total wheat production of world. It isprimarily a crop of temperate zone. Hence, itscultivation in India is done during winter i.e.rabi season. About 85 per cent of total areaunder this crop is concentrated in north andcentral regions of the country i.e. Indo-GangeticPlain, Malwa Plateau and Himalayas up to2,700 m altitude. Being a rabi crop, it is mostlygrown under irrigated conditions. But it is arainfed crop in Himalayan highlands and partsof Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh.About 14 per cent of the total cropped areain the country is under wheat cultivation. UttarPradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and

Madhya Pradesh are five leading wheatproducing states. The yield level of wheat isvery high (above 4,000 k.g. per ha) in Punjaband Haryana whereas, Uttar Pradesh,Rajasthan and Bihar have moderate yields. Thestates like Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradeshand Jammu and Kashmir growing wheat underrainfed conditions have low yield.JowarThe coarse cereals together occupy about16.50 per cent of total cropped area in thecountry. Among these, jowar or sorghum aloneaccounts for about 5.3 per cent of totalcropped area. It is main food crop in semi-aridareas of central and southern India.Maharashtra alone produces more than halfof the total jowar production of the country.Other leading producer states of jowar areKarnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradeshand Telangana. It is sown in both kharif andrabi seasons in southern states. But it is akharif crop in northern India where it is mostlygrown as a fodder crop. South of Vindhyachalit is a rainfed crop and its yield level is verylow in this region.BajraBajra is sown in hot and dry climatic conditionsin northwestern and western parts of the

country. It is a hardy crop which resists frequentdry spells and drought in this region. It iscultivated alone as well as part of mixedcropping. This coarse cereal occupies about 5.2per cent of total cropped area in the country.Leading producers of bajra are the states ofMaharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthanand Haryana. Being a rainfed crop, the yield levelof this crop is low in Rajasthan and fluctuates alot from year to year. Yield of this crop hasincreased during recent years in Haryana andGujarat due to introduction of drought resistantvarieties and expansion of irrigation under it.MaizeMaize is a food as well as fodder crop grownunder semi-arid climatic conditions and overinferior soils. This crop occupies only about3.6 per cent of total cropped area. Maizecultivation is not concentrated in any specificregion. It is sown all over India except easternand north-eastern regions. The leadingproducers of maize are the states of MadhyaPradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,Karnataka, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Yieldlevel of maize is higher than other coarse cereals.

It is high in southern states and declinestowards central parts.PulsesPulses are a very important ingredient ofvegetarian food as these are rich sources ofproteins. These are legume crops whichincrease the natural fertility of soils throughnitrogen fixation. India is a leading producer ofpulses and accounts for about one-fifth of thetotal production of pulses in the world. Thecultivation of pulses in the country is largelyconcentrated in the drylands of Deccan andcentral plateaus and northwestern parts of thecountry. Pulses occupy about 11 per cent ofthe total cropped area in the country. Being therainfed crops of drylands, the yields of pulsesare low and fluctuate from year to year. Gramand tur are the main pulses cultivated in India.2015-1648 India : People and EconomyFig. 5.4 : India – Distribution of Wheat2015-16Land Resources and Agriculture 49GramGram is cultivated in subtropical areas. It ismostly a rainfed crop cultivated during rabiseason in central, western and northwestern parts

of the country. Just one or two light showers orirrigations are required to grow this cropsuccessfully. It has been displaced from thecropping pattern by wheat in Haryana, Punjaband northern Rajasthan following the greenrevolution. At present, gram covers only about2.8 per cent of the total cropped area in thecountry. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana andRajasthan are the main producers of this pulsecrop. The yield of this crop continues to be lowand fluctuates from year to year even in irrigatedareas.Tur (Arhar)Tur is the second important pulse crop in thecountry. It is also known as red gram or pigeonpea. It is cultivated over marginal lands andunder rainfed conditions in the dry areas ofcentral and southern states of the country. Thiscrop occupies only about 2 per cent of totalcropped area of India. Maharashtra alonecontributes about one-third of the totalproduction of tur. Other leading producer statesare Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat andMadhya Pradesh. Per hectare output of this crop

is very low and its performance is inconsistent.Differentiate between different foodgrains. Mix grains ofvarious kinds and separate cereals from pulses. Also,separate fine from coarse cereals.OilseedsThe oilseeds are produced for extracting edibleoils. Drylands of Malwa plateau, Marathwada,Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana, Rayalseemaregion of Andhra Pradesh and Karnatakaplateau are oilseeds growing regions of India.These crops together occupy about 14 per centof total cropped area in the country.Groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, soyabeanand sunflower are the main oilseed crops grownin India.GroundnutIndia produces about 18.8 per cent of the totalgroundnut production in the world (2008-09).It is largely a rainfed kharif crop of drylands.But in southern India, it is cultivated during rabiseason as well. It covers about 3.6 per cent oftotal cropped area in the country. Gujarat, Tamil

Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnatakaand Maharashtra are the leading producers.Yield of groundnut is comparatively high inTamil Nadu where it is partly irrigated. But itsyield is low in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh andKarnataka.Rapeseed and MustardRapeseed and mustard comprise several oilseedsas rai, sarson, toria and taramira. These aresubtropical crops cultivated during rabi seasonin north-western and central parts of India.These are frost sensitive crops and their yieldsfluctuate from year to year. But with theexpansion of irrigation and improvement in seedtechnology, their yields have improved andstabilised to some extent. About two-third of thecultivated area under these crops is irrigated.These oilseeds together occupy only 2.5 per centof total cropped area in the country. Rajasthancontributes about one-third production whileother leading producers are Uttar Pradesh,Haryana, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.Yields of these crops are comparatively high inHaryana and Rajasthan.

Other OilseedsSoyabean and sunflower are other importantoilseeds grown in India. Soyabean is mostlygrown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.Fig. 5.5 : Farmers sowing soyabean seeds in Amravati,Maharashtra2015-1650 India : People and EconomyFig. 5.6 : India – Distribution of Cotton and Jute2015-16Land Resources and Agriculture 51These two states together produce about 90 percent of total output of soyabean in the country.Sunflower cultivation is concentrated inKarnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana andadjoining areas of Maharashtra. It is a minorcrop in northern parts of the country where itsyield is high due to irrigation.Fibre CropsThese crops provide us fibre for preparing cloth,bags, sacks and a number of other items.Cotton and jute are two main fibre crops grownin India.CottonCotton is a tropical crop grown in kharif season

in semi-arid areas of the country. India lost alarge proportion of cotton growing area toPakistan during partition. However, its acreagehas increased considerably during the last 50years. India grows both short staple (Indian)cotton as well as long staple (American) cottoncalled ‘narma’ in north-western parts of thecountry. Cotton requires clear sky duringflowering stage.in south. Leading producers of this crop areMaharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,Punjab and Haryana. Per hectare output ofcotton is high under irrigated conditions innorth-western region of the country. Its yieldis very low in Maharashtra where it is grownunder rainfed conditions.JuteJute is used for making coarse cloth, bags, sacksand decorative items. It is a cash crop in WestBengal and adjoining eastern parts of thecountry. India lost large jute growing areas toEast Pakistan (Bangladesh) during partition. Atpresent, India produces about three-fifth of juteproduction of the world. West Bengal accountsfor about three-fourth of the production in thecountry. Bihar and Assam are other jute growing

areas. Being concentrated only in a few states,this crop accounts for only about 0.5 per cent oftotal cropped area in the country.Other CropsSugarcane, tea and coffee are other importantcrops grown in India.SugarcaneSugarcane is a crop of tropical areas. Underrainfed conditions, it is cultivated in sub-humidand humid climates. But it is largely an irrigatedcrop in India. In Indo-Gangetic plain, itscultivation is largely concentrated in UttarPradesh. Sugarcane growing area in westernIndia is spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat.India ranks fourth in the world in theproduction of cotton after China, U.S.A. andPakistan and accounts for about 8.3 per centof production of cotton in the world. Cottonoccupies about 4.7 per cent of total croppedarea in the country. There are three cottongrowing areas, i.e. parts of Punjab, Haryana andnorthern Rajasthan in north-west, Gujarat andMaharashtra in the west and plateaus ofAndhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil NaduFig. 5.7 : Cotton Cultivation

Fig. 5.8 : Sugarcane Cultivation2015-1652 India : People and EconomyFig. 5.9 : India – Distribution of Sugarcane2015-16Land Resources and Agriculture 53In southern India, it is cultivated in irrigatedtracts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telanganaand Andhra Pradesh.India was the second largest producer ofsugarcane after Brazil in 2008-09. It accountsfor about 23 per cent of the world productionof sugarcane. But it occupies only 2.4 per centof total cropped area in the country. UttarPradesh produces about two-fifth of sugarcaneof the country. Maharashtra, Karnataka, TamilNadu, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh are otherleading producers of this crop where yield levelof sugarcane is high. Its yield is low in northernIndia.TeaTea is a plantation crop used as beverage. Blacktea leaves are fermented whereas green tea leavesare unfermented. Tea leaves have rich content ofcaffeine and tannin. It is an indigenous crop of

hills in northern China. It is grown overundulating topography of hilly areas and welldrainedsoils in humid and sub-humid tropicsand sub-tropics. In India, tea plantation startedin 1840s in Brahmaputra valley of Assam whichstill is a major tea growing area in the country.Later on, its plantation was introduced in thesub-Himalayan region of West Bengal (Darjiling,Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts). Tea is alsocultivated on the lower slopes of Nilgiri andafter Sri Lanka and China. Assam accounts forabout 53.2 per cent of the total cropped area andcontributes more than half of total production oftea in the country. West Bengal and Tamil Naduare the other leading producers of tea.CoffeeCoffee is a tropical plantation crop. Its seedsare roasted, ground and are used for preparinga beverage. There are three varieties of coffeei.e. arabica, robusta and liberica. India mostlygrows superior quality coffee, arabica, whichis in great demand in International market. ButIndia produces only about 3.2 per cent coffee

of the world and ranks seventh after Brazil,Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, Ethopia andMexico in 2008-09. Coffee is cultivated in thehighlands of Western Ghats in Karnataka,Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Karnataka aloneaccounts for more than two-third of totalproduction of coffee in the country.Agricultural Development in IndiaAgriculture continues to be an important sectorof Indian economy. In 2001 about 53 per centpopulation of the country was dependent on it.The importance of agricultural sector in Indiacan be gauged from the fact that about 57 percent of its land is devoted to crop cultivation,whereas, in the world, the corresponding shareis only about 12 per cent. In spite of this, thereis tremendous pressure on agricultural landin India, which is reflected from the fact thatthe land-human ratio in the country is only 0.31ha which is almost half of that of the world as awhole (0.59 ha). Despite various constraints,Indian agriculture has marched a long waysince Independence.Strategy of DevelopmentIndian agricultural economy was largelysubsistence in nature before Independence. Ithad dismal performance in the first half of

twentieth century. This period witnessed severedroughts and famines. During partition aboutone-third of the irrigated land in undividedIndia went to Pakistan. This reduced theproportion of irrigated area in IndependentFig. 5.10 : Tea FarmingCardamom hills in Western Ghats. India is aleading producer of tea and accounts for about28 per cent of total production in the world.India’s share in the international market of teahas declined substantially. At present, it ranksthird among tea exporting countries in the world2015-1654 India : People and EconomyFig. 5.11 : India – Distribution of Tea and Coffee2015-16Land Resources and Agriculture 55India. After Independence, the immediate goalof the Government was to increase foodgrainsproduction by (i) switching over from cashcrops to food crops; (ii) intensification ofcropping over already cultivated land; and (iii)increasing cultivated area by bringing cultivableand fallow land under plough. Initially, thisstrategy helped in increasing foodgrains

production. But agricultural productionstagnated during late 1950s. To overcome thisproblem, Intensive Agricultural DistrictProgramme (IADP) and Intensive AgriculturalArea Programme (IAAP) were launched. But twoconsecutive droughts during mid-1960sresulted in food crisis in the country.Consequently, the foodgrains were importedfrom other countries.New seed varieties of wheat (Mexico) andrice (Philippines) known as high yieldingvarieties (HYVs) were available for cultivationby mid-1960s. India took advantage of this andintroduced package technology comprisingHYVs, along with chemical fertilizers in irrigatedareas of Punjab, Haryana, Western UttarPradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. Assuredsupply of soil moisture through irrigation wasa basic pre-requisite for the success of this newagricultural technology. This strategy ofagricultural development paid dividendsinstantly and increased the foodgrainsproduction at very fast rate. This spurt ofagricultural growth came to be known as‘Green Revolution’. This also gave fillip to thedevelopment of a large number of agro-inputs,

agro-processing industries and small-scaleindustries. This strategy of agriculturaldevelopment made the country self-reliant infoodgrain production. But green revolution wasinitially confined to irrigated areas only. Thisled to regional disparities in agriculturaldevelopment in the country till the seventies,after which the technology spread to the Easternand Central parts of the country.The Planning Commission of Indiafocused its attention on the problems ofagriculture in rainfed areas in 1980s. Itinitiated agro-climatic planning in 1988 toinduce regionally balanced agriculturaldevelopment in the country. It also emphasisedthe need for diversification of agriculture andharnessing of resources for development ofdairy farming, poultry, horticulture, livestockrearing and aquaculture.Initiation of the policy of liberalisation andfree market economy in 1990s is likely toinfluence the course of development of Indianagriculture. Lack of development of ruralinfrastructure, withdrawal of subsidies andprice support, and impediments in availing ofthe rural credits may lead to inter-regional andinter-personal disparities in rural areas.

Growth of Agricultural Output and TechnologyThere has been a significant increase inagricultural output and improvement intechnology during the last fifty years.• Production and yield of many cropssuch as rice and wheat has increased atan impressive rate. Among the othercrops, the production of sugarcane,oilseeds and cotton has also increasedappreciably. India ranked first in theproduction of pulses and jute in2008-09. It is the second largestproducerof rice, wheat, groundnut,sugarcane and vegetables.• Expansion of irrigation has played a verycrucial role in enhancing agriculturaloutput in the country. It provided basisfor introduction of modern agriculturaltechnology such as high yielding varietiesof seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides andfarm machinery. The net irrigated area inthe country has increased from 20.85 to54.66 million ha over the period 1950-51to 2000-01. Over these 50 years, areairrigated more than once in an agriculturalyear has increased from 1.71 to 20.46million ha.

• Modern agricultural technology hasdiffused very fast in various areas of thecountry. Consumption of chemicalfertilizers has increased by 15 times sincemid-sixties. In 2001-02, per hectareconsumption of chemical fertilizers in Indiawas 91 kg which was equal to its averageconsumption in the world (90 kg). But inthe irrigated areas of Punjab and Haryana,2015-1656 India : People and EconomyLow productivityThe yield of the crops in the country is low incomparison to the international level. Perhectare output of most of the crops such asrice, wheat, cotton and oilseeds in India ismuch lower than that of U.S.A., Russia andJapan. Because of the very high pressure onthe land resources, the labour productivityin Indian agriculture is also very low incomparison to international level. The vastrainfed areas of the country, particularlydrylands which mostly grow coarse cereals,pulses and oilseeds have very low yields.Why is agricultural productivity low in dryregions?Constraints of Financial Resources andIndebtedness

The inputs of modern agriculture are veryexpensive. This resource intensive approach hasbecome unmanageable for marginal and smallfarmers as they have very meagre or no savingto invest in agriculture. To tide over thesedifficulties, most of such farmers have resortedto availing credit from various institutions andmoney lenders. Crop failures and low returnsfrom agriculture have forced them to fall in thetrap of indebtedness.What are the implications of severeindebtedness? Do you feel that the recentincidents of farmers’ suicides in differentstates of the country are the result ofindebtedness?Lack of Land ReformsIndian peasantry had been exploited for along time as there had been unequaldistribution of land. Among the threerevenue systems operational during Britishperiod i.e. Mahalwari, Ryotwari andZamindari, the last one was most exploitativefor the peasants. After independence, landreforms were accorded priority, but thesethe consumption of chemical fertilizers perunit area is three to four times higher thanthat of the national average. Since the high

yielding varieties are highly susceptible topests and diseases, the use of pesticideshas increased significantly since 1960s.Fig. 5.12 : Roto Till Drill - A modern agricultural equipmentProblems of Indian AgricultureThe nature of problems faced by Indianagriculture varies according to agro-ecologicaland historical experiences of its different regions.Hence, most of the agricultural problems in thecountry are region specific. Yet, there are someproblems which are common and range fromphysical constraints to institutional hindrances.A detailed discussion on these problems follows:Dependence on Erratic MonsoonIrrigation covers only about 33 per cent of thecultivated area in India. The crop productionin rest of the cultivated land directly dependson rainfall. Poor performance of south-westMonsoon also adversely affects the supply ofcanal water for irrigation. On the other hand,the rainfall in Rajasthan and other droughtprone areas is too meagre and highly unreliable.Even the areas receiving high annual rainfallexperience considerable fluctuations. This

makes them vulnerable to both droughts andfloods. Drought is a common phenomenon inthe low rainfall areas which may also experienceoccasional floods. The flash floods in drylandsof Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan in2006 are examples of this phenomenon.Droughts and floods continue to be twin menacein Indian agriculture.2015-16Land Resources and Agriculture 57reforms were not implemented effectively dueto lack of strong political will. Most of the stategovernments avoided taking politically toughdecisions which went against strong politicallobbies of landlords. Lack of implementationof land reforms has resulted in continuationof inequitous distribution of cultivable landwhich is detrimental to agriculturaldevelopment.Small Farm Size and Fragmentation ofLandholdingsThere are a large number of marginal and smallfarmers in the country. More than 60 per centof the ownership holdings have a size smallerthan one (ha). Furthermore, about 40 per cent

of the farmers have operational holding sizesmaller than 0.5 hectare (ha). The average sizeof land holding is shrinking further underincreasing population pressure. Furthermore,in India, the land holdings are mostlyfragmented. There are some states whereconsolidation of holding has not been carriedout even once. Even the states where it has beencarried out once, second consolidation isrequired as land holdings have fragmentedagain in the process of division of land amongthe owners of next generations. The small sizefragmented landholdings are uneconomic.Lack of CommercialisationA large number of farmers produce crops forself-consumption. These farmers do not haveenough land resources to produce more thantheir requirement. Most of the small andmarginal farmers grow foodgrains, which areWhat changes have you noticed inagricultural sector and croppingpattern? Discuss in the class.2015-1658 India : People and EconomyEXERCISES1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.

(i) Which one of the following is NOT a land-use category?(a) Fallow land (c) Net Area Sown(b) Marginal land (d) Culturable Wasteland(ii) What one of the following is the main reason due to which share of foresthas shown an increase in the last forty years?(a) Extensive and efficient efforts of afforestation(b) Increase in community forest land(c) Increase in notified area allocated for forest growth(d) Better peoples’ participation in managing forest area.(iii) Which one of the following is the main form of degradation in irrigatedareas?(a) Gully erosion (c) Salinisation of soils(b) Wind erosion (d) Siltation of landmeant for their own family consumption.Modernisation and commercialisation ofagriculture have however, taken place in theirrigated areas.Vast Under-employmentThere is a massive under-employment in theagricultural sector in India, particularly in theun-irrigated tracts. In these areas, there is aseasonal unemployment ranging from 4 to 8months. Even in the cropping season work isnot available throughout, as agricultural

operations are not labour intensive. Hence, thepeople engaged in agriculture do not have theopportunity to work round the year.Degradation of Cultivable LandOne of the serious problems that arises out offaulty strategy of irrigation and agriculturaldevelopment is degradation of land resources.This is serious because it may lead todepletion of soil fertility. The situation isparticularly alarming in irrigated areas. A largetract of agricultural land has lost its fertilitydue to alkalisation and salinisation of soils andwaterlogging. Alkalinity and salinity havealready affected about 8 million ha land.Another 7 million ha land in the country haslost its fertility due to waterlogging. Excessiveuse of chemicals such as insecticides andpesticides has led to their concentration in toxicamounts in the soil profile. Leguminous cropshave been displaced from the cropping patternin the irrigated areas and duration of fallowhas substantially reduced owing to multiplecropping. This has obliterated the process ofnatural fertilization such as nitrogen fixation.Rainfed areas in humid and semi-arid tropicsalso experience degradation of several typeslike soil erosion by water and wind erosion

which are often induced by human activities.Prepare a list of agricultural problems in your ownregion. How similar or different are these problemscompared to the problems mentioned in this chapter?2015-16Land Resources and Agriculture 59(iv) Which one of the following crops is not cultivated under dryland farming?(a) Ragi (c) Groundnut(b) Jowar (d) Sugarcane(v) In which of the following group of countries of the world, HYVs of wheatand rice were developed?(a) Japan and Australia (c) Mexico and Philippines(b) U.S.A. and Japan (d) Mexico and Singapore2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) Differentiate between barren and wasteland and culturable wasteland.(ii) How would you distinguish between net sown area and gross croppedarea?(iii) Why is the strategy of increasing cropping intensity important in a

country like India?(iv) How do you measure total cultivable land?(v) What is the difference between dryland and wetland farming?3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) What are the different types of environmental problems of land resourcesin India?(ii) What are the important strategies for agricultural development followedin the post-independence period in India?2015-162015-16Unit IIIChapter 6WATER RESOURCESDo you think that what exists today willcontinue to be so, or the future is going to bedifferent in some respects? It can be said withsome certainty that the societies will witnessdemographic transition, geographical shift ofpopulation, technological advancement,degradation of environment and water scarcity.Water scarcity is possibly to pose the greatestchallenge on account of its increased demandcoupled with shrinking supplies due to overutilisation and pollution. Water is a cyclicresource with abundant supplies on the globe.

Approximately, 71 per cent of the earth’ssurface is covered with it but fresh waterconstitutes only about 3 per cent of the totalwater. In fact, a very small proportion of freshwater is effectively available for human use. Theavailability of fresh water varies over space andtime. The tensions and disputes on sharing andcontrol of this scare resource are becomingcontested issues among communities, regions,and states. The assessment, efficient use andconservation of water, therefore, becomenecessary to ensure development. In thischapter, we shall discuss water resources inIndia, its geographical distribution, sectoralutilisation, and methods of its conservation andmanagement.Water Resources of IndiaIndia accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’ssurface area, 4 per cent of the world’s waterresources and about 16 per cent of world’spopulation. The total water available fromprecipitation in the country in a year is about4,000 cubic km. The availability from surfacewater and replenishable groundwater is 1,869cubic km. Out of this only 60 per cent can be

put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisablewater resource in the country is only 1,122cubic km.Surface Water ResourcesThere are four major sources of surface water.These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks. Inthe country, there are about 10,360 riversand their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each.The mean annual flow in all the river basinsin India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km.2015-16harnessed, but it is yet to be done in theBrahmaputra and the Ganga basins.Groundwater ResourcesThe total replenishable groundwaterresources in the country are about 432 cubickm. Table 6.1 shows that the Ganga and theBrahamaputra basins, have about 46 percent of the total replenishable groundwaterresources. The level of groundwaterutilisation is relatively high in the river basinslying in north-western region and parts ofsouth India.The groundwater utilisation is very highin the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,and Tamil Nadu. However, there are States likeChhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala, etc., which utiliseonly a small proportion of their groundwater

potentials. States like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,Bihar, Tripura and Maharashtra are utilisingtheir ground water resources at a moderaterate. If the present trend continues, theHowever, due to topographical, hydrologicaland other constraints, only about 690 cubickm (32 per cent) of the available surface watercan be utilised. Water flow in a river dependson size of its catchment area or river basinand rainfall within its catchment area. Youhave studied in your Class XI textbook “India: Physical Environment” that precipitation inIndia has very high spatial variation, and it ismainly concentrated in Monsoon season. Youalso have studied in the textbook that someof the rivers in the country like the Ganga,the Brahmaputra, and the Indus have hugecatchment areas. Given that precipitation isrelatively high in the catchment areas of theGanga, the Brahmaputra and the Barakrivers, these rivers, although account for onlyabout one-third of the total area in thecountry, have 60 per cent of the total surfacewater resources. Much of the annual waterflow in south Indian rivers like the Godavari,the Krishna, and the Kaveri has beenS. Name of Basin Total Replenishable Level of Groundwater

No. Ground Water Resources Utilisation (%)1. Brahmani with Baitarni 4.05 8.452. Brahmaputra 26.55 3.373. Chambal Composite 7.19 40.094. Kaveri 12.3 55.335. Ganga 170.99 33.526. Godavari 40.65 19.537. Indus 26.49 77.718. Krishna 26.41 30.399. Kuchchh and Saurashtra including river Luni 11.23 51.1410. Chennai and South Tamil Nadu 18.22 57.6811. Mahanadi 16.46 6.9512. Meghna (Barak & Others) 8.52 3.9413. Narmada 10.83 21.7414. Northeast Composite 18.84 17.215. Pennar 4.93 36.616. Subarnrekha 1.82 9.5717. Tapi 8.27 33.0518. Western Ghat 17.69 22.88Total 431.42 31.97Table 6.1 : Basinwise Ground water Potential and Utilisation in India (Cubic Km/Year)Source: Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India, New Delhi;http://wrmin.nic.in/resource/gwresource1.htmWater Resources 612015-1662 India : People and EconomyFig. 6.1 : India – River Basins

2015-16Water Resources 63demands for water would need the supplies.And such situation, will be detrimental todevelopment, and can cause social upheavaland disruptions.Exercise based on Table 6.1 :1. Which river basin has the highest totalreplenishable ground water resource?2. In which river basin is the level of groundwater utilisation the highest?3. Which river basin has the lowest totalreplenishable ground water resource?4. In which river basin is the level of groundwater utilisation the lowest?5. Draw a bar diagram to show the totalreplenishable ground water resourcesin 10 major river basins.6. Draw a bar diagram to show the levels

of ground water utilisation of the same10 major river basins for which you havemade the first bar diagram.Kerala, Odisha and West Bengal have vastsurface water resources in these lagoons andlakes. Although, water is generally brackish inthese water-bodies, it is used for fishing andirrigating certain varieties of paddy crops,coconut, etc.Water Demand and UtilisationIndia has traditionally been an agrarianeconomy, and about two-third of its populationhave been dependent on agriculture. Hence,development of irrigation to increase agriculturalproduction has been assigned a very highpriority in the Five Year Plans, and multipurposeriver valleys projects like the Bhakra-Nangal,Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarjuna Sagar,Indira Gandhi Canal Project, etc. have been takenup. In fact, India’s water demand at present isdominated by irrigational needs.As shown in Fig. 6.2 and 6.3, agricultureaccounts for most of the surface and groundwater utilisation, it accounts for 89 per cent of

the surface water and 92 per cent of thegroundwater utilisation. While the share ofindustrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of thesurface water utilisation and 5 per cent of theground-water, the share of domestic sector ishigher (9 per cent) in surface water utilisationas compared to groundwater. The share ofFig. 6.2 : Sectoral Usage of Surface WaterSource: Earth Trend 2001, World Resource Institute, as given in Govt. of India (2002) ReportLagoons and BackwatersIndia has a vast coastline and the coast is veryindented in some states. Due to this, a numberof lagoons and lakes have formed. The States likeFig. 6.3 : Sectoral Usage of Groundwater2015-1664 India : People and Economyagricultural sector in total water utilisation ismuch higher than other sectors. However, infuture, with development, the shares ofindustrial and domestic sectors in the countryare likely to increase.Demand of Water for IrrigationIn agriculture, water is mainly used forirrigation. Irrigation is needed because ofspatio-temporal variability in rainfall in thecountry. The large tracts of the country are

deficient in rainfall and are drought prone.North-western India and Deccan plateauconstitute such areas. Winter and summerseasons are more or less dry in most part ofthe country. Hence, it is difficult to practiseagriculture without assured irrigation duringdry seasons. Even in the areas of amplerainfall like West Bengal and Bihar, breaksin monsoon or its failure creates dry spellsdetrimental for agriculture. Water need ofcertain crops also makes irrigation necessary.For instance, water requirement of rice,sugarcane, jute, etc. is very high which canbe met only through irrigation.Provision of irrigation makes multiplecropping possible. It has also been found thatirrigated lands have higher agriculturalproductivity than unirrigated land. Further, thehigh yielding varieties of crops need regularmoisture supply, which is made possible onlyby a developed irrigation systems. In fact, thisis why that green revolution strategy ofagriculture development in the country haslargely been successful in Punjab, Haryana andwestern Uttar Pradesh.Fig. 6.4 : The Ganga and its Tributaries and Towns Located on them2015-16

Water Resources 65State PercentageGujarat 86.6Rajasthan 77.2Madhya Pradesh 66.5Maharashtra 65Uttar Pradesh 58.21West Bengal 57.6Tamil Nadu 54.7Table 6.2 : Percentage of net irrigated areato total by wells and Tube-wellsIn Punjab, Haryana and Western UttarPradesh more than 85 per cent of their netsown area is under irrigation. Wheat and riceare grown mainly with the help of irrigation inthese states. Of the total net irrigated area 76.1per cent in Punjab and 51.3 per cent in Haryanaare irrigated through wells and tube wells. Thisshows that these states utilise large proportionof their ground water potential which hasresulted in ground water depletion in thesestates. The share of area irrigated through wellsand tube wells is also very high in the statesgiven in table 6.2.What is the pattern of well and Tube-wellirrigation discernible from the above table?

What are the implications of using groundwater in drought prone area of Rajasthan,Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu?The over-use of ground water resourceshas led to decline in ground water table in thesestates. In fact, over withdrawals in some stateslike Rajasthan, and Maharashtra has increasedfluoride concentration in ground-water, and thispractice has led to increase in concentration ofarsenic in parts of West Bengal and Bihar.Intensive irrigation in Punjab, Haryana and western UttarPradesh is increasing salinity in the soil and depletionof ground water irrigation. Discuss its likely impacts onagriculture.Emerging Water ProblemsThe per capita availability of water is dwindlingday by day due to increase in population. Theavailable water resources are also gettingpolluted with industrial, agricultural anddomestic effluents, and this, in turn, is furtherlimiting the availability of usable water

resources.Deterioration of Water QualityWater quality refers to purity of water, or waterwithout unwanted foreign substances. Watergets polluted by foreign matters such as microorganisms,chemicals, industrial and otherwastes. Such matters deteriorate the quality ofwater and render it unfit for human use. Whentoxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers,ocean and other water bodies, they get dissolvedor lie suspended in water. This results in pollutionof water whereby quality of water deterioratesaffecting aquatic systems. Sometimes, thesepollutants also seep down and pollutegroundwater. The Ganga and the Yamuna arethe two highly polluted rivers in the country.Find out which are the major towns/cities located onthe bank of the Ganga and its tributaries and majorindustries they have.Water Conservation and ManagementSince there is a declining availability of fresh

water and increasing demand, the need hasarisen to conserve and effectively manage thisprecious life giving resource for sustainabledevelopment. Given that water availability fromsea/ocean, due to high cost of desalinisation,is considered negligible, India has to take quicksteps and make effective policies and laws, andadopt effective measures for its conservation.Besides developing water saving technologiesand methods, attempts are also to be made toprevent the pollution. There is need toencourage watershed development, rainwaterharvesting, water recycling and reuse, andconjunctive use of water for sustaining watersupply in long run.2015-1666 India : People and EconomyDiscuss the issues highlighted in thenews items.Prevention of Water PollutionAvailable water resources are degradingrapidly. The major rivers of the countrygenerally retain better water quality in lessdensely populated upper stretches in hillyareas. In plains, river water is used intensivelyfor irrigation, drinking, domestic and industrialpurposes. The drains carrying agricultural

(fertilisers and insecticides), domestic (solid andliquid wastes), and industrial effluents join therivers. The concentration of pollutants in rivers,especially remains very high during the summerseason when flow of water is low.The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)in collaboration with State Pollution ControlBoards has been monitoring water quality ofnational aquatic resources at 507 stations. Thedata obtained from these stations show thatorganic and bacterial contamination continuesto be the main source of pollution in rivers. TheYamuna river is the most polluted river in thecountry between Delhi and Etawah. Otherseverely polluted rivers are: the Sabarmati atAhmedabad, the Gomti at Lucknow, the Kali, theAdyar, the Cooum (entire stretches), the Vaigaiat Madurai and the Musi of Hyderabad and theGanga at Kanpur and Varanasi. Groundwaterpollution has occurred due to highconcentrations of heavy/toxic metals, fluorideand nitrates at different parts of the country.The legislative provisions such as the Water(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974,and Environment Protection Act 1986 have not

been implemented effectively. The result is thatin 1997, 251 polluting industries were located2015-16Water Resources 67along the rivers and lakes. The Water Cess Act,1977, meant to reduce pollution has also mademarginal impacts. There is a strong need togenerate public awareness about importance ofwater and impacts of water pollution. The publicawareness and action can be very effective inreducing the pollutants from agriculturalactivities, domestic and industrial discharges.Recycle and Reuse of WaterAnother way through which we can improvefresh water availability is by recycle and reuse.Use of water of lesser quality such as reclaimedwaste-water would be an attractive option forindustries for cooling and fire fighting to reducetheir water cost. Similarly, in urban areas waterafter bathing and washing utensils can be usedfor gardening. Water used for washing vehiclecan also be used for gardening. This wouldconserve better quality of water for drinking

purposes. Currently, recycling of water is practisedon a limited scale. However, there is enormousscope for replenishing water through recycling.Observe the quantity of water used at your home invarious activities and enlist the ways in which the watercan be reused and recycled in various activities.Class teachers should organise a discussion on recycleand reuse of water.Watershed ManagementWatershed management basically refers toefficient management and conservation ofsurface and groundwater resources. It involvesprevention of runoff and storage and rechargeof groundwater through various methods likepercolation tanks, recharge wells, etc. However,in broad sense watershed management includesconservation, regeneration and judicious use ofall resources – natural (like land, water, plants

and animals) and human with in a watershed.Watershed management aims at bringing aboutbalance between natural resources on the onehand and society on the other. The success ofwatershed development largely depends uponcommunity participation.The Central and State Governments haveinitiated many watershed development andmanagement programmes in the country. Someof these are being implemented by nongovernmentalorganisations also. Haryali is awatershed development project sponsored bythe Central Government which aims at enablingthe rural population to conserve water fordrinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation.The Project is being executed by GramPanchayats with people’s participation.Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) programme(in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Pani Sansad(in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken upconstructions of various water-harvestingstructures such as percolation tanks, dug outponds (Johad), check dams, etc. throughpeople’s participation. Tamil Nadu has made

water harvesting structures in the housescompulsory. No building can be constructedwithout making structures for water harvesting.Watershed development projects in someareas have been successful in rejuvenatingenvironment and economy. However, there areonly a few success stories. In majority of cases,the programme is still in its nascent stage. Thereis a need to generate awareness regardingbenefits of watershed development andmanagement among people in the country, andthrough this integrated water resourcemanagement approach water availability can beensured on sustainable basis.Rainwater HarvestingRain water harvesting is a method to captureand store rainwater for various uses. It is alsoused to recharge groundwater aquifers. It is alow cost and eco-friendly technique forpreserving every drop of water by guiding therain water to bore well, pits and wells. Rainwaterharvesting increases water availability, checksthe declining ground water table, improves the

quality of groundwater through dilution ofcontaminants like fluoride and nitrates,prevents soil erosion, and flooding and arrestssalt water intrusion in coastal areas if used torecharge aquifers.Rainwater harvesting has been practisedthrough various methods by differentcommunities in the country for a long time.2015-1668 India : People and EconomyWatershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:A Case StudyRalegan Siddhi is a small village in the district of Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra. It has become anexample for watershed development throughout the country.In 1975, this village was caught in a web of poverty and illicit liquor trade. The transformation took placewhen a retired army personnel, settled down in the village and took up the task of watershed development.

He convinced villagers about the importance of family planning and voluntary labour; preventing opengrazing, felling trees, and liquor prohibition.Voluntary labour was necessary to ensure minimum dependence on the government for financialaids. “It socialised the costs of the projects.” explained the activist. Even those who were workingoutside the village contributed to the development by committing a month’s salary every year.Work began with the percolation tank constructed in the village. In 1975, the tank could not holdwater. The embankment wall leaked. People voluntarily repaired the embankment. The seven wells

below it swelled with water in summer for the first time in the living memory of the people. The peoplereposed their faith in him and his visions.A youth group called Tarun Mandal was formed. The group worked to ban the dowry system, castediscrimination and untouchability. Liquor distilling units were removed and prohibition imposed. Opengrazing was completely banned with a new emphasis on stall-feeding. The cultivation of water-intensivecrops like sugarcane was banned. Crops such as pulses, oilseeds and certain cash crops with lowwater requirements were encouraged.All elections to local bodies began to be heldon the basis of consensus. “It made the

community leaders complete representativesof the people.” A system of Nyay Panchayats(informal courts) were also set up. Since then,no case has been referred to the police.A Rs.22 lakh school building was constructedusing only the resources of the village. Nodonations were taken. Money, if needed, wasborrowed and paid back. The villagers took pridein this self-reliance. A new system of sharinglabour grew out of this infusion of pride and

voluntary spirit. People volunteered to help each other in agricultural operation. Landless labourers alsogained employment. Today the village plans tobuy land for them in adjoining villages.At present, water is adequate; agriculture isflourishing, though the use of fertilisers andpesticides is very high. The prosperity also bringsthe question of ability of the present generationto carry on the work after the leader of themovement who declared that, “The process ofRalegan’s evolution to an ideal village will not

stop. With changing times, people tend to evolvenew ways. In future, Ralegan might present adifferent model to the country.”What a mitigation approach can do? A success story.Ralegan Siddhi before mitigation approachRalegan Siddhi after mitigation approach2015-16Water Resources 69Fig. 6.5 : Various Methods of Rainwater HarvestingTraditional rain water harvesting in rural areasis done by using surface storage bodies likelakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, etc. In Rajasthan,rainwater harvesting structures locally knownas Kund or Tanka (a covered undergroundtank) are constructed near or in the house orvillage to store harvested rainwater (see Fig. 6.5to understand various ways of rainwaterharvesting).There is a wide scope to use rainwaterharvesting technique to conserve preciouswater resource. It can be done by harvestingrainwater on rooftops and open spaces.

Harvesting rainwater also decreases the2015-1670 India : People and EconomyEXERCISES1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.(i) Which one of the following types describes water as a resource?(a) Abiotic resource (c) Biotic Resource(b) Non-renewable Resources (d) Cyclic ResourceHighlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002The National Water Policy 2002 stipulates water allocation priorities broadly in the following order:drinking water; irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, industrial and other uses. The policy stipulatesprogressive new approaches to water management. Key features include:• Irrigation and multi-purpose projects should invariably include drinking water component, wherever

there is no alternative source of drinking water.• Providing drinking water to all human beings and animals should be the first priority.• Measures should be taken to limit and regulate the exploitation of groundwater.• Both surface and groundwater should be regularly monitored for quality. A phased programmeshould be undertaken for improving water quality.• The efficiency of utilisation in all the diverse uses of water should be improved.• Awareness of water as a scarce resource should be fostered.• Conservation consciousness should be promoted through education, regulation, incentives anddisincentives.

Source : Govt. of India (2002), ‘India’s Reform Initiatives in Water Sector’, Ministry for Rural Development, New Delhicommunity dependence on groundwater fordomestic use. Besides bridging the demandsupplygap, it can also save energy to pumpgroundwater as recharge leads to rise ingroundwater table. These days rainwaterharvesting is being taken up on massive scalein many states in the country. Urban areascan specially benefit from rainwaterharvesting as water demand has alreadyoutstripped supply in most of the cities andtowns.Apart from the above mentioned factors,the issue desalinisation of water particularlyin coastal areas and brackish water in arid andsemi-arid areas, transfer of water from watersurplus areas to water deficit areas throughinter linking of rivers can be importantremedies for solving water problem in India(read more about inter linking of rivers).However, the most important issue from thepoint of view of individual users, householdand communities is pricing of water.2015-16Water Resources 71

(ii) Which one of the following rivers has the highest replenishable groundwater resource in the country?(a) The Indus (c) The Ganga(b) The Brahmaputra (d) The Godavari(iii) Which of the following figures in cubic kilometres correctly shows thetotal annual precipitation in India?(a) 2,000 (c) 4,000(b) 3,000 (d) 5,000(iv) Which one of the following south Indian states has the highestgroundwater utilisation (in per cent) of its total ground water potential?(a) Tamil Nadu (c) Andhra Pradesh(b) Karnataka (d) Kerala(v) The highest proportion of the total water used in the country is in whichone of the following sectors?(a) Irrigation (c) Domestic use(b) Industries (d) None of the above2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) It is said that the water resources in India have been depleting very fast.Discuss the factors responsible for depletion of water resources?(ii) What factors are responsible for the highest groundwater developmentin the states of Punjab, Haryana, and Tamil Nadu?

(iii) Why the share of agricultural sector in total water used in the country isexpected to decline?(iv) What can be possible impacts of consumption of contaminated/uncleanwater on the people?3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) Discuss the availability of water resources in the country and factorsthat determine its spatial distribution?(ii) The depleting water resources may lead to social conflicts and disputes.Elaborate it with suitable examples?(iii) What is watershed management? Do you think it can play an importantrole in sustainable development?2015-16Unit IIIChapter 7MINERAL ANDENERGYRESOURCESIndia is endowed with a rich variety of mineralresources due to its varied geological structure.Bulk of the valuable minerals are products ofpre-palaezoic age (Refer: Chapter 2 of Class XI,

Textbook: “Fundamentals of PhysicalGeography” and are mainly associated withmetamorphic and igneous rocks of thepeninsular India. The vast alluvial plain tractof north India is devoid of minerals of economicuse. The mineral resources provide the countrywith the necessary base for industrialdevelopment. In this chapter, we shall discussthe availability of various types of mineral andenergy resources in the country.A mineral is a natural substance of organicor inorganic origin with definite chemical andphysical properties.Types of Mineral ResourcesOn the basis of chemical and physicalproperties, minerals may be grouped under twomain categories of metallics and non-metallicswhich may further be classified as follows :Fig. 7.1 : Classification of Minerals2015-16As, it is clear from the Fig. 7.1 metallicminerals are the sources of metals. Iron ore,copper, gold produce metal and are included

in this category. Metallic minerals are furtherdivided into ferrous and non-ferrous metallicminerals. Ferrous, as you know, refers to iron.All those minerals which have iron content areferrous such as iron ore itself and those whichdo not have iron content are non-ferrous suchas copper, bauxite, etc.Non-metallic minerals are either organicin origin such as fossil fuels also known as mineralfuels which are derived from the buried animaland plant life such as coal and petroleum. Othertype of non-metallic minerals are inorganic inorigin such as mica, limestone and graphite, etc.Minerals have certain characteristics. Theseare unevenly distributed over space. There isinverse relationship in quality and quantity ofminerals i.e. good quality minerals are less inquantity as compared to low quality minerals.The third main characteristic is that all mineralsare exhaustible over time. These take long todevelop geologically and they cannot bereplenished immediately at the time of need.Thus, they have to be conserved and notmisused as they do not have the second crop.

Agencies involved in theexploration of mineralsIn India, systematic surveying, prospectingand exploration for minerals is undertakenby the Geological Survey of India (GSI), Oiland Natural Gas Commission (ONGC),Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd.(MECL), National Mineral DevelopmentCorporation (NMDC), Indian Bureau of Mines(IBM), Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. (BGML),Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL), NationalAluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO) and theDepartments of Mining and Geology invarious states.Distribution of Minerals in IndiaMost of the metallic minerals in India occur inthe peninsular plateau region in the old

crystalline rocks. Over 97 per cent of coalreserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone,Mahanadi and Godavari. Petroleum reservesare located in the sedimentary basins of Assam,Gujarat and Mumbai High i.e. off-shore regionin the Arabian Sea. New reserves have beenlocated in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveribasins. Most of the major mineral resourcesoccur to the east of a line linking Mangaluruand Kanpur.Minerals are generally concentrated inthree broad belts in India. There may be somesporadic occurrences here and there in isolatedpockets. These belts are :The North-Eastern Plateau RegionThis belt covers Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand),Odisha Plateau, West Bengal and parts ofChhattisgarh. Have you ever thought about thereason of major iron and steel industry beinglocated in this region? It has variety of mineralsviz. iron ore coal, manganese, bauxite, mica.Find out the specific region where theseminerals are being extracted.The South-Western Plateau RegionThis belt extends over Karnataka, Goa andcontiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala.

This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite.It also contains high grade iron ore, manganeseand limestone. This belt packs in coal depositsexcept Neyveli lignite.This belt does not have as diversifiedmineral deposits as the north-eastern belt.Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium,bauxite clay. Goa has iron ore deposits.The North-Western RegionThis belt extends along Aravali in Rajasthan andpart of Gujarat and minerals are associated withDharwar system of rocks. Copper, zinc havebeen major minerals. Rajasthan is rich inbuilding stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble.Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits are alsoextensive. Dolomite and limestone provide rawmaterials for cement industry. Gujarat is knownMineral and Energy Resources 732015-1674 India : People and Economyfor its petroleum deposits. You may be knowingthat Gujarat and Rajasthan both have richsources of salt.Why and where Dandi March wasorganised by Mahatma Gandhi?

The Himalayan belt is another mineral beltwhere copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and tungstenare known to occur. They occur on both theeastern and western parts. Assam valley hasmineral oil deposits. Besides oil resources arealso found in off-shore-areas near MumbaiCoast (Mumbai High).In the following pages you will find thespatial pattern of some of the importantminerals.Ferrous MineralFerrous minerals such as iron ore, manganese,chromite, etc., provide a strong base for thedevelopment of metallurgical industries. Ourcountry is well-placed in respect of ferrousminerals both in reserves and production.Iron OreIndia is endowed with fairly abundantresources of iron ore. It has the largest reserveof iron ore in Asia. The two main types of orefound in our country are haematite andmagnetite. It has great demand in internationalmarket due to its superior quality. The iron oremines occur in close proximity to the coal fieldsin the north-eastern plateau region of thecountry which adds to their advantage.The total reserves of iron ore in the countrywere about 20 billion tonnes in the year 2004-

05. About 95 per cent of total reserves of ironore is located in the States of Odisha,Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa,Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.In Odisha, iron ore occurs in a series of hillranges in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar.The important mines are Gurumahisani,Sulaipet, Badampahar (Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu(Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundergarh). Similarhill ranges, Jharkhand has some of the oldestiron ore mines and most of the iron and steelplants are located around them. Most of theimportant mines such as Noamundi and Guaare located in Poorbi and PashchimiSinghbhum districts. This belt further extendsto Durg, Dantewara and Bailadila. Dalli, andRajhara in Durg are the important mines ofiron ore in the country. In Karnataka, iron oredeposits occur in Sandur-Hospet area ofBallari district, Baba Budan hills andKudremukh in Chikkamagaluru district andparts of Shivamogga, Chitradurg andTumakuru districts. The districts ofChandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri inMaharashtra, Karimnagar and Warangaldistrict of Telangana, Kurnool, Cuddapah andAnantapur districts of Andhra Pradesh, Salemand Nilgiris districts of Tamil Nadu are other

iron mining regions. Goa has also emerged asan important producer of iron ore.ManganeseManganese is an important raw material forsmelting of iron ore and also used formanufacturing ferro alloys. Manganesedeposits are found in almost all geologicalCan you find out its reason?2015-16Mineral and Energy Resources 75Fig. 7.2 : India – Metallic Minerals (Ferrous)2015-1676 India : People and Economyformations, however, it is mainly associated withDharwar system.Odisha is the leading producer ofManganese. Major mines in Odisha are locatedin the central part of the iron ore belt of India,particularly in Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh,Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir.Karnataka is another major producer andhere the mines are located in Dharwar, Ballari,Belagavi, North Canara, Chikkmagaluru,Shivamogga, Chitradurg and Tumkur.Maharashtra is also an important producer ofmanganese which is mined in Nagpur,Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts. The

disadvantage to these mines is that they arelocated far from steel plants. The manganesebelt of Madhya Pradesh extends in a belt inBalaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla andJhabua districts.Telangana, Goa, and Jharkhand are otherminor producers of manganese.Non-Ferrous MineralsIndia is poorly endowed with non-ferrousmetallic minerals except bauxite.BauxiteBauxite is the ore which is used inmanufacturing of aluminium. Bauxite is foundmainly in tertiary deposits and is associatedwith laterite rocks occurring extensively eitheron the plateau or hill ranges of peninsular Indiaand also in the coastal tracts of the country.Odisha happens to be the largest producerof Bauxite. Kalahandi and Sambalpur are theleading producers. The other two areas whichhave been increasing their production areBolangir and Koraput. The patlands ofJharkhand in Lohardaga have rich deposits.Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh andMaharashtra are other major producers.Bhavanagar, Jamnagar in Gujarat have the majordeposits. Chhattisgarh has bauxite deposits in

Amarkantak plateau while Katni-Jabalpur areaand Balaghat in M.P. have important deposits ofbauxite. Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara, Puneand Kolhapur in Maharashtra are importantproducers. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Goa areminor producers of bauxite.CopperCopper is an indispensable metal in theelectrical industry for making wires, electricmotors, transformers and generators. It isalloyable, malleable and ductile. It is also mixedwith gold to provide strength to jewellery.The Copper deposits mainly occur inSinghbhum district in Jharkhand, Balaghatdistrict in Madhya Pradesh and Jhunjhunu andAlwar districts in Rajasthan.Minor producers of Copper are Agnigundalain Guntur District (Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurgand Hasan districts (Karnataka) and South Arcotdistrict (Tamil Nadu).Non-metallic MineralsAmong the non-metallic minerals produced inIndia, mica is the important one. The otherminerals extracted for local consumption arelimestone, dolomite and phosphate.

MicaMica is mainly used in the electrical andelectronic industries. It can be split into very thinsheets which are tough and flexible. Mica inIndia is produced in Jharkhand, AndhraPradesh, Telanganga and Rajasthan followed byTamil Nadu, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.In Jharkhand high quality mica is obtained in abelt extending over a distance of about 150 km,in length and about 22 km, in width in lowerHazaribagh plateau. In Andhra Pradesh. Nelloredistrict produces the best quality mica. InRajasthan mica belt extends for about 320 kmsfrom Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur.Mica deposits also occur in Mysore and Hasandistricts of Karanataka, Coimbatore,Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and Kanniyakumari inTamil Nadu, Alleppey in Kerala, Ratnagiri inMaharashtra, Purulia and Bankura in WestBengal.Energy ResourcesMineral fuels are essential for generation of power,required by agriculture, industry, transport andother sectors of the economy. Mineral fuels like

coal, petroleum and natural gas (known as fossilfuels), nuclear energy minerals, are the2015-16Mineral and Energy Resources 77Fig. 7.3 : India – Minerals (Non-Ferrous)2015-1678 India : People and EconomyThey lie in Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt and theimportant coal fields in this region are Raniganj,Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura.Jharia is the largest coal field followed byRaniganj. The other river valleys associatedwith coal are Godavari, Mahanadi and Sone.The most important coal mining centres areSingrauli in Madhya Pradesh (part of Singraulicoal field lies in Uttar Pradesh), Korba inChhattisgarh, Talcher and Rampur in Odisha,Chanda–Wardha, Kamptee and Bander inMaharashtra and Singareni in Telangana andPandur in Andhra Pradesh.conventional sources of energy. Theseconventional sources are exhaustible resources.CoalCoal is a one of the important minerals whichis mainly used in the generation of thermal

power and smelting of iron ore. Coal occurs inrock sequences mainly of two geological ages,namely Gondwana and tertiary deposits.About 80 per cent of the coal deposits inIndia is of bituminous type and is of non-cokinggrade. The most important Gondwana coalfields of India are located in Damodar Valley.At Singareni, Canaries to miners’ rescueSingareni collieries, the country’s premier coal production company, still uses canaries to detect thepresence of deadly carbon monoxide in underground mines. Miners collapse and often die even ifsmall quantities of the highly poisonous CO are present in the air. Though, miners speak lovingly ofthe canaries, the underground experience is not at all pleasant for the birds. When lowered into

mines with CO presence, the birds show distress symptoms such as ruffling of feathers, pronouncedchirping and loss of life. These reactions occur even if 0.15 per cent of CO is present in the air. If thecontent is 0.3 per cent the bird shows immediate distress and falls off its perch in two to threeminutes. A cage of birds is a good indicator in air containing more than 0.15 per cent CO, said a coalminer.The sophisticated hand held CO detectors introduced by the company can detect CO concentrationsfrom as low as 10 ppm to as high as 1,000 ppm. But despite this, the miners trust the birds, whohave saved the lives of several of their predecessors.

Deccan Chronicle, 26.08.2006Fig.7.4 : Neyveli Coalfield2015-16Mineral and Energy Resources 79Fig. 7.5 : India – Conventional Energy Resources2015-1680 India : People and EconomyTertiary coals occur in Assam, ArunachalPradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland. It is extractedfrom Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong andLangrin (Meghalaya); Makum, Jaipur and Nazirain upper Assam, Namchik – Namphuk (ArunachalPradesh) and Kalakot (Jammu and Kashmir).Besides, the brown coal or lignite occur inthe coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry,Gujarat and Jammu and Kashmir.PetroleumCrude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons ofliquid and gaseous states varying in chemicalcomposition, colour and specific gravity. It is anessential source of energy for all internalcombustion engines in automobiles, railways andaircraft. Its numerous by-products are processedin petrochemical industries such as fertiliser,

synthetic rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines,vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap and cosmetics.Petroleum is referred to as liquid goldbecause of its scarcity and diversified uses.Lunej. Mumbai High which lies 160 km offMumbai was discovered in 1973 andproduction commenced in 1976. Oil andnatural gas have been found in exploratorywells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basinon the east coast.Oil extracted from the wells is crude oiland contains many impurities. It cannot beused directly. It needs to be refined. There aretwo types of refineries in India: (a) field basedand (b) market based. Digboi is an exampleof field based and Barauni is an example ofmarket based refinery.There are 21 refineries in India as onJune 2011 (Fig. 7.6). Identify the States inwhich these are located.Natural GasThe Gas Authority of India Limited was setup in 1984 as a public sector undertaking totransport and market natural gas. It isobtained alongwith oil in all the oil fields butexclusive reserves have been located along the

eastern coast as well as (Tamil Nadu, Odishaand Andhra Pradesh), Tripura, Rajasthan andoff-shore wells in Gujarat and Maharashtra.Crude petroleum occurs in sedimentaryrocks of the tertiary period. Oil explorationand production was systematically taken upafter the Oil and Natural Gas Commission wasset up in 1956. Till then, the Digboi in Assamwas the only oil producing region but thescenario has changed after 1956. In recentyears, new oil deposits have been found at theextreme western and eastern parts of thecountry. In Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya andMoran are important oil producing areas. Themajor oil fields of Gujarat are Ankaleshwar,Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba andNon-Conventional Energy SourcesFossil fuel sources, such as coal, petroleum,natural gas and nuclear energy useexhaustible raw materials. Sustainableenergy resources are only the renewableenergy sources like solar, wind, hydrogeothermaland biomass. These energysources are more equitably distributed andenvironmental friendly. The non-conventionalenergy sources will provide more sustained,eco-friendly cheaper energy after the initial

cost is taken care of.Indications of huge gas reserves in Ramanathapuram (Tamil Nadu)According to a newspaper report (The Hindu, 05.09.2006) the Oil and Natural Gas Commission hasfound potential zones of natural gas reserves in Ramanathapuram district. The survey is still in theinitial stages. The exact quantity of gas reserves will be known only after the completion of thesurvey. But the results are encouraging.2015-16Mineral and Energy Resources 81Fig. 7.6 : India – Oil Refineries2015-1682 India : People and EconomyNuclear Energy ResourcesNuclear energy has emerged as a viable sourcein recent times. Important minerals used for thegeneration of nuclear energy are uranium andthorium. Uranium deposits occur in the Dharwar

rocks. Geographically, uranium ores are knownto occur in several locations along the SingbhumCopper belt. It is also found in Udaipur, Alwarand Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan, Durgdistrict of Chhattisgarh, Bhandara district ofMaharashtra and Kullu district of HimachalPradesh. Thorium is mainly obtained frommonazite and ilmenite in the beach sands alongthe coast of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. World’srichest monazite deposits occur in Palakkadand Kollam districts of Kerala, nearVishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh andMahanadi river delta in Odisha.Atomic Energy Commission wasestablished in 1948, progress could be madeonly after the establishment of the AtomicEnergy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which wasrenamed as the Bhabha Atomic ResearchCentre in 1967. The important nuclear powerprojects are Tarapur (Maharashtra),Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam(Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga(Karnataka) and Kakarapara (Gujarat).Solar EnergySun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can beconverted into energy, known as solar energy.

The two effective processes considered to bevery effective to tap solar energy arephotovoltaics and solar thermal technology.Solar thermal technology has some relativeadvantages over all other non-renewableenergy sources. It is cost competitive,environment friendly and easy to construct.Solar energy is 7 per cent more effective thancoal or oil based plants and 10 per cent moreeffective than nuclear plants. It is generallyused more in appliances like heaters, cropdryers, cookers, etc. The western part of Indiahas greater potential for the development ofsolar energy in Gujarat and Rajasthan.Wind EnergyWind energy is absolutely pollution free,inexhaustible source of energy. The mechanismHow are the developedcountries of the worldutilising non-conventionalenergy resources? Discuss.2015-16Mineral and Energy Resources 83of energy conversion from blowing wind issimple. The kinetic energy of wind, throughturbines is converted into electrical energy. The

permanent wind systems such the trade winds,westerlies and seasonal wind like monsoon havebeen used as source of energy. Besides these,local winds, land and sea breezes can also beused to produce electricity.India, already has started generating windenergy. It has an ambitious programme to install250 wind-driven turbines with a total capacityof 45 megawatts, spread over 12 suitablelocations, specially in coastal areas. The Ministryof Non-conventional Sources of Energy isdeveloping wind energy in India to lessen theburden of oil import bill. The country’s potentialof wind power generation exceeds 50,000megawatts, of which one fourth can be easilyharnessed. In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtraand Karnataka, favourable conditions for windenergy exist.Tidal and Wave EnergyOcean currents are the store-house of infiniteenergy. Since the beginning of seventeenth andeighteenth century, persistent efforts were madeto create a more efficient energy system from

the ceaseless tidal waves and ocean current.Large tidal waves are known to occuralong the west coast of India. Hence, India hasgreat potential for the development of tidalenergy along the coasts but so far these havenot yet been utilised.Geothermal EnergyWhen the magma from the interior of earth,comes out on the surface, tremendous heat isreleased. This heat energy can successfully betapped and converted to electrical energy. Apartfrom this, the hot water that gushes out throughthe gyser wells is also used in the generation ofthermal energy. It is popularly known asGeothermal energy. This energy is nowconsidered to be one of the key energy sourceswhich can be developed as an alternate source.The hot springs and geysers are being usedsince medieval period. In India, a geothermalenergy plant has been commissioned atManikaran in Himachal Pradesh.The first successful (1890) attempt to tap

the underground heat was made in the cityof Boise, Idaho (U.S.A.), where a hot waterpipe network was built to give heat to thesurrounding buildings. This plant is stillworking.Bio-energyBio-energy refers to energy derived from biologicalproducts which includes agricultural residues,municipal, industrial and other wastes. Bioenergyis a potential source of energy conversion.It can be converted into electrical energy, heatenergy or gas for cooking. It will also process thewaste and garbage and produce energy. This willimprove economic life of rural areas in developingcountries, reduce environmental pollution,enhance self-reliance and reduce pressure on fuelwood. One such project converting municipal

waste into energy is Okhla in Delhi.Conservation of Mineral ResourcesThe challenge of sustainable developmentrequires integration of quest for economicdevelopment with environmental concerns.Traditional methods of resource use result intogenerating enormous quantity of waste as wellas create other environmental problems. Hence,for sustainable development calls for theprotection of resources for the future generations.There is an urgent need to conserve the resources.The alternative energy sources like solar power,wind, wave, geothermal energy are inexhaustibleresource. These should be developed to replacethe exhaustible resources. In case of metallicminerals, use of scrap metals will enablerecycling of metals. Use of scrap is speciallysignificant in metals like copper, lead and zincin which India’s reserves are meagre. Use ofsubstitutes for scarce metals may also reducetheir consumption. Export of strategic and scarce

minerals must be reduced, so that the existingreserve may be used for a longer period.2015-1684 India : People and EconomyEXERCISES1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.(i) In which one of the following States are the major oil fields located?(a) Assam (c) Rajasthan(b) Bihar (d) Tamil Nadu(ii) At which one of the following places was the first atomic power stationstarted?(a) Kalpakkam (c) Rana Pratap Sagar(b) Narora (d) Tarapur(iii) Which one of the following minerals is known as brown diamond?(a) Iron (c) Manganese(b) Lignite (d) Mica(iv) Which one of the following is non-renewable source of energy?(a) Hydel (c) Thermal(b) Solar (d) Wind power2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) Give an account of the distribution of mica in India.

(ii) What is nuclear power? Mention the important nuclear power stationsin India.(iii) Name non-ferrous metal. Discuss their spatial distribution.(vi) What are non-conventional sources of energy?3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) Write a detailed note on the Petroleum resources of India.(ii) Write an essay on hydel power in India.2015-16Unit IIIChapter 8MANUFACTURINGINDUSTRIESWe use various items to satisfy our needs.Agricultural products like wheat, rice, etc. areto be processed into flour, husked rice beforewe consume these. But besides bread and rice,we also require clothes, books, fans, cars,medicines, etc. and these are manufactured invarious industries. In modern times industrieshave become very important part of aneconomy. They provide employment to largelabour force and contribute significantly in thetotal national wealth/income.

Types of IndustriesIndustries are classified in a number of ways.On the basis of size, capital investment andlabour force employed, industries areclassified as large, medium, small scale, andcottage industries. On the basis of ownership,industries are categorised as :(i) public sector, (ii) private sector, and (iii) jointand cooperative sector, Public sectorenterprises are government/state controlledcompanies or corporations funded bygovernments. Industries of strategic andnational importance are usually in the publicsector. Industries are also classified on thebasis of the use of their products such as :(i) basic goods industries, (ii) capital goodsindustries (iii) intermediate goods industries,and (iv) consumer goods industries.Another method of classifying industriesis on the basis of raw materials used by them.Accordingly, these can be : (i) agriculturebasedindustries, (ii) forest-based industries,(iii) mineral-based industries, and(iv) industrially processed raw materialbasedindustries.Another common classification ofindustries is based on the nature of the

manufactured products. Eight classes ofindustries, thus identified are : (1) MetallurgicalIndustries, (2) Mechanical EngineeringIndustries, (3) Chemical and Allied Industries,(4) Textile Industries, (5) Food ProcessingIndustries, (6) Electricity Generation,(7) Electronics and (8) Communication Industries.Sometimes, you also read about foot looseindustries. What are these? Have they anyrelationship with raw material location or not?2015-1686 India : People and EconomyMarketMarkets provide the outlets for manufacturedproducts. Heavy machine, machine tools, heavychemicals are located near the high demand areasas these are market orientated. Cotton textileindustry uses a non-weight-losing raw materialand is generally located in large urban centre,e.g. Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, etc. Petroleumrefineries are also located near the markets as thetransport of crude oil is easier and severalproducts derived from them are used as raw

material in other industries. Koyali, Mathura andBarauni refineries are typical examples. Ports alsoplay a crucial role in the location of oil refineries.TransportHave you ever tried to find out the reasonsfor the concentration of industries in Mumbai,Chennai, Delhi and in and around Kolkata?It was due to the fact that they initiallybecame the nodal point having transportlinks. The industries shifted to interiorlocations, only when railway lines were laid.All major industrial plants are located on thetrunk rail routes.LabourCan we think of an industry without labour?Industries require skilled labour. In India,labour is quite mobile and is available in largenumbers due to our large population.Historical FactorsHave you ever thought of the reasons foremerging Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai asindustrial nodes? These locations were greatlyinfluenced by our colonial past. During theinitial phase of colonisation, manufacturing

activities received new impetus provided by theEuropean traders. Places like Murshidabad,Dhaka, Bhadohi, Surat, Vadodara, Kozhikode,Coimbatore, Mysuru etc., emerged as importantmanufacturing centres. In the subsequentindustrial phase of colonialism, thesemanufacturing centres experienced rapidgrowth due to competition from the goodsmanufactured in Britain and the discriminatorypolicies of colonial power.Location of IndustriesCan you guess the reasons for the location ofiron and steel industry in eastern and southernIndia? Why is there no iron and steel industryin U.P., Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan andGujarat?Location of industries is influenced byseveral factors like access to raw materials,power, market, capital, transport and labour,etc. Relative significance of these factors varieswith time and place. There is strong relationshipbetween raw material and type of industry. Itis economical to locate the manufacturingindustries at a place where cost of production

and delivery cost of manufactured goods toconsumers are the least. Transport costs, to agreat extent, depend on the nature of rawmaterials and manufactured products. A briefdescription of factors influencing the locationof industries are given below:Raw MaterialsIndustries using weight-losing raw materials arelocated in the regions where raw materials arelocated. Why are the sugar mills in India locatedin sugarcane growing areas? Similarly, thelocations of pulp industry, copper smelting andpig iron industries are located near their rawmaterials. In iron and steel industries, iron oreand coal both are weight-losing raw materials.Therefore, an optimum location for iron and steelindustries should be near raw material sources.This is why most of the iron and steel industriesare located either near coalfields (Bokaro,Durgapur, etc.) or near sources of iron ore(Bhadravati, Bhilai, and Rourkela). Similarly,industries based on perishable raw materials arealso located close to raw material sources.

PowerPower provides the motive force for machines,and therefore, its supply has to be ensuredbefore the location of any industry. However,certain industries, like aluminium andsynthetic nitrogen manufacturing industriestend to be located near sources of powerbecause they are power intensive and requirehuge quantum of electricity.2015-16Manufacturing Industries 87In the last phase of colonialism, the Britishpromoted few industries in selected areas. Thisled to larger spatial coverage by different typesof industries in the country.Industrial PolicyIndia, being a democratic country aims atbringing about economic growth with balancedregional development.Establishment of iron and steel industryin Bhilai and Rourkela were based on decisionto develop backward tribal areas of thecountry. At present, government of Indiaprovides lots of incentives to industries locatingin backward areas.Major IndustriesThe iron and steel industry is basic to theindustrial development of any country. The

cotton textile Industry is one of our traditionalindustries. The sugar Industry is based on localraw materials which prospered even in theBritish period. Besides the more recentpetrochemical Industry and the IT industry willbe discussed in this chapter.The Iron and Steel IndustryThe development of the iron and steel industryopened the doors to rapid industrialdevelopment in India. Almost all sectors of theIndian industry depend heavily on the ironand steel industry for their basicinfrastructure. Can we make tools to be usedin agriculture without iron?The other raw materials besides iron oreand coking coal, essential for iron and steelindustry are limestone, dolomite, manganeseand fire clay. All these raw materials are gross(weight losing), therefore, the best location forthe iron and steel plants is near the source ofraw materials. In India, there is a crescentshaped region comprising parts ofChhattisgarh, Northern Odisha, Jharkhand andwestern West Bengal, which is extremely richin high grade iron ore, good quality coking coaland other supplementing raw materials.The Indian iron and steel industryconsists of large integrated steel plants as

well as mini steel mills. It also includessecondary producers, rolling mills andancillary industries.Integrated Steel PlantsTISCOThe Tata Iron and Steel plant lies very close tothe Mumbai-Kolkata railway line and about240 km away from Kolkata, which is the nearestport for the export of steel. The riversSubarnarekha and Kharkai provide water tothe plant. The iron ore for the plant is obtainedfrom Noamundi and Badam Pahar and coal isbrought from Joda mines in Odisha. Coking coalcomes from Jharia and west Bokaro coalfields.IISCOThe Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) setup its first factory at Hirapur and later onanother at Kulti. In 1937, the Steel corporationof Bengal was constituted in association withIISCO and set up another iron and steel producingunit at Burnpur (West Bengal). All the threeplants under IISCO are located very close toDamodar valley coal fields (Raniganj, Jharia, andRamgarh). Iron ore comes from Singhbhum inJharkhand. Water is obtained from the Barakar

River, a tributary of the Damodar. All the plantsare located along the Kolkata-Asansol railwayline. Unfortunately, steel production from IISCOfell considerably in 1972-73 and the plants weretaken over by the government.Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL)The third integrated steel plant, the VisvesvaraiyaIron and Steel Works, initially called the MysoreIron and Steel Works, is located close to an ironore producing area of Kemangundi in theBababudan hills. Limestone and manganese arealso locally available. But this region has no coal.At the beginning, charcoal obtained by burningwood from nearby forests was used as fuel till1951. Afterwards, electric furnaces were installedwhich use hydroelectricity from the Jog Fallshydel power project. The Bhadravati riversupplies water to the plant. This plant producesspecialised steels and alloys.2015-1688 India : People and EconomyFig. 8.1 : India – Iron and Steel Plants2015-16

Manufacturing Industries 89Fig. 8.2Fig. 8.3Fig. 8.4Fig. 8.5Fig. 8.6Fig. 8.7Fig. 8.82015-1690 India : People and EconomyAfter independence, during the SecondFive Year Plan (1956-61), three new integratedsteel plants were set up with foreigncollaboration: Rourkela in Odisha, Bhilai inChhattisgarh and Durgapur in West Bengal.These were public sector plants underHindustan Steel Limited (HSL). In 1973, theSteel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) wascreated to manage these plants.Rourkela Steel PlantThe Rourkela Steel plant was set up in 1959 inthe Sundargarh district of Odisha incollaboration with Germany. The plant waslocated on the basis of proximity to rawmaterials, thus, minimising the cost oftransporting weight losing raw material. Thisplant has a unique locational advantage, as itreceives coal from Jharia (Jharkhand) and ironore from Sundargarh and Kendujhar. The

Hirakud project supplies power for the electricfurnaces and water is obtained from the Koeland Sankh rivers.Bhilai Steel PlantThe Bhilai Steel Plant was established withRussian collaboration in Durg District ofChhattisgarh and started production in 1959.The iron ore comes from Dalli-Rajhara mine(Fig. 8.6), coal comes from Korba and Kargalicoal fields. The water comes from theTanduladam and the power from the KorbaThemal Power Station. This plant also lies onthe Kolkata-Mumbai railway route. The bulkof the steel produced goes to the HindustanShipyard at Vishakhapatnam.Durgapur Steel PlantDurgapur Steel Plant, in West Bengal, was setup in collaboration with the government of theUnited Kingdom and started production in1962. This plant lies in Raniganj and Jhariacoal belt and gets iron ore from Noamundi (Fig.8.7). Durgapur lies on the main Kolkata-Delhirailway route. Hydel power and water isobtained from the Damodar Valley Corporation(DVC).Bokaro Steel PlantThis steel plant was set up in 1964 at Bokarowith Russian collaboration. This plant was set

up on the principle of transportation costminimisation by creating Bokaro-Rourkelacombine. It receives iron ore from the Rourkelaregion and the wagons on return take coal toRourkela. Other raw materials come to Bokarofrom within a radius of about 350 km. Waterand Hydel power is supplied by the DamodarValley Corporation.Other Steel PlantsNew steel plants which were set up in theFourth Plan period are away from the mainraw material sources. All the three plants arelocated in South India. The Vizag Steel Plant,in Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh is thefirst port based plant which started operatingin 1992. Its port location is of advantage.The Vijaynagar Steel Plant at Hosapete inKarnataka was developed using indigenoustechnology. This uses local iron ore andlimestone. The Salem Steel Plant in Tamil Naduwas commissioned in 1982.Fig 8.9 : Production of Finished SteelApart from these major steel plants, thereare more than 206 units located in differentparts of the country. Most of these use scrapiron as their main raw material, and process itin electric furnaces.Source : Ministry of Steel, Government of India

2015-16Manufacturing Industries 91The Cotton Textile IndustryThe cotton textile industry is one of thetraditional industries of India. In the ancientand the medieval times, it used to be only acottage industry. India was famous worldwidefor the production of muslin, a very fine varietyof cotton cloth, calicos, chintz and otherdifferent varieties of fine cotton cloth. Thedevelopment of this industry in India was dueto several factors. One, it is a tropical countryand cotton is the most comfortable fabric for ahot and humid climate. Second, large quantityof cotton was grown in India. Abundant skilledlabour required for this industry was availablein this country. In fact, in some areas thepeople were producing cotton textiles forgenerations and transferred the skill from onegeneration to the other and in the processperfected their skills.Initially, the British did not encourage thedevelopment of the indigenous cotton textileindustry. They exported raw cotton to their millsin Manchester and Liverpool and brought backthe finished products to be sold in India. Thiscloth was cheaper because it was produced at

mass scale in factories in U.K. as compared tothe cottage based industries of India.In 1854, the first modern cotton mill wasestablished in Mumbai. This city had severaladvantages as a cotton textile manufacturingFig 8.10 : Production of Cotton TextileSpinning yarn in powerloom Handloom Cotton Textile Industrycentre. It was very close to the cotton producingareas of Gujarat and Maharashtra. Raw cottonused to be brought to Mumbai port to betransported to England. Therefore, cotton wasavailable in Mumbai city itself. Moreover,Mumbai even then was the financial centre andthe capital needed to start an industry wasavailable there. As a large town, providingemployment opportunities attracted labour inlarge numbers. Hence, cheap and abundantlabour too was available locally. The machineryrequired for a cotton textile mill could be directly2015-1692 India : People and EconomyFig. 8.11 : Cotton Textile Industries2015-16Manufacturing Industries 93imported from England. Subsequently, two

more mills, the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Millwere established in Ahmedabad. By 1947, thenumber of mills in India went up to 423 butthe scenario changed after partition, and thisindustry suffered a major recession. This wasdue to the fact that the most of the good qualitycotton growing areas had gone to West Pakistanand India was left with 409 mills and only 29per cent of the cotton producing area.After Independence, this industrygradually recovered and eventually flourished.The cotton textile industry in India can bebroadly divided into two sectors, the organisedsector and the unorganised sector. Thedecentralised sector includes cloth producedin handlooms (including Khadi) andpowerlooms. The production of the organisedsector has drastically fallen from 81 per cent inthe mid-twentieth century to only about 6 percent in 2000. At present, the powerlooms onthe decentralised sector produce more than thehandloom sector.Cotton is a “pure” raw material which doesnot lose weight in the manufacturing process.so other factors, like, power to drive the looms,

labour, capital or market may determine thelocation of the industry. At present the trend isto locate the industry at or close to markets, asit is the market that decides what kind of clothis to be produced. Also the market for thefinished products is extremely variable,therefore, it becomes important to locate themills close to the market.After the first mills were set up in Mumbaiand Ahmedabad in the second half of thenineteenth century, the cotton textile industryexpanded very rapidly. The number of unitsincreased dramatically. The Swadeshimovement gave a major impetus to the industryas there was a call for boycotting all Britishmade goods in favour of Indian goods. After1921, with the development of the railwaynetwork other cotton textile centres expandedrapidly. In southern India, mills were set upat Coimbatore, Madurai and Bengaluru. Incentral India, Nagpur, Indore, Solapur andVadodara became cotton textile centres. Cottontextile mills were set up at Kanpur based onlocal investment. Mills were also set up atKolkata due to its port facilities. Thedevelopment of hydro-electricity also favoured

the location of the cotton textile mills away fromthe cotton producing areas. The rapiddevelopment of this industry in Tamil Nadu isthe result of the abundant availability of hydelpower for the mills. Lower labour costs atcentres like Ujjain, Bharuch, Agra, Hathras,Coimbatore and Tirunelveli also causedindustries to be located away from cottonproducing areas.Thus, the cotton textile industry is locatedin almost every state in India, where one or moreof the locational factors have been favourable.The importance of raw materials has given wayto market or to a cheaper local labour force orit may be the availability of power.Presently, the major centres of the cottontextile industry are Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi,Solapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore and Ujjain.All these centres are the traditional centres andare located close to the cotton producingregions. Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Naduare the leading cotton producing states. WestBengal, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, and Punjabare the other important cotton textile producers.

(Fig. 8.11)Tamil Nadu has the largest number ofmills and most of them produce yarn ratherthan cloth. Coimbatore has emerged as themost important centre with nearly half the millslocated there. Chennai, Madurai, Tirunelveli,Tuticorin, Thanjavur, Ramanathapuram andSalem are the other important centres. InKarnataka, the cotton textile industry hasdeveloped in the cotton producing areas in thenorth-eastern part of the state. Davangere,Hubballi, Ballari, Mysuru and Bengaluru areimportant centres. The cotton textile industryis located in the cotton producing Telenganaregion, where most of the mills are spinningmills producing yarn. The important centresare Hyderabad, Secunderabad and Warangalin Telangana and Guntur in Andhra Pradesh.In Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur is the largestcentre. Some of the other important centres are2015-1694 India : People and EconomyModinagar, Hathras, Saharanpur, Agra andLucknow. In West Bengal, the cotton mills arelocated in the Hugli region. Howrah,Serampur, Kolkata and Shyamnagar are theimportant centres.

Production of cotton cloth increased almostfive times since independence. Cotton textile hasbeen facing tough competition from syntheticcloth. What are the other problems of cottontextile industry in India?Sugar IndustryThe sugar industry is the second most importantagro-based industry in the country. India is thelargest producer of both sugarcane and canesugar and contributes about 8 per cent of thetotal sugar production in the world. Besides,khandasari and gur or jaggery are also preparedfrom sugarcane. This industry providesemployment for more than 4 lakh personsdirectly and a large number of farmers indirectly.Sugar industry is a seasonal industry becauseof the seasonality of raw materials.Development of the industry on modernlines dates back to 1903, when a sugar millwas started in Bihar. Subsequently, sugar millswere started in other parts of Bihar and UttarPradesh. In 1950-51, 139 factories were inoperation. The number of sugar factories roseto 662 in 2010-11.

Location of the Sugar IndustrySugarcane is a weight-losing crop. The ratio ofsugar to sugarcane varies between 9 to 12 percent depending on its variety. Its sucrosecontent begins to dry during haulage after ithas been harvested from the field. Betterrecovery of sugar is dependent upon its beingcrushed within 24 hours of its harvesting.Sugar factories hence, are located within thecane producing regions.Maharashtra has emerged as a leadingsugar producer in the country and producesmore than one-third of the total production ofthe sugar in the country.Uttar Pradesh is the second largestproducer of sugar. The sugar factories areconcentrated in two belts – the Ganga-Yamunadoab and the tarai region. The major sugarproducing centres in the Ganga -Yamuna doabare Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut,Ghaziabad, Baghpat and Bulandshahrdistricts; while Kheri Lakhimpur, Basti, Gonda,Gorakhpur, Bahraich are important sugarproducing districts in the Tarai region.In Tamil Nadu, sugar factories are locatedin Coimbatore, Vellore, Tiruvanamalai,Villupuram and Tiruchchirappalli districts.Belagavi, Ballari, Mandya, Shivamogga,

Vijayapura and Chitradurg districts are themajor producers in Karnataka. The industry isdistributed in the coastal regions i.e. EastGodavari, West Godavari, Vishakhapatnamdistricts of Andhra Pradesh and Nizamabad andMedak districts of Telangana.The other States which produce sugar areBihar, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh andGujarat. Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarnagar,Siwan, Darbhanga, and Gaya are the importantsugarcane producing districts in Bihar. Therelative significance of Punjab has declined,although Gurdaspur, Jalandhar, Sangarur,Patiala and Amritsar are major sugarproducers. In Haryana, sugar factories arelocated in Yamuna Nagar, Rohtak, Hissar andFaridabad districts. Sugar industry iscomparatively new in Gujarat. Sugar mills arelocated in the cane growing tracts of Surat,Junagarh, Rajkot, Amreli, Valsad andBhavnagar districts.Petrochemical IndustriesThis group of industries has been growing veryfast in India. A variety of products come underthis category of industries. In 1960s, demandfor organic chemicals increased so fast that itbecame difficult to meet this demand. At thattime, petroleum refining industry expanded

rapidly. Many items are derived from crudepetroleum, which provide raw materials formany new industries, these are collectively2015-16Manufacturing Industries 95known as petrochemical industries. This groupof industries is divided into four sub-groups:(i) polymers, (ii) synthetic fibres, (iii) elastomers,and (iv) surfactant intermediate. Mumbai is thehub of the petrochemical industries. Crackerunits are also located in Auraiya (UttarPradesh), Jamnagar, Gandhinagar and Hajira(Gujarat), Nagothane, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra),Haldia (West Bengal) and Vishakhapatnam(Andhra Pradesh).Three organisations are working in thepetrochemical sector under the administrativecontrol of the Department of Chemicals andPetrochemicals. First is the Indian PetrochemicalCorporation Limited (IPCL), a public sectorundertaking. It is responsible for the manufactureand distribution of the various petrochemicals likepolymers, chemicals, fibres and fibre

intermediates. Second is the Petrofils CooperativeLimited (PCL), a joint venture of the Governmentof India and Weaver’s Cooperative Societies. Itproduces polyester filament yarn and nylon chipsat its two plants located at Vadodara and Naldhariin Gujarat. Third is the Central Institute of PlasticEngineering and Technology (CIPET), involved inimparting training in petro-chemical industry.Polymers are made from ethylene andpropylene. These materials are obtained in theprocess of refining crude oil. Polymers are usedas raw materials in the plastic industry. Amongpolymers, polyethylene is a widely usedthermoplastic. Plastic is first converted intosheets, powder, resin and pellets, and then usedin manufacturing plastic products. Plasticproducts are preferred because of their strength,flexibility, water and chemical resistance and lowprices. Production of plastic polymers started in

India in the late fifties and the early sixties usingother organic chemicals. The National OrganicChemicals Industries Limited (NOCIL),established in private sector in 1961, started thefirst naphtha based chemical industry inMumbai. Later, several other companies wereformed. The plants located at Mumbai, Barauni,Mettur, Pimpri and Rishra are the majorproducers of plastic materials.About 75 per cent of these units are insmall scale sector. The industry also usesrecycled plastics, which constitutes about 30per cent of the total production.Synthetic fibres are widely used in themanufacturing of fabrics because of theirinherent strength, durability, washability, andresistance to shrinkage. Industriesmanufacturing nylon and polyester yarns arelocated at Kota, Pimpri, Mumbai, Modinagar,Pune, Ujjain, Nagpur and Udhna. Acrylic staplefibre is manufactured at Kota and Vadodara.2015-1696 India : People and EconomyThough plastics have become inseparableitems in our daily use and they have affectedour life style. But due to its non-biodegradable

quality it has emerged as the greatest threat toour environment. Hence, use of plastic is beingdiscouraged in different states of India. Do youknow how does plastic adversely affect ourenvironment?Knowledge based IndustriesThe advancement in information technology hashad a profound influence on the country’seconomy. The Information Technology (IT)revolution opened up new possibilities ofeconomic and social transformation. The IT andIT enabled business process outsourcing (ITESBPO)services continue to be on a robust growthpath. Indian software industry has emerged asone of the fastest growing sectors in the economy.The software industry has surpassed electronichardware production. The Indian governmenthas created a number of software parks in thecountry.The IT software and services industryaccount for almost 2 per cent of India’s GDP.India’s software industry has achieved aremarkable distinction for providing qualityproducts. A large number of Indian softwarecompanies have acquired international quality

certification. A majority of the multinationalcompanies operating in the area of informationtechnology have either software developmentcentres or research development centres inIndia. However, in the hardware developmentsector, India is yet to make any remarkableachievements.A major impact of this growth has been onemployment creation, which is almost doubledevery year.Liberalisation, Privatisation,Globalisation (LPG) and IndustrialDevelopment in IndiaThe new Industrial Policy was announced in1991. The major objectives of this policy wereto build on the gains already made, correct thedistortions or weaknesses that have crept in,maintain a sustained growth in productivityand gainful employment and attaininternational competitiveness.Within this policy, measures initiated are :(1) abolition of industrial licensing, (2) free entryto foreign technology, (3) foreign investmentpolicy, (4) access to capital market, (5) opentrade, (6) abolition of phased manufacturingprogramme, and (7) liberalised industriallocation programme. The policy has three main

dimensions: liberalisation, privatisation andglobalisation.The industrial licensing system has beenabolished for all except six industries related tosecurity, strategic or environmental concerns. Atthe same time, the number of industries reservedfor public sector since 1956 have been reducedfrom 17 to 4. Industries related to atomic energy,substances specified in the Schedule of theDepartment of Atomic Energy as well as Railwayshave remained under the public sector. Thegovernment also has decided to offer a part ofthe shareholdings in the public enterprises tofinancial institutions, general public andworkers. The threshold limits of assets have beenscrapped and no industry requires priorapproval for investing in the delicensed sector.They only need to submit a memorandum inthe prescribed format.In the new industrial policy, Foreign DirectInvestment (FDI) has been seen as a supplementto the domestic investment for achieving a

higher level of economic development. FDIbenefits the domestic industry as well as theconsumers by providing technologicalupgradation, access to global managerial skillsand practices, optimum use of natural andhuman resources, etc. Keeping all this in mind,foreign investment has been liberalised and thegovernment has permitted access to anautomatic route for Foreign Direct Investment.The government has also announced changesin the industrial location policies. Industries arediscouraged in or very close to large cities dueto environmental reasons.The industrial policy has been liberalisedto attract private investor both domestic andmulti-nationals. New sectors like, mining,telecommunications, highway construction and2015-16Manufacturing Industries 97Fig. 8.12 : Software Technology Parks2015-1698 India : People and Economymanagement have been thrown open to privatecompanies. In spite of all these concessions,Foreign Direct Investment has not been up tothe expectation. There has been a big gap

between approved and actual foreign directinvestment, even though the numbers of foreigncollaborations are increasing. Larger parts of thisinvestment have gone to domestic appliances,finance, services, electronics and electricalequipment, and food and dairy products.Globalisation means integrating theeconomy of the country with the worldeconomy. Under this process, goods andservices along with capital, labour andresources can move freely from one nation toanother. The thrust of globalisation has beento increase the domestic and externalcompetition through extensive application ofmarket mechanism and facilitating dynamicrelationship with the foreign investors andsuppliers of technology. In Indian context, thisimplies: (1) opening of the economy to foreigndirect investment by providing facilities toforeign companies to invest in different fields ofeconomies activity in India; (2) removingrestrictions and obstacles to the entry of multinationalcompanies in India; (3) allowing Indiancompanies to enter into foreign collaboration

in India and also encouraging them to set upjoint ventures abroad; (4) carrying out massiveimport liberalisation programmes by switchingover from quantitative restrictions to tariffs inthe first place, and then bringing down the levelof import duties considerably; and (5) insteadof a set of export incentives, opting for exchangerate adjustments for promoting export.A breakup of foreign collaborationapproval reveals that the major share went tocore, priority sectors while infrastructural sectorwas untouched. Further, gap betweendeveloped and developing states has becomewider. Major share of both domestic investmentas well as foreign direct investment went toalready developed states. For example, out ofthe total proposed investment by the industrialentrepreneurs during 1991-2000 nearly onefourth(23 per cent) was for industriallydeveloped Maharashtra, 17 per cent forGujarat, 7 per cent for Andhra Pradesh, andabout 6 per cent for Tamil Nadu while UttarPradesh, the state with the largest population

has only 8 per cent. In spite of severalconcessions, seven north-eastern states couldget less than 1 per cent of the proposedinvestment. In fact, economically weaker statescould not compete with the developed states inopen market in attracting industrial investmentproposals and hence they are likely to sufferfrom these processes.Industrial Regions in IndiaIndustries are not evenly distributed in thecountry. They tend to concentrate on certainlocations because of the favourable locationalfactors.Industrial Regions and DistrictsMajor Industrial Regions (8)1. Mumabi-Pune Region, 2. Hugli Region, 3. Bengaluru-Tamil Nadu Region, 4. Gujarat Region,5. Chotanagpur Region, 6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region, 7. Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region, and8. Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Region.Minor Industrial Regions (13)

1. Ambala-Amritsar, 2. Saharanpur-Muzaffarnagar-Bijnor, 3. Indore-Dewas-Uijjain, 4. Jaipur-Ajmer,5. Kolhapur-South Kannada, 6. Northern Malabar, 7. Middle Malabar, 8. Adilabad-Nizamabad,9. Allahabad-Varanasi-Mirzapur, 10. Bhojpur-Munger, 11. Durg-Raipur, 12. Bilaspur-Korba, and13. Brahmaputra valley.Industrial Districts (15)1. Kanpur, 2. Hyderabad, 3. Agra, 4. Nagpur, 5. Gwalior, 6. Bhopal, 7. Lucknow, 8. Jalpaiguri,9. Cuttack, 10. Gorakhpur, 11. Aligarh, 12. Kota, 13. Purnia, 14. Jabalpur, and 15. Bareilly.2015-16Manufacturing Industries 99Fig. 8.13 : India – Major Industrial Region2015-16100 India : People and EconomySeveral indices are used to identify the

clustering of industries, important among themare : (i) the number of industrial units, (ii)number of industrial workers, (iii) quantum ofpower used for industrial purposes, (iv) totalindustrial output, and (v) value added bymanufacturing, etc.Major industrial regions of the country aregiven below in some details (Fig. 8.13).Mumbai-Pune Industrial RegionIt extends from Mumbai-Thane to Pune andin adjoining districts of Nashik and Solapur.Besides, industrial development has beenrapid in Kolaba, Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangliand Jalgaon districts. Development of thisregion started with the location of cottontextile industry in Mumbai. Mumbai, withcotton hinterland and moist climate favouredthe location of cotton textile industry.Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 providedimpetus to the growth of Mumbai port.Machineries were imported through this port.Hydro-electricity was developed in theWestern Ghat region to meet the requirementsof this industry.With the development of cotton textileindustry, chemical industry also developed.Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum fieldand erection of nuclear energy plants added

additional pull to this region.Besides, engineering goods, petroleumrefining, petrochemicals, leather, syntheticand plastic goods, drugs, fertilisers,electrical, shipbuilding, electronics, software,transport equipments and food industriesalso developed. Important industrial centresare Mumbai, Kolaba, Kalyan, Thane,Trombay, Pune, Pimpri, Nashik, Manmad,Solapur, Kolhapur, Ahmednagar, Satara andSangli.Hugli Industrial RegionLocated along the Hugli river, this regionextends from Bansberia in the north toBirlanagar in the south for a distance of about100 km. Industries also have developed inMednipur in the west. Kolkata-Haora from thenucleus of this industrial region. Historical,geographical, economic and political factorshave contributed much to its development. Itdeveloped with the opening of river port onHugli. Kolkata emerged as a leading centre ofthe country. Later, Kolkata was connected withinterior parts by railway lines and road routes.Development of tea plantations in Assam andnorthern hills of West Bengal, the processing ofindigo earlier and jute later coupled with the

opening of coalfields of the Damodar Valley andiron ore deposits of the Chotanagpur plateau,contributed to the industrial development of theregion. Cheap labour available from thicklypopulated part of Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradeshand Odisha also contributed to its development.Kolkata, being the capital city of British India(1773-1911), attracted the British capital. Theestablishment of first jute mill at Rishra in 1855ushered in the era of modern industrialclustering in this region.The major concentration of jute industryis at Haora and Bhatapara. The partition of thecountry in 1947 adversely affected thisindustrial region. Cotton textile industry alsogrew along with jute industry, paper,engineering, textile machinery, electrical,chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertiliser andpetrochemical industries have also developedwithin this region. Factory of the HindustanMotors Limited at Konnagar and diesel enginefactory at Chittaranjan are landmarks of thisregion. Location of petroleum refinery at Haldiahas facilitated the development of a variety ofindustries. Important industrial centres of this

region are Kolkata, Haora, Haldia, Serampur,Rishra, Shibpur, Naihati, Kakinara,Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Budge Budge,Birlanagar, Bansberia, Belgurriah, Triveni,Hugli, Belur, etc. However, industrial growth ofthis region has slowed down in comparison toother regions. Decline of the jute industry is oneof the reasons.Bengaluru-Chennai Industrial RegionThis region witnessed most rapid industrialgrowth in post-Independence period. Till 1960,industries were confined to Bengaluru, Salemand Madurai districts but now they have spreadover all the districts of Tamil Nadu exceptViluppuram. Since, this region is away from the2015-16Manufacturing Industrie s 101coalfields, its development is dependent on thePykara hydroelectric plant, which was built in1932. Cotton textile industry was the first totake roots due to the presence of cotton growingareas. Along with cotton mills, loom industryspread very rapidly. Several heavy engineeringindustries converged at Bengaluru. Aircraft(HAL), machine tools, telephone (HTL) andBharat Electronics are industrial landmarks of

this region. Important industries are textiles,rail wagons, diesel engines, radio, lightengineering goods, rubber goods, medicines,aluminium, sugar, cement, glass, paper,chemicals, film, cigarette, match box, leathergoods, etc. Petroleum refinery at Chennai, ironand steel plant at Salem and fertiliser plantsare recent developments.Gujarat Industrial RegionThe nucleus of this region lies betweenAhmedabad and Vadodara but this regionextends upto Valsad and Surat in the south andto Jamnagar in the west. Development of thisregion is also associated with the location of thecotton textile industry since 1860s. This regionbecame an important textile region with thedecline of the cotton textile industry at Mumbai.Located in cotton growing area, this region hasdouble advantage of the proximity of rawmaterials as well as of market. The discovery ofoil fields led to the establishment of petrochemicalindustries around Ankleshwar, Vadodara andJamnagar. The port at Kandla helped in the rapidgrowth of this region. Petroleum refinery at

Koyali provided raw materials to a host ofpetrochemical industries. The industrialstructure is now diversified. Besides, textiles(cotton, silk and synthetic fabrics) andpetrochemical industries, other industries areheavy and basic chemicals, motor, tractor, dieselengines, textile machinery, engineering,pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, sugar, dairyproducts and food processing. Recently, largestpetroleum refinery has been set up at Jamnagar.Important industrial centres of this region areAhmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch, Koyali,Anand, Khera, Surendranagar, Rajkot, Surat,Valsad and Jamnagar.Chotanagpur RegionThis region extends over Jharkhand, northernOrissa and western West Bengal and is knownfor the heavy metallurgical industries. Thisregion owes its development to the discovery ofcoal in the Damodar Valley and metallic andnon-metallic minerals in Jharkhand andnorthern Orissa. Proximity of coal, iron ore andother minerals facilitated the location of heavyindustries in this region. Six large integratediron and steel plants at Jamshedpur, Burnpur-

Kulti, Durgapur, Bokaro and Rourkela arelocated within this region. To meet the powerrequirement, thermal and hydroelectric plantshave been constructed in the Damodar Valley.Densely populated surrounding regionsprovide cheap labour and Hugli region providesvast market for its industries. Heavyengineering, machine tools, fertilisers, cement,paper, locomotives and heavy electricals are someof the important industries in this region.Important centres are Ranchi, Dhanbad,Chaibasa, Sindri, Hazaribag, Jamshedpur,Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur, Asansol andDalmianagar.Vishakhapatnam-Guntur RegionThis industrial region extends fromVishakhapatnam district to Kurnool andPrakasam districts in the south. Industrialdevelopment of this region hinges uponVishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam ports anddeveloped agriculture and rich reserves ofminerals in their hinterlands. Coalfields of theGodavari basin provide energy. Ship buildingindustry was started at Vishakhapatnam in1941. Petroleum refinery based on importedpetroleum facilitated the growth of severalpetrochemical industries. Sugar, textile, jute,

paper, fertiliser, cement, aluminium and lightengineering are principal industries of thisregion. One lead-zinc smelter is functioning inGuntur district. Iron and steel plant atVishakhapatnam uses the Bailadila iron ore.Vishakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Vijaynagar,Rajahmundry, Guntur, Eluru and Kurnool areimportant industrial centres.2015-16102 India : People and EconomyGurgaon-Delhi-Meerut RegionIndustries located in this region have shownvery fast growth in the recent past. This regionis located far away from the mineral and powerresources, and therefore, the industries arelight and market-oriented. Electronics, lightengineering and electrical goods are majorindustries of this region. Besides, there arecotton, woollen and synthetic fabrics, hosiery,sugar, cement, machine tools, tractor, cycle,agricultural implements, chemical andvanaspati industries which have developed onlarge scale. Software industry is a recentaddition. To the south lies the Agra-Mathuraindustrial area which specialises in glass andleather goods. Mathura with an oil refinery isa petrochemical complex. Among industrialcentres, mention be made of Gurgaon, Delhi,

Shahdara, Faridabad, Meerut, Modinagar,Ghaziabad, Ambala, Agra and Mathura.Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram RegionThis industrial region is spread overThiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alwaye,Ernakulam and Alappuzha districts.Plantation agriculture and hydropowerprovide industrial base to this region. Locatedfar away from the mineral belt of the country,agricultural products processing and marketoriented light industries predominate theregion. Among them, cotton textile, sugar,rubber, matchbox, glass, chemical fertiliser andfish-based industries are important. Foodprocessing, paper, coconut coir products,aluminium and cement industries are alsosignificant. Location of petroleum refinery atKochchi has added a vista of new industries tothis region. Important industrial centres areKollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Alluva, Kochchi,Alappuzha, and Punalur.EXERCISES1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.(i) Which is not a factor of industrial location?(a) Market (c) Population Density(b) Capital (d) Power

(ii) The earliest Iron and Steel Company to be established in India was:(a) IISCO(b) TISCO(c) Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works(d) Mysore Iron and Steel Works.(iii) The first modern cotton mill was established in Mumbai because:(a) Mumbai is a port(b) It is located near cotton growing area(c) Mumbai was the financial centre(d) All of the above.(iv) The nucleus of the Hugli Industrial Region is:(a) Kolkata-Haora (c) Kolkata-Medinipur(b) Kolkata-Rishra (d) Kolkata-Konnagar2015-16Manufacturing Industrie s 103(v) Which one of the following is the second largest producer of sugar:(a) Maharashtra (c) Punjab(b) Uttar Pradesh (d) Tamil Nadu2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) Why do you think that the iron and steel industry is basic to the industrialdevelopment of any country?(ii) Name the two sectors of the cottage textile industries. How are theydifferent?

(iii) Why is the sugar industry a seasonal industry?(iv) What is the raw material base for the petrochemical industry? Name someof the products of this industry.(v) What is the major impact of Information Technology (IT) revolution in India?3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) How did the Swadeshi movement give a major impetus to the cotton textilesindustry?(ii) What do you understand by liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation?How have they helped industrial development in India?2015-16Unit IIIChapter 9PLANNING ANDSUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT ININDIAN CONTEXTThe word ‘planning’ is not new to you as it is apart of everyday usage. You must have used itwith reference to preparation for yourexamination or visit to a hill station. It involves

the process of thinking, formulation of a schemeor programme and implementation of a set ofactions to achieve some goal. Though it is avery broad term, in this chapter, it has beenused with reference to the process of economicdevelopment. It is, thus different from thetraditional hit-and-miss methods by whichOverview of PlanningPerspective in IndiaIndia has centralised planning and the taskof planning in India has been entrusted tothe Planning Commission. It is a statutorybody headed by the Prime Minister and hasa Deputy Chairman and members. Theplanning in the country is largely carried outthrough Five Year Plans.

The First Five Year Plan was launched in1951 and covered the period, 1951-52 to1955-56. Second and Third Five Year Planscovered the period from 1956-57 to 1960-61and 1961-62 to 1965-66 respectively. Twosuccessive droughts during mid-sixties(1965-66 and 1966-67) and war withPakistan in 1965 forced plan holiday in 1966-67 and 1968-69. This period was coveredby annual plans, which are also termed asrolling plans. The Fourth Five Year Planbegan in 1969-70 and ended in 1973-74.

Following this the Fifth Five Year Plan beganin 1974-75 but it was terminated by the thengovernment one year earlier i.e. in 1977-78.The Sixth Five Year Plan took off in 1980.The Seventh Five Year Plan covered theperiod between 1985 and 1990. Once againdue to the political instability and initiationof liberalisation policy, the Eighth Five YearPlan got delayed. It covered the period, 1992to 1997. The Ninth Five Year Plan covered

the period from 1997 to 2002. The Tenth Plancovered the period from 2002 to 2007. TheEleventh Plan covered the period from 2007to 2012. The Twelfth Five Year Plan initiatedin 2012 with a focus on Faster Moreinclusive and sustainable growth.2015-16reforms and reconstruction are oftenundertaken. Generally, there are twoapproaches to planning, i.e. sectoral planningand regional planning. The sectoral planningmeans formulation and implementation of thesets of schemes or programmes aimed atdevelopment of various sectors of the economysuch as agriculture, irrigation, manufacturing,power, construction, transport, communication,social infrastructure and services.There is no uniform economic developmentover space in any country. Some areas are moredeveloped and some lag behind. This uneven

pattern of development over space necessitatesthat the planners have a spatial perspectiveand draw the plans to reduce regionalimbalance in development. This type ofplanning is termed as regional planning.Target Area PlanningThe planning process has to take special careof those areas which have remainedeconomically backward. As you know, theeconomic development of a region dependsupon its resource base. But sometimesresource-rich region also remain backward.The economic development also requirestechnology as well as investment besides theresource. With the planning experience ofabout one and half decades, it was realisedthat regional imbalances in economicdevelopment were getting accentuated. Inorder to arrest the accentuation of regional andsocial disparties, the Planning Commissionintroduced the ‘target area’ and target groupapproaches to planning. Some of the examplesof programmes directed towards thedevelopment of target areas are CommandArea Development Programme, Drought ProneArea Development Programme, DesertDevelopment Programme, Hill Area

Development Programme. The Small FarmersDevelopment Agency (SFDA) and MarginalFarmers Development Agency (MFDA) whichare the examples of target group programme.In the 8th Five year Plan special areaprogrammes were designed to developinfrastructure in hill areas, north-easternstates, tribal areas and backward areas.Hill Area Development ProgrammeHill Area Development Programmes wereinitiated during Fifth Five Year Plan covering 15districts comprising all the hilly districts of UttarPradesh (present Uttarakhand), Mikir Hill andNorth Cachar hills of Assam, Darjiling district ofWest Bengal and Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu.The National Committee on the Development ofBackward Area in 1981 recommended that allthe hill areas in the country having height above600 m and not covered under tribal sub-planbe treated as backward hill areas.The detailed plans for the development of hillareas were drawn keeping in view theirtopographical, ecological, social and economicconditions. These programmes aimed atharnessing the indigenous resources of the hill

areas through development of horticulture,plantation agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry,forestry and small-scale and village industry.Drought Prone Area ProgrammeThis programme was initiated during theFourth Five Year Plan with the objectives ofproviding employment to the people indrought-prone areas and creating productiveassets. Initially this programme laid emphasison the construction of labour-intensive civilworks. But later on, it emphasised on irrigationprojects, land development programmes,afforestation, grassland development andcreation of basic rural infrastructure such aselectricity, roads, market, credit and services.National Committee on Development ofBackward Areas, reviewed the performance ofthis programme. It has been observed that thisprogramme is largely confined to thedevelopment of agriculture and allied sectorswith major focus on restoration of ecologicalbalance. Since growing population pressure isforcing the society to utilise the marginal landsfor agriculture, and, thereby causing ecologicaldegradation, there is a need to create alternativeemployment opportunities in the droughtprone

areas. The other strategies ofdevelopment of these areas include adoption ofintegrated watershed development approach atthe micro-level. The restoration of ecologicalbalance between water, soil, plants, and humanPlanning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context 1052015-16106 India : People and Economyand animal population should be a basicconsideration in the strategy of development ofdrought-prone areas.Planning Commission of India (1967)identified 67 districts (entire or partly) of thecountry prone to drought. IrrigationCommission (1972) introduced the criterion of30 per cent irrigated area and demarcated thedrought prone areas. Broadly, the droughtpronearea in India spread over semi-arid andarid tract of Rajasthan, Gujarat, WesternMadhya Pradesh, Marathwada region ofMaharashtra, Rayalseema and Telanganaplateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karantka plateauand highlands and interior parts of Tamil Nadu.

The drought prone areas of Punjab, Haryanaand north-Rajasthan are largely protected dueto spread of irrigation in these regions.Case Study – Integrated Tribal DevelopmentProject in Bharmaur* RegionBharmaur tribal area comprises Bharmaur andHoli tehsils of Chamba district of HimachalPradesh. It is a notified tribal area since21 November 1975. Bharmaur is inhabited by‘Gaddi’, a tribal community who havemaintained a distinct identity in the Himalayanregion as they practised transhumance andconversed through Gaddiali dialect.This region lies between 32° 11’ N and 32°41’N latitudes and 76° 22’ E and 76° 53’Elongitudes. Spread over an area of about1,818 sq km, the region mostly lies between1,500 m to 3,700 m above the mean sealevel. This region popularly known as thehomeland of Gaddis is surrounded by lofty

mountains on all sides. It has Pir Panjal inthe north and Dhaula Dhar in the south. Inthe east, the extension of Dhaula Dharconverges with Pir Panjal near RohtangPass. The river Ravi and its tributaries– theBudhil and the Tundahen, drain this territory,and carve out deep gorges. These riversdivide the region into four physiographicdivisions called Holi, Khani, Kugti andTundah areas. Bharmaur experiencesfreezing weather conditions and snowfall inwinter. Its mean monthly temperature inJanuary remains 4°C and in July 26°C.Bharmaur tribal region has harsh climateconditions, low resource base and fragileenvironment. These factors have influenced thesociety and Economy of the region. Accordingto the 2011 census, the total population ofBharmaur sub-division was 39,113 i.e., 21persons per sq km. It is one of the mostFig. 9.1

* The name Bharmaur is derived from Sanskrit word Brahmaur. In this book Bharmaur has been used toretain the colloquial flavour.2015-16Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context 107(economically and socially) backward areas ofHimachal Pradesh. Historically, the Gaddishave experienced geographical and politicalisolation and socio-economic deprivation. Theeconomy is largely based on agriculture andallied activities such as sheep and goat rearing.The process of development of tribal areaof Bharmaur started in 1970s when Gaddiswere included among ‘scheduled tribes’. Underthe Fifth Five Year Plan, the tribal sub-plan wasintroduced in 1974 and Bharmaur wasdesignated as one of the five Integrated TribalDevelopment Projects (ITDP) in HimachalFig. 9.22015-16108 India : People and EconomyPradesh. This area development plan was aimedat improving the quality of life of the Gaddisand narrowing the gap in the level ofdevelopment between Bharmaur and otherareas of Himachal Pradesh. This plan laid thehighest priority on development of transport

and communications, agriculture and alliedactivities, and social and community services.The most significant contribution of tribalsub plan in Bharmaur region is the developmentof infrastructure in terms of schools, health carefacilities, potable water, roads, communicationsand electricity. But the villages located along theriver Ravi in Holi and Khani areas are the mainbeneficiaries of infrastructural development. Theremote villages in Tundah and Kugti areas stilldo not have sufficient infrastructure.The social benefits derived from ITDPinclude tremendous increase in literacy rate,improvement in sex ratio and decline in childmarriage. The female literacy rate in the regionincreased from 1.88 per cent in 1971 to 65 percent in 2011. The difference between males andfemales in literacy level i.e. gender inequality,has also declined. Traditionally, the Gaddis hadsubsistence agricultural-cum-pastoraleconomy having emphasis on foodgrains andlivestock production. But during the last three

decades of twentieth century, the cultivation ofpulses and other cash crops has increased inBharmaur region. But the crop cultivation isstill done with traditional technology. Thedeclining importance of pastoralism in theeconomy of the region can be gauged from thefact that at present only about one-tenth of thetotal households practise transhumance. Butthe Gaddis are still very mobile as a sizeablesection of them migrate to Kangra andsurrounding areas during winter to earn theirlivings from wage labour.Sustainable DevelopmentThe term development is generally used todescribe the state of particular societies and theprocess of changes experienced by them.During a fairly large period of human history,the state of the societies has largely beendetermined by the interaction processesbetween human societies and their bio-physicalenvironment. The processes of humanenvironmentinteraction depend upon the levelof technology and institutions nurtured by asociety. While the technology and institutionshave helped in increasing the pace of humanenvironment

interaction, the momentum thus,generated in return has acceleratedtechnological progress and transformation andcreation of institutions. Hence, development isa multi-dimensional concept and signifies thepositive, irreversible transformation of theeconomy, society and environment.The concept of development is dynamic andhas evolved during the second half of twentiethcentury. In the post World War II era, the conceptof development was synonymous to economicgrowth which is measured in terms of temporalincrease in gross national product (GNP) and percapita income/per capita consumption. But,even the countries having high economic growth,experienced speedy rise in poverty because ofits unequal distribution. So, in 1970s, thephrases such as redistribution with growth andgrowth and equity were incorporated in thedefinition of development. While dealing with thequestions related to redistribution and equity,it was realised that the concept of developmentcannot be restricted to the economic sphere

alone. It also includes the issues such asimproving the well-being and living standard ofpeople, availing of the health, education andequality of opportunity and ensuring politicaland civil rights. By 1980s, development emergedas a concept encapsulating wide-spreadimprovement in social as well as material wellbeingof all in a society.The notion of sustainable developmentemerged in the wake of general rise in theawareness of environmental issues in the late1960s in Western World. It reflected the concernof people about undesirable effects of industrialdevelopment on the environment. Thepublication of ‘The Population Bomb’ byEhrlich in 1968 and ‘The Limits to Growth’by Meadows and others in 1972 further raisedthe level of fear among environmentalists inparticular and people in general. This sets thescenario for the emergence of new models ofdevelopment under a broad phrase‘sustainable development.’2015-16

Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context 109Fig. 9.3Concerned with the growing opinion ofworld community on the environmental issues,the United Nations established a WorldCommission on Environment and Development2015-16110 India : People and Economy(WCED) headed by the Norwegian Prime MinisterGro Harlem Brundtland. The Commission gaveits report (also known as Brundtland Report)entitled ‘Our Common Future’ in 1987. Thereport defines sustainable development as a“development that meets the needs of thepresent without compromising the ability offuture generations to meet their own needs.”carried out through two stages. The commandarea of Stage-I lies in Ganganagar,Hanumangarh and northern part of Bikanerdistricts. It has a gently undulating topographyand its culturable command area is 5.53 lakhhectares. The command area of Stage-II is spreadover Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur,Nagaur and Churu districts covering culturablecommand area of 14.10 lakh ha. It comprises

desert land dotted with shifting sand dunes andtemperature soaring to 50ºC in summers. In thelift canal, the water is lifted up to make it to flowagainst the slope of the land. All the lift canalsof Indira Gandhi Canal system originate at theleft bank of main canal while all the canals onthe right bank of main canal are flow channels.Sustainable development takes care ofecological, social and economic aspects ofdevelopment during the present times andpleads for conservation of resources to enablethe future generations to use these resources.It takes into account the development of wholehuman kind which have common future.Case StudyIndira Gandhi Canal (Nahar) CommandAreaIndira Gandhi Canal, previously known as theRajasthan Canal, is one of the largest canalsystems in India. Conceived by Kanwar Sain in1948, the canal project was launched on 31March, 1958. The canal originates at Harikebarrage in Punjab and runs parallel to Pakistanborder at an average distance of 40 km in TharDesert (Marusthali) of Rajasthan. The total

planned length of the system is 9,060 kmcatering to the irrigation needs of a totalculturable command area of 19.63 lakhhectares. Out of the total command area, about70 per cent was envisaged to be irrigated byflow system and the rest by lift system. Theconstruction work of the canal system has beenFig. 9.4: Indira Gandhi CanalFig. 9.5 : Indira Gandhi Canal and its adjoining areasIrrigation in Stage-I command area ofthe canal was introduced in early 1960s,whereas, the command area of Stage-II beganreceiving irrigation in mid-1980s. Theintroduction of canal irrigation in this dryland has transformed its ecology, economyand society. It has influenced theenvironmental conditions of the region bothpositively as well as negatively. Theavailability of soil moisture for a longerperiod of time and various afforestation andpasture development programmes underCAD have resulted in greening the land. Thishas also helped in reducing wind erosion andsiltation of canal systems. But the intensiveirrigation and excessive use of water has led

to the emergence of twin environmentalproblems of water logging and soil salinity.Introduction of canal irrigation hasbrought about a perceptible transformation2015-16Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context 111in the agricultural economy of the region. Soilmoisture has been a limiting factor insuccessful growing of crops in this area.Spread of canal irrigation has led to increasein cultivated area and intensity of cropping.The traditional crops sown in the area, gram,bajra and jowar have been replaced by wheat,cotton, groundnut and rice. This is the resultof intensive irrigation. This intensive irrigation,no doubt, initially has led to tremendousincrease in agricultural and livestockproductivity. This has also caused water loggingand soil salinity, and thus, in the long run, ithampers the sustainability of agriculture.Measures for Promotion of SustainableDevelopmentThe ecological sustainability of Indira GandhiCanal Project has been questioned by variousscholars. Their point of view has also largelybeen validated by the course of development

this region has taken during the last fourdecades, which has resulted in degradation ofphysical environment. It is a hard fact thatattaining sustainable development in thecommand area requires major thrust upon themeasures to achieve ecological sustainability.Hence, five of the seven measures proposed topromote sustainable development in thecommand area are meant to restore ecologicalbalance.(i) The first requirement is strictimplementation of water managementpolicy. The canal project envisagesprotective irrigation in Stage-I andextensive irrigation of crops and pasturedevelopment in Stage-II.(ii) In general, the cropping pattern shall notinclude water intensive crops. It shall beadhered to and people shall beencouraged to grow plantation crops suchas citrus fruits.(iii) The CAD programmes such as lining ofwater courses, land development andlevelling and warabandi system (equaldistribution of canal water in thecommand area of outlet) shall be effectivelyimplemented to reduce the conveyanceloss of water.

(iv) The areas affected by water logging andsoil salinity shall be reclaimed.(v) The eco-development through afforestation,shelterbelt plantation and pasturedevelopment is necessary particularly inthe fragile environment of Stage-II.(vi) The social sustainability in the region canbe achieved only if the land allottees havingpoor economic background are providedadequate financial and institutionalsupport for cultivation of land.(vii) The economic sustainability in the regioncannot be attained only throughdevelopment of agriculture and animalhusbandry. The agricultural and alliedactivities have to develop alongwith othersectors of economy. This shall lead todiversification of economic base andestablishment of functional linkagesbetween basic villages, agro-service centresand market centres.2015-16112 India : People and EconomyEXERCISES1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.(i) Regional planning relates to :(a) Development of various sectors of economy.

(b) Area specific approach of development.(c) Area differences in transportation network.(d) Development of rural areas.(ii) ITDP refers to which one of the following?(a) Integrated Tourism Development Programme(b) Integrated Travel Development Programme(c) Integrated Tribal Development Programme(d) Integrated Transport Development Programme(iii) Which one of the following is the most crucial factor for sustainabledevelopment in Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area?(a) Agricultural development(b) Eco-development(c) Transport development(d) Colonisation of land2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) What are the social benefits of ITDP in the Bharmaur tribal region?(ii) Define the concept of sustainable development.(iii) What are the positive impacts of irrigation on Indira Gandhi CanalCommand Area?3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) Write short notes on drought-prone area programme. How does this

programme help in the development of dryland agriculture in India?(ii) Suggest the measures of promotion of sustainability in Indira GandhiCanal Command Area.Project(i) Find out the area development programmes being implemented in yourregion. Assess the impact of such programmes on the society and economyin your locality.(ii) Select your own area or identify an area facing severe environmentaland socio-economic problems. Make an assessment of its resources andprepare their inventory. Suggest the measures for its sustainabledevelopment as it has been done in the case of Indira Gandhi CanalCommand Area.2015-16Unit IVChapter 10TRANSPORT ANDCOMMUNICATIONWe use many items in our daily life. From toothpaste to our bed tea, milk, clothes, soaps, food

items, etc. are required every day. All these canbe purchased from the market. Have you everthought as to how these items are brought fromthe site of production? All the production ismeant for consumption. From the fields andfactory, the produce is brought to the place fromwhere consumers purchase it. It is thetransportation of these items from the site oftheir production to the market which makethem available to the consumer.We not only use material things like fruits,vegetables, books, clothes, etc. but also useideas, views and messages in our daily life. Doyou know we exchange our views, ideas andmessages from one place to another or oneindividual to another while communicating withthe help of various means?The use of transport and communicationdepends upon our need to move things fromplace of their availability to the place of theiruse. Human-beings use various methods tomove goods, commodities, ideas from one placeto another.The following diagram shows the major

means of transportation.Land TransportThe pathways and unmetalled roads have beenused for transportation in India since ancienttimes. With the economic and technologicaldevelopment, metalled roads and railways weredeveloped to move large volume of goods and2015-16114 India : People and Economypeople from one place to another. Ropeways,cableways and pipelines were devised to caterto the demands of transporting specific goodsunder special circumstances.Road TransportIndia has one of the largest road networks inthe world with a total length of 42.3 lakh km(2008-09). About 85 per cent of passenger and(1961) was introduced to improve theconditions of roads in India. However, roadscontinue to concentrate in and around urbancentres. Rural and remote areas had the leastconnectivity by road.For the purpose of construction andmaintenance, roads are classified as NationalHighways (NH), State Highways(SH), MajorDistrict Roads and Rural Roads.

70 per cent of freight traffic are carried by roadsevery year. Road transport is relatively suitablefor shorter distance travel.Sher Shah Suri built the Shahi (Royal) roadto strengthen and consolidate his empirefrom the Indus Valley to the Sonar Valleyin Bengal. This road was renamed theGrand Trunk (GT) road during the Britishperiod, connecting Calcutta and Peshawar.At present, it extends from Amritsar toKolkata. It is bifurcated into 2 segments :(a) National Highway(NH)-1 from Delhi toAmritsar, and (b) NH- 2 from Delhi to Kolkata.Road transport in modern sense was verylimited in India before World War-II. The firstserious attempt was made in 1943 when‘Nagpur Plan’ was drawn. This plan could notbe implemented due to lack of coordinationamong the princely states and British India.After Independence, twenty-year road planNational HighwaysThe main roads which are constructed andmaintained by the Central Government areknown as the National Highways. These roadsare meant for inter-state transport andmovement of defence men and material instrategic areas. These also connect the state

capitals, major cities, important ports, railwayjunctions, etc. The length of the NationalHighways has increased from 19,700 km in1951 to 70,934 km in 2008-09. The NationalHighways constitute only 1.67 per cent of thetotal road length but carry 40 per cent of theroad traffic. (Table 10.1)The National Highways Authority of India(NHAI) was operationalised in 1995. It is anautonomous body under the Ministry ofSurface Transport. It is entrusted with theresponsibility of development, maintenanceand operation of National Highways. This is alsothe apex body to improve the quality of the roadsdesignated as National Highways.A view of traffic flow in DelhiRain-soaked : Nomads go about their routine during an early morningdownpour in Srinagar. Traffic on the 300-km Srinagar-Jammu and 434-km Srinagar-Leh National Highways is suspended as upper reaches ofJ&K saw heavy snowfall while rain lashed the plains.Fig. 10.12015-16Transport and Communication 115Serial No. Road Category Length in Km % of total road length

1. National Highways 70,934 1.672. State Highways 154522 3.643. Major District Roads 2577396 60.834. Rural Roads 1433577 33.86Total 4236429 100Table 10.1 : Indian Road Network 2008-09National HighwaysDevelopment ProjectsNHAI has taken up some major projects inthe country under different phases :Golden Quadrilateral : It comprisesconstruction of 5,846 km long 4/6 lane, highdensity traffic corridor, to connect India’s fourbig metro cities of Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata. With the construction of GoldenQuadrilateral, the time- distance and costof movement among the mega cities of India

will be considerably minimised.North-South and East-West Corridors :North-South corridor aims at connectingSrinagar in Jammu and Kashmir withKaniyakumari in Tamil Nadu (includingKochchi-Salem Spur) with 4,076 km longroad. The East-West Corridor has been plannedto connect Silchar in Assam with the port townof Porbandar in Gujarat with 3,640 km ofroad length.Rural RoadsThese roads are vital for providing links in therural areas. About 80 per cent of the total roadlength in India are categorised as rural roads.There is regional variation in the density of ruralroad because these are influenced by the natureof the terrain?State HighwaysThese are constructed and maintained by state

governments. They join the state capitals withdistrict headquarters and other importanttowns. These roads are connected to theNational Highways. These constitute 4 per centof total road length in the country.District RoadsThese roads are the connecting link betweenDistrict Headquarters and the other importantnodes in the district. They account for 14 percent of the total road length of the country.Fig. 10.2 : Road constructed under the PradhanMantri Gram Sadak YojnaWhy are the rural roads’ density very lowin hilly, plateau and forested areas? Whydoes the quality of rural roads deteriorateaway from the urban centres?Other RoadsOther roads include Border Roads andInternational Highways. The Border RoadOrganisation (BRO) was established in May1960 for accelerating economic developmentand strengthening defence preparednessthrough rapid and coordinated improvementof strategically important roads along thenorthern and north-eastern boundary of theSource: Ministry of Road Transport Annual Report 2010-11.2015-16116 India : People and Economy

Fig. 10.3 : India – Density of Roads, 20012015-16Transport and Communication 117Apart from the construction andmaintenance of roads in strategically sensitiveareas, the BRO also undertakes snowclearance in high altitude areas. Theinternational highways are meant to promotethe harmonious relationship with theneighbouring countries by providing effectivelinks with India. (Fig. 10.5 and 10.6)The distribution of roads is not uniform inthe country. Density of roads (length of roadsper 100 square km of area) varies from only12.14 km in Jammu and Kashmir to 517.77km in Kerala with a national average of 142.68km in 2011. The density of road is high in mostof the northern states and major southernstates. It is low in the Himalayan region, northeasternregion, Madhya Pradesh andRajasthan. Why does this variation occur?Nature of terrain and the level of economicdevelopment are the main determinants ofdensity of roads. Construction of roads is easyand cheaper in the plain areas while it is difficultand costly in hilly and plateau areas. Therefore,

not only the density but also the quality of roadsis relatively better in plains as compared toroads in high altitude areas, rainy and forestedregions.List the names of 10 important towns along NH-1 andNH-2.Fig. 10.5 : A Bus from Lahore to Delhi at Wagah BorderFig. 10.6 : Aman Setu between Srinagar andMuzaffarabadDelhi-Lahore BusFig. 10.4 : Khardung La Pass in Jammu & Kashmircountry. It is a premier multifaceted constructionagency. It has constructed roads in high altitudemountainous terrain joining Chandigarh withManali (Himachal Pradesh) and Leh (Ladakh).This road runs at an average altitude of 4,270metres above the mean sea level.2015-16118 India : People and EconomyRailway Zone Headquarters Earnings from Earnings from % ofPassengers % goods % Total earnings

Central Mumbai CST 13.62 8.36 10.07Eastern Kolkata 6.18 3.3 4.24East Central Hajipur 5.19 7.84 6.98East Coast Bhubaneswar 2.27 9.69 7.27Northern New Delhi 15.38 8.94 11.04North Central Allahabad 6.71 8.76 8.09North Eastern Gorakhpur 3.44 1.55 2.17North East Frontier Maligaon (Guwahati) 2.34 2.59 2.51North Western Jaipur 3.44 3.04 3.17Southern Chennai 8.74 3.78 5.4South Central Secunderabad 8.45 8.88 8.74South Eastern Kolkata 3.23 7.86 6.36South East Central Bilaspur 1.7 8.91 6.56South Western Hubli 3.5 2.27 2.67Western Mumbai (Church Gate) 12.16 7.32 8.9West Central Jabalpur 3.62 6.91 5.83Total 100 100 100Table 10.3 : Indian RailwaysZone-wise income from passengers and goods (Rupees in lakhs)Source : Statistical Abstract of India, 2004 pg. 243Which one is the longest National Highway in India?Why have Bengaluru and Hyderabad in the South andDelhi, Kanpur and Patna in north India have emerged

as important nodes?Rail TransportIndian railways network is one of the longest inthe world. It facilitates the movement of bothfreight and passengers and contributes to thegrowth of economy. Mahatma Gandhi said, theIndian railways “brought people of diversecultures together to contribute to India’sfreedom struggle.”Indian Railway was introduced in 1853,when a line was constructed from Bombay toThane covering a distance of 34 km.Indian Railways is the largest governmentundertaking in the country. The length of IndianRailways network is 64460 km. as on 31 March2011. Its very large size puts lots of pressureon a centralised railway management system.Thus, in India, the railway system has beenTable 10.2 : Trends of Freight (in milliontonnes) and Passengers (in millions)Handled by the Indian Railwaysdivided into sixteen zones. Table 10.3 showsthe zone-wise performance of Indian Railways.Commodities 1970-71 2010-11ProvisionalCoal 47.9 268.3Raw Material for

Steel Plants 16.1 9.8Pig Iron andFinished Steel 6.2 32.2Iron ore 9.8 46.4Cement 11 57.0Food grains 15.1 52.0Fertilisers 4.7 40.7Petroleum 8.9 26.1Other Goods 48.2 52.3Total Traffic 167.9 584.7Passengers Originating 2431 7651.1Source : Economic Survey, Govt. of India, 2005-06,and 2011-122015-16Transport and Communication 119Fig. 10.7 : River navigation in the North-eastOn the basis of width of the track of IndianRailways, three categories have been made:Broad gauge: The distance between rails inbroad gauge is 1.676 metre. The total lengthof broad gauge lines was 55188 km in 2011.Metre gauge: The distance between rails

is one metre. Its total length was 6809 kmin 2011.Narrow gauge: The distance between the railsin this case is 0.762 metre or 0.610 metre.The total length of narrow guage was 2463 kmin 2011. It is generally confined to hilly areas.Indian Railways has launched extensiveprogramme to convert the metre and narrowgauges to broad gauge. Moreover, steamengines have been replaced by diesel andelectric engines. This step has increased thespeed as well as the haulage capacity.The replacement of steam engines run bycoal has also improved the environment of thestations.Metro rail has revolutionlised the urbantransport system in Kolkata and Delhi.replacement of diesel buses by CNG runvehicles along with introduction of metro is awelcome step towards controlling the air

pollution in urban centres.Areas around towns, raw materialproducing areas and of plantations and othercommercial crops, hill stations and cantonmenttowns were well-connected by railways from theBritish colonial era. These were mostlydeveloped for the exploitation of resources. Afterthe Independence of the country, railway routeshave been extended to other areas too. The mostsignificant development has been thedevelopment of Konkan Railway along thewestern coast providing a direct link betweenMumbai and Mangaluru.Railway continues to remain the main meansof transport for the masses. Railway network isrelatively less dense in the hill states, north easternstates, central parts of India and Rajasthan.Water TransportWaterways is an important mode of transportfor both passenger and cargo traffic in India. Itis the cheapest means of transport and is mostsuitable for carrying heavy and bulky material.It is a fuel-efficient and eco-friendly mode of

transport. The water transport is of two types–(a) inland waterways, and (b) oceanic waterways.Inland WaterwaysIt was the chief mode of transport before theadvent of railways. It, however, faced toughcompetition from road and railway transport.Moreover, diversion of river water for irrigationKonkan RailwayOne of the important achievements ofIndian Railways has been theconstruction of Konkan Railway in 1998.It is 760 km long rail route connectingRoha in Maharashtra to Mangalore inKarnataka. It is considered anengineering marvel. It crosses 146rivers, streams, nearly 2000 bridges and91 tunnels. Asia’s largest tunnel whichis nearly 6.5 km long, also lies on thisroute. The states of Maharashtra, Goaand Karnataka are partners in thisundertaking.2015-16120 India : People and Economy

For the development, maintenance andregulation of national waterways in the country,the Inland Waterways Authority was set up in1986. The following waterways have beendeclared as the National Waterways by theGovernment (Table 10.4).purposes made them non navigable in largeparts of their courses. India has 14,500 km ofnavigable waterways, contributing about 1% tothe country’s transportation. It comprises rivers,canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. At present,5,685 km of major rivers are navigable bymechanised flat bottom vessels.Fig. 10.8 : Natinal Waterway No.3Table 10.4 ; National Waterways of IndiaWaterways Stretch SpecificationNW 1 Allahabad-Haldiastretch (1,620 km)It is one of the most important waterways inIndia, which is navigable by mechanical boatsup to Patna and by ordinary boats up toHaridwar. It is divided into three parts fordevelopmental purposes– (i) Haldia-Farakka (560km), (ii) Farakka-Patna (460 km), (iii) Patna-Allahabad (600 km).NW 2 Sadiya-Dhubri stretch(891 km)Brahmaputra is navigable by steamers up to

Dibrugarh (1,384 km) which is shared by Indiaand BangladeshNW 3 Kottapuram-Kollamstretch (205 km)It includes 168 km of west coast canal alongwith Champakara canal (23 km) andUdyogmandal canal (14 km).NW 4 Specified streches of Godavari and Krishna rivers along with KakinadaPuducherry stretch of canals (1078 km)NW 5 Specified stretches of river Brahmani along with Matai river, delta channelsof Mahanadi and Brahmani rivers and East Coast canals (588km).2015-16Transport and Communication 121Inland Waterways Authority has alsoidentified ten other inland waterways, whichcould be upgraded. The backwaters (Kadal) ofKerala has special significance in InlandWaterway. Apart from providing cheap meansof transport, they are also attracting largenumber of tourists in Kerala. The famous NehruTrophy Boat Race (VALLAMKALI) is also heldin the backwaters.Oceanic RoutesIndia has a vast coastline of approximate 7,517km, including islands. Twelve major and 185minor ports provide infrastructural support to

these routes. Oceanic routes play an importantrole in the transport sector of India’s economy.Approximately 95 per cent of India’s foreigntrade by volume and 70 per cent by value movesthrough ocean routes. Apart from internationaltrade, these are also used for the purpose oftransportation between the islands and the restof the country.Air TransportationAir transport is the fastest means of movementfrom one place to the other. It has reduceddistances by minimising the travel time. It isvery essential for a vast country like India,where distances are large and the terrain andclimatic conditions are diverse.Air transport in India made a beginningin 1911 when airmail operation commencedover a little distance of 10 km betweenAllahabad and Naini. But its real developmenttook place in post-Independent period. TheAirport Authority of India is responsible forproviding safe, efficient air traffic andaeronautical communication services in theIndian Air Space. The authority manages 125airports.The air transport in India is managed bytwo corporations, Air India and Indian Airlines

after nationalisation. Now many privatecompanies have also started passenger services.Air IndiaAir India provides International Air Services forboth passengers and cargo traffic. It connectsall the continents of the world through itsservices.History of Indian Airlines1911 – Air transport in India was launched between Allahabad and Naini.1947 – Air transport was provided by four major companies namely Indian National Airways, TataSons Limited, Air Services of India and Deccan Airways.1951 – Four more companiesjoined the services, BharatAirways, Himalayan AviationLimited, Airways India and KalingaAirlines.1953 – Air transport wasnationalised and two Corporations,

Air India International and IndianAirlines were formed. Now IndianAirlines is known as ‘Indian’.2015-16122 India : People and EconomyThe country’s largest state-owned domesticcarrier, Indian Airlines dropped the word‘Airlines’ from its name and is known as‘Indian’ w.e.f. December 8, 2005. The newbrand name ‘Indian’ now appears on bothsides of the fuselage. The logo on theorange tail depicting ‘IA’ has also beenchanged. It has been replaced by a newlogo which is a partly visible blue wheel andis inspired by the Sun Temple at Konark(Odisha), symbolising timeless motion,convergence and divergence. It also

embodies strength as well as trust that hasstood the test of time.In 2010, domestic movement involved520.21 lakh passengers and about 23 lakhmetric tonnes of cargo.Pawan Hans is the helicopter serviceoperating in hilly areas and is widely used bytourists in north-eastern sector.In addition, Pawan Hans Limited mainlyprovides helicopter services to petroleum sectorand for tourism.Open Sky PolicyTo help the Indian exporters and make theirexport more competitive, the government hadintroduced an Open Sky Policy for cargo inApril 1992. Under this policy, foreign airlinesor association of exporters can bring any

freighters to the country.Oil and Gas PipelinesPipelines are the most convenient and efficientmode of transporting liquids and gases overlong distances. Even solids can also betransported by pipelines after converting theminto slurry. Oil India Limited (OIL) under theadministrative set up of the Ministry ofPetroleum and Natural Gas is engaged in theexploration, production and transportation ofcrude oil and natural gas. It was incorporatedin 1959 as a company. Asia’s first cross countrypipeline covering a distance of 1,157 km wasconstructed by OIL from Naharkatiya oilfieldin Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar. It wasfurther extended up to Kanpur in 1966.Another extensive network of pipelines has beenconstructed in the western region of India ofwhich Ankleshwar-Koyali, Mumbai High-Koyali and Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ)are most important. Recently, a 1256 km longpipeline connecting Salaya (Gujarat) withMathura (U.P.) has been constructed. It suppliescrude oil from Gujarat to Punjab (Jalandhar)via Mathura. OIL is in the process of

constructing of 660 km long pipeline fromNumaligarh to Siliguri.Communication NetworksHuman beings have evolved different methodsof communication over time. In earlier times,the messages were delivered by beating thedrum or hollow tree trunks, giving indicationsthrough smoke or fire or with the help of fastrunners. Horses, camels, dogs, birds and otheranimals were also used to send messages.Initially, the means of communication were alsothe means of transportation. Invention of postoffice,telegraph, printing press, telephone,satellite, etc has made the communication muchfaster and easier. Development in the field ofscience and technology has significantlycontributed in bringing about revolution in thefield of communication.People use different modes ofcommunication to convey the messages. On thebasis of scale and quality, the mode ofcommunication can be divided into followingcategories :2015-16

Transport and Communication 123Personal Communication SystemAmong all the personal communication systeminternet is the most effective and advanced one. Itis widely used in urban areas. It enables the userto establish direct contact through e-mail to getaccess to the world of knowledge and information.It is increasingly used for e-commerce andcarrying out money transactions. The internet islike a huge central warehouse of data, withdetailed information on various items. Thenetwork through internet and e-mail provides anefficient access to information at a comparativelylow cost. It enables us with the basic facilities ofdirect communication. You might have noticedthe proliferation of cyber cafes in urban areas.Mass Communication SystemRadioRadio broadcasting started in India in 1923 by

the Radio Club of Bombay. Since then, it gainedimmense popularity and changed the socioculturallife of people. Within no time, it made aplace in every household of the country.Government took this opportunity and broughtthis popular mode of communication under itscontrol in 1930 under the Indian BroadcastingSystem. It was changed to All India Radio in1936 and to Akashwani in 1957.All India Radio broadcasts a variety ofprogrammes related to information, educationand entertainment. Special news bulletins arealso broadcast at specific occasions like sessionof parliament and state legislatures.Television (T.V.)Television broadcasting has emerged as themost effective audio-visual medium fordisseminating information and educatingmasses. Initially, the T.V. services were limitedonly to the National Capital where it began in1959. After 1972, several other centres becameoperational. In 1976, TV was delinked from AllIndia Radio (AIR) and got a separate identityas Doordarshan (DD). After INSAT-IA (National

Television-DD1) became operational, CommonNational Programmes (CNP) were started for theentire network and its services were extendedto the backward and remote rural areas.Satellite CommunicationSatellites are mode of communication inthemselves as well as they regulate the use of othermeans of communication. However, use of satellitein getting a continuous and synoptic view oflarger area has made satellite communication veryvital for the country due to the economic andstrategic reasons. Satellite images can be usedfor the weather forecast, monitoring of naturalcalamities, surveillance of border areas, etc.On the basis of configuration and purposes,satellite system in India can be grouped into two:Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) andIndian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS). TheINSAT, which was established in 1983,is a multipurposesatellite system for telecommunication,

meteorological observation and for various otherdata and programmes.The IRS satellite system becameoperational with the launching of IRS-IA inMarch 1988 from Vaikanour in Russia. Indiahas also developed her own Launching VehiclePSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle). Thesesatellites collect data in several spectral bandsand transmit them to the ground stations forvarious uses. The National Remote SensingCentre (NRSC) at Hyderabad provides facilitiesfor acquisition of data and its processing. Theseare very useful in the management of naturalresources.2015-16124 India : People and EconomyEXERCISES1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.(i) In how many zones has the Indian Railways system been divided?(a) 9 (c) 16(b) 12 (d) 14(ii) Which one of the following is the longest highway of India?(a) N.H.-1 (c) N.H.-7

(b) N.H.-6 (d) N.H.-8(iii) On which river and between which two places does the National WaterWay No. 1 lie?(a) The Brahmaputra, Sadiya-Dhubri(b) The Ganga, Haldia-Allahabad(c) West Coast Canal, Kottapuram to Kollam(iv) In which of the following year, the first radio programme was broadcast?(a) 1911 (c) 1927(b) 1936 (d) 19232. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) Which activity does transportation convey? Name three major modes oftransportation.(ii) Discuss advantages and disadvantages of pipeline transportation.(iii) What do you mean by ‘communication’?(iv) Discuss the contribution of Air India and Indian in the air transport ofIndia.3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) Which are the chief means of transportation in India? Discuss the factorsaffecting their development.(ii) Give a detailed account of the development of railways in India andhighlight their importance.

(iii) Describe the role of roads in the economic development of India.ProjectFind out the facilities that Indian Railways provide to the passengers.2015-16Unit IVChapter 11INTERNATIONALTRADEYou have already studied about the variousaspects of International trade in the bookFundamentals of Human Geography.International Trade is mutually beneficial asno country is self-sufficient. India’sInternational trade has undergone a sea changein recent years in terms of volume, compositionas well as direction. Although India’scontribution in the world trade is as low as oneper cent of the total volume, yet it plays asignificant role in the world economy.Let us examine the changing pattern ofIndia’s International trade. In 1950-51, India’sexternal trade was worth Rs.1,214 crore, whichrose to Rs. 22,09,270 crore in 2009-10. Can

you calculate the percentage growth in 2009-10over 1950-51? There are numerous reasons forthis sharp rise in overseas trade, such as, themomentum picked up by the manufacturingsectors, the liberal policies of the government andthe diversification of markets.The nature of India’s foreign trade haschanged over the years (Table 11.1). Thoughthere has been an increase in the total volumeof import and export, the value of importcontinued to be higher than that of exports.There has also been an increase in trade deficitover the last couple of years. This increase indeficit is attributed to the price rise of crudepetroleum which forms a major component ofIndia’s import list.Changing Pattern of theComposition of India’s ExportsSource : Economic Survey, 2011-12Fig. 11.12015-16126 India : People and EconomyStudy the data in table 11.2 and answer the followingquestions :

Why is the export of agricultural and allied productsdeclining continuously after 1997-98?After attaining a peak in 1999-2000, why has the exportof manufacturing goods started decreasing?Draw bar diagram to show the trends of exports of allitems given in the table. Use pen/pencil of differentcolours.The decline in traditional items is largely dueto the tough international competition. Amongstthe agricultural products, there is a great declinein the exports of traditional items such as coffee,spices, tea, pulses, etc. though an increase hasbeen registered in floricultural products, freshfruits, marine products and sugar, etc.Manufacturing sector alone accounted for68.0 per cent of India’s total value of export in

2010-11. Engineering goods have shown asignificant growth in the export list. China andother East Asian countries are our majorcompetitors. Gems and jewellery contributes alarger share of India’s foreign trade.Year Exports Imports Total Trade Deficit2000-01 203,571 230,873 434444 -273022004-05 375,340 501,065 876405 -125,7252007-08 655,864 1,012,312 1668176 -356,4482009-10 845,534 1,363,736 2209270 -518,202Table 11.1 India’s Foreign TradeValue in Rs. CroresSource : http://commerce.nic.in/publications/annual-report - 2010-11Commodities 1997-98 2003-04 2009-2010 2010-11Agriculture and allied products 18.93 11.8 10.0 9.9Ore and Minerals 3.03 3.71 4.9 4.0Manufactured goods 75.83 75.96 67.4 68.0Crude and petroleum products 1.01 5.59 16.2 16.8Other commodities 1.2 2.94 1.5 1.2Table 11.2 : Composition of India’s Export, 1997-2011(Percentage share in Exports)Source : Economic Survey 2011-12As has already been mentioned, thecomposition of commodities in India’sinternational trade has been undergoing achange over the years. The share of agricultureand allied products has declined whereas

shares of petroleum and crude products andother commodities have increased. The sharesof ore minerals and manufactured goods havelargely remained constant over the years from1997-98 to 2003-04. The increase in the shareof petroleum products is due to a rise inpetroleum prices as well as increase in India’srefining capacity.Study table 11.3 and select major commoditiesexported in 2010-11 and draw bar diagram.Changing Patterns of the Composition ofIndia’s ImportIndia faced serious food shortage during 1950sand 1960s. The major item of import at thattime was foodgrain, capital goods, machineryand equipments. The balance of payment was2015-16International Trade 127adverse as imports were more than export inspite of all the efforts of import substitution.After 1970s, foodgrain import was discontinueddue to the success of green revolution but theenergy crisis of 1973 pushed the prices ofpetroleum, and import budget was also pushed

up. Foodgrain import was replaced by fertilisersand petroleum. Machine and equipment,special steel, edible oil and chemicals largelymake the import basket. Examine the changingpattern of imports in Table 11.4 and try tocomprehend the shifts.Table 11.4 shows that there is a steep risein imports of petroleum products. It is used notonly as a fuel but also as an industrial rawmaterial. It indicates the tempo of risingindustrialisation and better standard of living.Sporadic price rise in the international marketis another reason for the same. Import of capitalgoods maintained a steady increase due to risingCommodity Group 2009-10 2010-11Food and allied products 3.7 2.9Fuel (Coal, POL) 33.2 31.3Fertilisers 2.3 1.9Paper board manufacturing and news print 0.5 0.6Capital goods 15.0 13.1Others of which 42.6 47.7Chemicals (5.2) (5.2)Pearls precious and semi precious stones (5.6) (9.4)Gold and silver (10.3) (11.5)Table 11.4 : India Composition of Import 2009-11

(In percentage)Source : Economic Survey 2011-12Commodities 2010-11Agriculture and allied products 113116Ores and Minerals 46152Manufactured goods 777424Mineral fuels and Lubricants 192282Table 11.3 : Export of Principal CommoditiesRs. CroresSource : Economic Survey 2011-12.demand in the export-oriented industrial anddomestic sectors. Non-electrical machinery,transport equipment, manufacturers of metalsand machine tools were the main items ofcapital goods. Import of food and alliedproducts declined with a fall in imports ofedible oils. Other major items of India’s importinclude pearls and semi precious stones, goldand silver, metalliferrous ores and metal scrap,non-ferrous metals, electronic goods, etc. Thedetails of Indian imports of principalcommodities during 2010-11 have been givenin table 11.5.Based on table 11.5, few activities may beundertaken:Arrange the items in ascending or

descending order and write the names ofthe first five major items of India’s importlist of 2010-11.Why does India import edible oil in spite ofbeing an agriculturally rich country?Select five most important and five leastimportant items and represent them by bardiagram.Can you identify some items of imports forwhich substitutes can be developed inIndia?2015-16128 India : People and EconomySource : Economic Survey 2005-06 and 2011-12Direction of TradeIndia has trade relations with most of thecountries and major trading blocks of theworld.Region-wise and sub-region-wise trade

during the period 2010-11 has been given intable 11.6.India is a success story in terms ofdiversification of export and import markets.The share of Asia and ASEAN in total tradeincreased from 33.3 per cent in 2000-01 to 57.3per cent in the first half of 2011-12, while thatof Europe and America fell from 42.5 per centto 30.8 per cent respectively. This has helpedIndia weather the global crisis emanating fromEurope and America.(Source : Economic Survey 2011-12)An interesting development in the directionof India’s trade is that the USA which was infirst position in 2003-04 has been relegated tothird position in 2010-11, with the UAEbecoming India’s largest trading partner,followed by China. This position continued from2008-09 to 2010-11.Draw a multiple bar diagram to represent the majortrading partners.Most of India’s foreign trade is carriedthrough sea and air routes. However, a smallportion is also carried through land route toneighbouring countries like Nepal, Bhutan,

Bangladesh and Pakistan.Commodities 2010-11Fertilisers and fertilizer manufacturing 31533Edible oils 29860Pulp and waste paper 5208Paper board and manufactures 9614Non-ferrous metals 212153Iron and steel 47275Petroleum crude and products 482282Pearls, precious and semi 1575596precious stonesMedicinal and Pharma products 11114Chemical products 13278Table 11.5 : Import of PrincipalCommodities(in Crore rupees)Source : Economic Survey 2011-12Region Imports2009-10 2010-11Europe 263471 323857(a) EU countries (27) 181937 202779Africa 97871 118612North America 139480 100602Latin America 48942 64576Asia and ASEAN 829224 1029881Table 11.6 Direction of India’s Import trade(in crore rupees)Source : Department of Commerce based on DCCI&Sprovisional data, Economic Survey 2011-12.India aims to double its share in theinternational trade within the next five years. It

has already started adopting suitable measuressuch as import liberalisation, reduction inimport duties, de-licensing and change fromprocess to product patents.Country 2003-04 Country 2010-11U.S.A. 10.3 U.A.E. 10.81U.K. 3.7 China 10.16Belgium 3.7 U.S.A. 7.35Germany 3.5 Saudi Arabia 4.13Japan 2.7 Switzerland 4.10Switzerland 3.3 Hong Kong 3.18Hong Kong 2.8 Germany 3.00U.A.E. 6.2 Singapore 2.81China 6.4 Indonesia 2.60Singapore 3.4 Belgium 2.40Malaysia 1.7 Korea 2.35Total 47.7 Total 52.89Table 11.7 India’s Major TradingPartners’ Percentage share in totaltrade (Export + Import)2015-16International Trade 129Sea Ports as Gateways ofInternational TradeIndia is surrounded by sea from three sides andis bestowed with a long coastline. Waterprovides a smooth surface for very cheaptransport provided there is no turbulence. Indiatraders and colonisation of the country by the

British. This led to the variation in the size andquality of ports. There are some ports whichhave very vast area of influence and some havelimited area of influence. At present, India has12 major ports and 185 minor or intermediateports. In case of the major ports, centralgovernment decides the policy and playsregulatory functions. The minor ports are therewhose policy and functions are regulated bystate governments. The major ports handlelarger share of the total traffic. The 12 majorports handled about 71 per cent of the country’soceanic traffic in 2008-09.The British used the ports as suctionpoints of the resources from their hinterlands.The extension of railways towards the interiorfacilitated the linking of the local markets toregional markets, regional markets to nationalmarkets and national markets to theinternational markets. This trend continued till1947. It was expected that the country’sindependence will reverse the process, but thepartition of the country snatched away two veryimportant ports i.e. Karachi port went toPakistan and Chittagong port to the erstwhile

east-Pakistan and now Bangladesh. Tocompensate the losses, many new ports like theKandla in the west and the Diamond Harbournear Kolkata on river Hugli in the east weredeveloped.Despite this major setback, Indian portscontinued to grow after the Independence.Today Indian ports are handling large volumesof domestic as well as overseas trade. Most ofthe ports are equipped with moderninfrastructure. Previously the development andmodernisation was the responsibility of thegovernment agencies, but considering theincrease in function and need to bring theseports at par with the international ports, privateentrepreneurs have been invited for themodernisation of ports in India.The capacity of Indian ports increased from20 million tonnes of cargo handling in 1951 tomore than 586 million tonnes in 2008-09.Fig. 11.3 : Unloading of goods on porthas a long tradition of sea faring and developedmany ports with place name suffixed withpattan meaning port. An interesting fact aboutports in India is that its west coast has more

seaports than its east coast.Can you find out the reasons for thevariations in the location of ports along thetwo coasts?Though ports have been in use sinceancient times, the emergence of ports asgateways of international trade becameimportant after the coming of the European2015-16130 India : People and EconomyFig. 11.4 : India – Major Ports and Sea Routes2015-16International Trade 131Some of the Indian ports along with theirhinterlands are as follows :Kandla Port situated at the head of Gulf ofKuchchh has been developed as a major port tocater to the needs of western and north westernparts of the country and also to reduce thepressure at Mumbai port. The port is speciallydesigned to receive large quantities of petroleumand petroleum products and fertiliser. Theoffshore terminal at Vadinar has been developedto reduce the pressure at Kandla port.

Demarcation of the boundary of thehinterland would be difficult as it is not fixedover space. In most of the cases, hinterland ofone port may overlap with that of the other.Mumbai is a natural harbour and thebiggest port of the country. The port is situatedcloser to the general routes from the countriesof Middle East, Mediterranean countries, NorthAfrica, North America and Europe where themajor share of country’s overseas trade iscarried out. The port is 20 km long and 6-10km wide with 54 berths and has the country’slargest oil terminal. M.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat,U.P. and parts of Rajasthan constitute the mainhinterlands of Mumbai ports.Jawaharlal Nehru Port at Nhava Shevawas developed as a satellite port to relieve thepressure at the Mumbai port. It is the largestcontainer port in India.Marmagao Port, situated at the entranceof the Zuari estuary, is a natural harbour inGoa. It gained significance after its remodellingin 1961 to handle iron-ore exports to Japan.Construction of Konkan railway hasconsiderably extended the hinterland of thisport. Karnataka, Goa, Southern Maharashtraconstitute its hinterland.New Mangalore Port is located in the state

of Karnataka and caters to the needs of theexport of iron-ore and iron-concentrates. It alsohandles fertilisers, petroleum products, edibleoils, coffee, tea, wood pulp, yarn, granite stone,molasses, etc. Karnataka is the majorhinterland for this port.Kochchi Port, situated at the head ofVembanad Kayal, popularly known as the“Queen of the Arabian Sea,” is also a naturalharbour. This port has an advantageouslocation being close to the Suez-Colombo route.It caters to the needs of Kerala, southern-Karnataka and south western Tamil Nadu.Kolkata Port is located on the Hugli river,128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal. Like theMumbai port, this port was also developed bythe British. Kolkata had the initial advantageof being the capital of British India. The porthas lost its significance considerably on accountof the diversion of exports to the other portssuch as Vishakhapatnam, Paradwip and itssatellite port, Haldia.Kolkata port is also confronted with theproblem of silt accumulation in the Hugli riverwhich provides a link to the sea. Its hinterlandcovers U.P., Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal,

Sikkim and the north-eastern states. Apart fromthis, it also extends ports facilities to ourneighbouring land-locked countries such asNepal and Bhutan.Haldia Port is located 105 kmdownstream from Kolkata. It has beenconstructed to reduce the congestion at Kolkataport. It handles bulk cargo like iron ore, coal,petroleum, petroleum products and fertilisers,jute, jute products, cotton and cotton yarn, etc.Paradwip Port is situated in the Mahanadidelta, about 100 km from Cuttack. It has thedeepest harbour specially suited to handle verylarge vessels. It has been developed mainly tohandle large-scale export of iron-ore. Orissa,Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand are the parts ofits hinterland.Visakhapatnam Port in Andhra Pradeshis a land-locked harbour, connected to the seaby a channel cut through solid rock and sand.An outer harbour has been developed forhandling iron-ore, petroleum and generalcargo. Andhra Pradesh and Telangana are themain hinterland for this port.Chennai Port is one of the oldest ports onthe eastern coast. It is an artificial harbour built

2015-16132 India : People and EconomyFig. 11.5 : India – Air Routes2015-16International Trade 133EXERCISES1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.(i) Trade between two countries is termed as(a) Internal trade (c) International trade(b) External trade (d) Local trade(ii) Which one of the following is a land locked harbour?(a) Vishakhapatnam (c) Ennor(b) Mumbai (d) Haldia(iii) Most of India’s foreign trade is carried through(a) Land and sea (c) Sea and air(b) Land and air (d) Sea(iv) Which one of the following is India’s largest trading partner (2010-11)(a) U.A.E. (c) Germany(b) China (d) U.S.A.in 1859. It is not much suitable for large shipsbecause of the shallow waters near the coast.Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry are its hinterland.Ennore, a newly developed port in TamilNadu, has been constructed 25 km north ofChennai to relieve the pressure at Chennai port.

Tuticorin Port was also developed torelieve the pressure of Chennai port. It dealswith a variety of cargo including coal, salt, foodgrains, edible oils, sugar, chemicals andpetroleum products.AirportsAir transport plays an important role in theinternational trade. It has the advantage oftaking the least time for carriage and handlinghigh value or perishable goods over longdistances. It is very costly and unsuitable forcarrying heavy and bulky commodities. Thisultimately reduces the participation of thissector in the international trade as comparedto the oceanic routes.There were 19 international airportsfunctioning in the country (February 2013).They are Ahmedabad, Amritsar, Bengaluru,Chennai, Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Hyderabad,Kochchi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Thiruvananthapuram,Srinagar, Jaipur, Calicut, Port Blair, Nagpur,Tiruchirapalli and Coimbatore.You have already studied about the airtransport in the previous chapter. You consultthe chapter on transport to find out the mainfeatures of air transport in India.

Name the nearest domestic and international airportsfrom your place. Identify the state with maximum numberof domestic airports.Identify four cities where maximum number of air routesconverge and also give reasons for this.2015-16134 India : People and Economy2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) Mention the characteristics of India’s foreign trade.(ii) Distinguish between port and harbour.(iii) Explain the meaning of hinterland.(iv) Name important items which India imports from different countries.(v) Name the ports of India located on the east coast.3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) Describe the composition of export and import trade of India.(ii) Write a note on the changing nature of the international trade of India.

2015-16Unit VChapter 12GEOGRAPHICALPERSPECTIVE ONSELECTED ISSUESAND PROBLEMSEnvironmental PollutionEnvironmental pollution results from ‘therelease of substances and energy from wasteproducts of human activities. There are manytypes of pollution. They are classified on thebasis of medium through which pollutants aretransported and diffused. Pollution can beclassified into (i) air pollution, (ii) waterpollution, (iii) land pollution and (iv) noisepollution.Water PollutionIndiscriminate use of water by increasingpopulation and industrial expansion has leddegradation of the quality of water considerably.Surface water available from rivers, canals,lakes, etc. is never pure. It contains smallquantities of suspended particles, organic andinorganic substances. When concentration of

these substances increases, the water becomespolluted, and hence becomes unfit for use. Insuch a situation, the self-purifying capacity ofwater is unable to purify the water.Though water pollutants are also createdfrom natural sources (erosion, landslides,decay and decomposition of plants andanimals, etc.) pollutants from human sourcesare the real causes of concern. Human beingspollute the water through industrial,agricultural and cultural activities. Amongthese activities, industry is the most significantcontributor.Fig.12.1 : Cutting Through Effluent : Rowingthrough a pervasive layer of foam on the heavilypolluted Yamuna on the outskirts of New Delhi2015-16136 India : People and EconomyPollution Types Pollution Involved Sources of PollutionAir Pollution Oxides of sulphur (SO2, SO3), Oxides ofnitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydro-carbon,ammonia, lead, aldehydes asbestos and beryllium.Combustion of coal, petrol and diesel,industrial processes, solid waste disposal,sewage disposal, etc.Water Pollution Odour, dissolved and suspended solids,

ammonia and urea, nitrate and nitrites,chloride, fluoride, carbonates, oil and grease,insecticide and pesticide residue, tannin,coliform MPM (bacterial count) sulphates andsulphides, heavy metals e.g. lead, aresenic,mercury, manganese, etc., radioactivesubstances.Sewage disposal, urban run-off, toxiceffluents from industries, run-off overcultivated lands and nuclear power plants.Land Pollution Human and animal excreta viruses andbacteria, garbage and vectors therein,pesticides and fertiliser-residue alkalinity,fluorides, radio-active substances.Improper human activities, disposal ofuntreated industrial waste, use of pesticidesand fertilisers.Noise Pollution High level of noise above tolerance level. Aircrafts, automobiles, trains, industrialprocessing and advertising media.Table 12.1 : Types and Sources of PollutionIndustries produce several undesirableproducts including industrial wastes, pollutedwaste water, poisonous gases, chemicalresiduals, numerous heavy metals, dust,smoke, etc. Most of the industrial wastes aredisposed off in running water or lakes.Consequently, poisonous elements reach thereservoirs, rivers and other water bodies, which

destroy the bio-system of these waters. Majorwater polluting industries are leather, pulp andpaper, textiles and chemicals.River and State Polluted Stretches Nature of Pollution Main PollutersGanga(Uttar Pradesh)BiharandWest Bengal(a) Downstream of Kanpur(b) Downstream of Varanasi(c) Farrakka Barrage1. Industrial pollution fromtowns like Kanpur2. Domestic wastes fromurban centres3. Dumping of carcasses inthe riverTable 12.2 : Sources of Pollution in the Ganga and the Yamuna RiversCities of Kanpur, Allahabad,Varanasi, Patna and Kolkatarelease domestic waste into theriverYamuna(Delhi)and(Uttar Pradesh)(a) Delhi to confluence withChambal

(b) Mathura and Agra1. Extraction of water byHaryana and UttarPradesh for irrigation2. Agricultural run offresulting in high levels ofmicro-pollutants in theYamuna3. Domestic and industrialwaste of Delhi flowinginto the riverDelhi dumping its domesticwasteVarious types of chemicals used in modernagriculture such as inorganic fertilisers,pesticides and herbicides are also pollutiongenerating components. These chemicals arewashed down to rivers, lakes and tanks. Thesechemicals also infiltrate the soil to reach theground water. Fertiliser induces an increase inthe nitrate content of surface waters. Culturalactivities such as pilgrimage, religious fairs,tourism, etc. also cause water pollution. InIndia, almost all surface water sources are2015-16Geographical perspective on selected issues and problems 137contaminated and unfit for humanconsumption.

Water pollution is a source of variouswater borne diseases. The diseases commonlycaused due to contaminated water arediarrhoea, intestinal worms, hepatitis, etc. WorldHealth Organisation shows that about onefourthof the communicable diseases in Indiaare water-borne.Air PollutionAir pollution is taken as addition ofcontaminants like dust, fumes, gas, fog, odour,smoke or vapour to the air in substantialproportion and duration that may be harmfulto flora and fauna and to property. Withincreasing use of varieties of fuels as source ofenergy, there is a marked increase in emissionof toxic gases into the atmosphere resulting inthe pollution of air. Combustion of fossil fuels,mining and industries are the main sources ofair pollution. These processes release oxidesof sulphur and nitrogen, hydrocarbons,carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, lead andasbestos.Air pollution causes various diseasesrelated to respiratory, nervous and circulatorysystems.Smoky fog over cities called as urban smog

is caused by atmospheric pollution. It provesvery harmful to human health. Air pollution canalso cause acid rains. Rainwater analysis ofurban environment has indicated that pH valueof the first rain after summer is always lowerthan the subsequent rains.Smog in Mumbai2015-16138 India : People and EconomyUrban Waste DisposalUrban areas are generally marked byovercrowding, congestion, inadequatefacilities to support the fast growingpopulation and consequent poor sanitaryconditions and foul air. Environmentalpollution by solid wastes has now gotsignificance because of enormous growth inthe quantity of wastes generated from varioussources. Solid waste refers to a variety of oldand used articles, For example stained smallpieces of metals, broken glasswares, plasticcontainers, polythene bags, ashes, floppies,CDs, etc. dumped at different places. Thesediscarded materials are also termed asrefuse, garbage and rubbish, etc. and aredisposed of from two sources : (i) householdor domestic establishments, and (ii)industrial or commercial establishments. The

household wastes is disposed off either onpublic lands or on private contractors’ sites,whereas the solid wastes of industrial unitsNoise PollutionNoise pollution refers to the state of unbearableand uncomfortable to human beings which iscaused by noise from different sources. Thismatter has become a serious concern only inrecent years due to a variety of technologicalinnovations.The main sources of noise pollution arevarious factories, mechanised constructionand demolition works, automobiles andaircrafts, etc. There may be added periodicalbut polluting noise from sirens, loudspeakersused in various festivals, programmesassociated with community activities. The levelof steady noise is measured by sound levelexpressed in terms of decibels (dB).Of all these sources, the biggest nuisanceis the noise produced by traffic, because itsintensity and nature depend upon such factorsFig. 12.2 : Noise monitoring at PanchpatmalaiBauxite Mineas the type of aircraft, vehicle, train and thecondition of road as well as that of vehicle (incase of automobiles). In sea traffic, the noise

pollution is confined to the harbour due toloading and unloading activities being carried.Industries cause noise pollution but withvarying intensity depending upon the type ofindustry.Noise pollution is location specific and itsintensity declines with increase in distance fromthe source of pollution, i.e. industrial areas,arteries of transportation, airport, etc. Noisepollution is hazardous in many metropolitanand big cities in India.2015-16Geographical perspective on selected issues and problems 139are collected and disposed off through public(municipal) facilities at low lying publicgrounds (landfill areas). The huge turn outof ashes and debris from industries, thermalpower houses and building constructions ordemolitions have posed problems of seriousconsequences. Solid wastes cause healthhazard through creation of obnoxious smell,and harbouring of flies and rodents, whichact as carriers of diseases like typhoid,diphtheria, diarrhoea, malaria and cholera,etc. These wastes cause frequent nuisanceas and when these are carelessly handled,

spread by wind and splittered through rainwater.Concentration of industrial units in andaround urban centres gives rise to disposalof industrial wastes. The dumping ofindustrial waste into rivers leads to waterpollution. River pollution from city-basedindustries and untreated sewage leads toserious health problems downstream.Urban waste disposal is a seriousproblem in India. In metropolitan cities likeMumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, etc.,Case Study : A Role Model to Restore the Ecology and SafeguardHuman Health in DauralaBased on the universal law “Polluter pays”, effort to restore the ecology and safeguard the human health withpeople’s participation has taken place in Daurala near Meerut. These efforts are now bearing fruits after aspan of three years when Meerut based NGO had developed a model for ecological restoration. The meeting

of the Daurala Industries officials, NGOs, Government officials and other stakeholders at Meerut has broughtout results. The powerful logics, authentic studies and the pressure of people have brought a new lease of lifeto the twelve thousand residents of this village. It was in the year 2003 that the pitiable condition of Dauralaitesdrew the attention of the civil society. The groundwater of this village was contaminated with heavy metals.The reason was that the untreated wastewater of Daurala industries was leaching to the groundwater table.The NGO conducted a door to door survey of the health status of the residents and came out with a report.The organisation, the village community and people’s representatives sat together to find out sustainable

solutions to the health problem. The industrialists showed a keen interest towards checking the deterioratingecology. The overhead water tank’s capacity in the village was enhanced and a 900m extra pipeline was laidto supply potable water to the community. The silted pond of the village was cleaned and recharged bydesilting it. Large quantity of silt was removed paving way to large quantity of water so that it recharged theaquifers. Rainwater harvesting structures have been constructed at different places which has helped indiluting the contaminants of the groundwater after the monsoons. 1000 trees have also been planted whichhave improved the environment.about 90 per cent of the solid waste iscollected and disposed. But in most of othercities and towns in the country, about 30

2015-16140 India : People and Economyto 50 per cent of the waste generated areleft uncollected which accumulate onstreets, in open spaces between houses andin wastelands leading to serious healthhazards. These wastes should be treated asresource and utilised for generating energyand compost. Untreated wastes fermentslowly and release toxic biogas to theatmosphere, including methane.What do we throw away? Why?Where does our waste end up?Why do ragpickers sort out rubbish dumps? Does ithave some value?Is our urban waste worth anything?Rural-Urban MigrationPopulation flow from rural to urban areas iscaused by many factors like high demand forlabour in urban areas, low job opportunitiesin rural areas and unbalanced pattern ofdevelopment between urban and rural areas.In India population in cities is rapidlyincreasing. Due to low opportunities in smallerand medium cities, the poor people generally

bypass these small cities and directly come tothe mega cities for their livelihood.A case study given below to have betterunderstanding of the subject. Read it carefullyand try to comprehend the process of ruralurban migration.A Case StudyRamesh has been working in contract as awelder on construction site in Talcher (coalregion of Orissa) for the last two years. Hemoved with the contractor to various placeslike Surat, Mumbai, Gandhi Nagar, Bharuch,Jamnagar and so on. He remits Rs. 20,000 peryear to his father in his native village. Theremittances have been mainly used for dailyconsumption, health care, schooling ofchildren, etc. Part of the money is also used inagriculture, purchasing of land and buildingof houses, etc. The standard of living ofRamesh’s family improved significantly.Fifteen years ago, the situation was not thesame. The family was passing through veryAt present, 47 per cent of the world’s six billion population lives in cities and more will join them in

near future. This proportion is estimated to go up to 50 per cent by 2008. That will put pressure ongovernments to make urban areas better places to live with optimum infrastructure facilities fordesirable quality of life.By 2050, an estimated two-thirds of the world’s population will live in urban areas, imposing evenmore pressure on the space infrastructure and resources of cities, which are manifested in terms ofsanitary, health, crime problems and urban poverty.Urban population grows as a result of natural increase (when birth rate exceeds death rate), net inmigration(when people move in than out), and sometimes reclassification of urban areas to encompass

formerly rural population settlements. In India, it is estimated that after 1961 around 60 per cent of theurban growth has been attributed and 29 per cent of them from rural areas to urban migration.Fig. 12.3 : A view of urban waste in Mahim, Mumbai2015-16Geographical perspective on selected issues and problems 141tough times. Three of his brothers and theirfamilies had to survive on three acres of land.The family was highly in debt. Ramesh had todiscontinue his studies after ninth standard. Hewas further hard pressed when he got married.Simultaneously, he was also impressed bysome successful out-migrants of his village whohad been working in Ludhiana and supportingtheir families in village by sending money andsome consumer goods. Thus, due to abjectpoverty in the family and perceived job promisesat Ludhiana, he made a move to Punjab withhis friend. He worked there in a woolen factory

for six months at the rate of only Rs. 20 per dayin 1988. Apart from the crisis of managing hispersonal expenditure from this meagre income,he was also facing difficulty in assimilation tothe new culture and environment. Then hedecided to change his place of work fromLudhiana to Surat under the guidance of hisfriend. He learnt the skills of welding in Suratand after that he has been moving to differentplaces with the same contractor. Though theeconomic condition of Ramesh‘s family at villageimproved, he is bearing the pain of separationof his near and dear ones. He cannot shift themwith him, as the job is temporary andtransferable.CommentsIn developing countries, poor, semi-illiterate andthe unskilled like Ramesh migrating from ruralareas frequently end up performing menial jobsat low wages in informal sector in urban areas.Since wages are very low to support the familyat the place of destination, the spouses are leftbehind in rural areas to look after children andelderly people. Thus, the rural-urban migrationstream is dominated by the males.

Problems of SlumsThe concept “Urban or Urban Centre” is definedin settlement geography to differentiate it fromHave you visited a slum?Visit a slum in your city, andwrite about the problemsfaced by slum dwellers.2015-16142 India : People and Economythe “Rural” about which you have learnt insome previous chapters of this book. You havealso learnt in the book entitled “Fundamentalsof Human Geography” that this concept isdefined differently in different countries.Both urban and rural settlements aredifferent in their functions, sometimes,Dharavi–Asia’s Largest Slum“…. Buses merely skirt the periphery. Autorickshaws cannot gothere, Dharavi is part of central Bombay where three wheelers arebanned.Only one main road traverses the slum, the miscalled ‘ninety-foot

road’, which has been reduced to less than half of that for most ofits length. Some of the side alleys and lanes are so narrow that noteven a bicycle can pass. The whole neighbourhood consists of temporary buildings, two or threestoreyed high with rusty iron stairways to the upper part, where a single room is rented by a wholefamily, sometimes accommodating twelve or more people; it is a kind of tropical version of theindustrial dwelling of Victorian London’s East End.But Dharavi is a keeper of more sombre secrets than the revulsion it inspires in the rich; a revulsion,moreover, that is, in direct proportion to the role it serves in the creation of the wealth of Bombay. In

this place of shadowless, treeless sunlight, uncollected garbage, stagnant pools of foul water, wherethe only non-human creatures are the shining black crows and long grey rats, some of the mostbeautiful, valuable and useful articles in India are made. From Dharavi come delicate ceramics andpottery, exquisite embroidery and zari work, sophisticated leather goods, high-fashion garments,finely-wrought metalwork, delicate jewellery settings, wood carvings and furniture that would find itsway into the richest houses, both in India and abroad…Dharavi was an arm of the sea, that was filled by waste, largely produced by the people who have

come to live there: Scheduled Castes and poor Muslims. It comprises rambling buildings of corrugatedmetal, 20 metres high in places, used for the treatment of hides and tanning. There are pleasantparts, but rotting garbage is everywhere…”(Seabrook, 1996, pp. 50, 51-52)complementing each other. Apart from these, ruraland urban areas have also emerged into twoseparate cultural, social, political, economic andtechnological divide.India, which has a predominance of ruralpopulation (approximately 69 per cent of thetotal population in 2011) and where villages2015-16Geographical perspective on selected issues and problems 143were considered the ideal republics byMahatma Gandhi, most of the rural areas arestill poor performing primary activities. Here

most of the villages exist as appendix to the coreurban centre forming its hinterland.This may give an impression that urbancentres exist as undifferentiated homogeneousentities in opposition to the rural areas. On thecontrary, urban centres in India are moredifferentiated in terms of the socio-economic,politico-cultural and other indicators ofdevelopment than any other areas. At the top,there are farm houses and high income grouplocalities characterised by well-developedurban infrastructures like wide roads, streetlights, water and sanitation facilities, lawns,well-developed green belt, parks, play groundsand provisions for individual security and rightto privacy. At the other extreme of it are the“slums”, jhuggi-jhopari” clusters and coloniesof shanty structures. These are inhabited bythose people who were forced to migrate fromthe rural areas to these urban centres in searchof livelihood but could not afford properhousing due to high rent and high costsof land. They occupy environmentallyincompatible and degraded areas.Slums are residential areas of the leastchoice, dillapidated houses, poor hygienic

conditions, poor ventilation, lack of basicamenities like drinking water, light and toiletfacilities, etc. These areas are overcrowdedhaving narrow street pattern prone to serioushazards from fire. Moreover, most of the slumpopulation works in low paid, high risk-prone,unorganised sectors of the urban economy.Consequently, they are the undernourished,prone to different types of diseases and illnessand can ill afford to give proper education totheir children. The poverty makes themvulnerable to drug abuse, alcoholism, crime,vandalism, escapism, apathy and ultimatelysocial exclusion.Why are the children of slum-dwellersdeprived of school education?Land DegradationThe pressure on agricultural land increases notonly due to the limited availability but also bydeterioration of quality of agricultural land. Soilerosion, water-logging, salinisation andalkalinisation of land lead to land degradation.What happens if land is consistently usedwithout managing its fertility? Land is degradedand productivity declines. Land degradation isgenerally understood either as a temporary ora permanent decline in productive capacity of

the land.Though all degraded land may not bewasteland, but unchecked process of degradationmay lead to the conversion to wasteland.There are two processes that induce landdegradation. These are natural and created byhuman beings. National Remote Sensing Centre(NRSC) has classified wastelands by usingremote sensing techniques and it is possible tocategorise these wastelands according to theprocesses that have created them. There are afew types of wastelands such as gullied /ravinousland, desertic or coastal sands, barren rockyareas, steep sloping land, and glacial areas,which are primarily caused by natural agents.There are other types of degraded lands such aswaterlogged and marshy areas, land affected byCategories % ofGeographicalAreaTotal Wasteland 17.98Barren & Uncultivable Wasteland 2.18Natural Degraded CWL 2.4Natural and Man-Made Degraded CWL 7.51

Man-Made Degraded CWL 5.88Total Degraded CWL 15.8Table 12.3 : Classification of Wasteland byProcesses in IndiaSource: Calculated from NRSA Wasteland Atlas, 2000Using information provided in Table 12.3, make a piechartshowing cultivable wastelands caused by differentprocesses.2015-16144 India : People and EconomyFig. 12.4 : Trees planted on Common PropertyResources in JhabuaSource: Evaluation Report, Rajiv Gandhi Mission forWatershed Management, Government of MadhyaPradesh, 2002Fig. 12.5 : Community Participation for LandLeveling in Common Property Resources inJhabua (ASA, 2004)salinity and alkalinity and land with or withoutscrub, which have largely been caused bynatural as well as human factors. There are someother types of wastelands such as degradedshifting cultivation area, degraded land underplantation crops, degraded forests, degraded

pastures, and mining and industrial wastelands,are caused by human action. Table 12.3indicates that wastelands caused by man-madeprocesses are more important than naturalprocesses.A Case StudyJhabua district is located in the westernmostagro-climatic zone in Madhya Pradesh. It is, infact, one of the five most backward districts ofthe country. It is characterised by highconcentration of tribal population (mostlyBhils). The people suffer due to poverty whichhas been accentuated by the high rate ofresource degradation, both forest and land. Thewatershed management programmes fundedby both the ministries of “Rural Development”and “Agriculture”, Government of India, havebeen successfully implemented in Jhabuadistrict which has gone a long way in preventingland degradation and improving soil quality.Watershed Management Programmesacknowledge the linkage between land, waterand vegetation and attempts to improvelivelihoods of people through natural resourcemanagement and community participation. In

the past five years, the programmes funded bythe Ministry of Rural Development alone(implemented by Rajiv Gandhi Mission forWatershed Management) has treated 20 percent of the total area under Jhabua district.The Petlawad block of Jhabua is located inthe northernmost part of the district andrepresents an interesting and successful case ofGovernment-NGO partnership and communityparticipation in managing watershedprogrammes. The Bhils in Petlawad block, forexample, (Sat Rundi hamlet of Karravat village)through their own efforts, have revitalised largeparts of common property resources. Eachhousehold planted and maintained one tree onthe common property. They also have plantedfodder grass on the pasture land and adoptedsocial-fencing of these lands for at least twoyears. Even after that, they say, there would beno open grazing on these lands, but stall feedingof cattle, and they are thus confident that thepastures they have developed would sustaintheir cattle in future.An interesting aspect of this experience isthat before the community embarked upon the

process of management of the pasture, therewas encroachment on this land by a villagerfrom an adjoining village. The villagers calledthe tehsildar to ascertain the rights of thecommon land. The ensuing conflict was tackledby the villagers by offering to make the defaulterencroaching on the CPR a member of their usergroup and sharing the benefits of greening thecommon lands/pastures. (See the section onCPR in chapter “Land Resources andAgriculture).2015-16Geographical perspective on selected issues and problems 145EXERCISES1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.(i) Which one of the following river is highly polluted?(a) Brahmaputra (c) Yamuna(b) Satluj (d) Godavari(ii) Which one of the following deseases is caused by water pollution?(a) Conjunctivitis (c) Respiratory infections(b) Diarrhorea (d) Bronchitis(iii) Which one of the following is the cause of acid rain?(a) Water pollution (c) Noise pollution

(b) Land pollution (d) Air pollution(iv) Push and pull factors are responsible for–(a) Migration (c) Slums(b) Land degradation (d) Air pollution2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) What is the difference between pollution and pollutants?(ii) Describe the major source of air pollution.(iii) Mention major problems associated with urban waste disposal in India.(iv) What are the effects of air pollution on human health.3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) Describe the nature of water pollution in India.(ii) Describe the problem of slums in India.(iii) Suggest measures for reduction of land degradation.2015-16