AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS AND FOOD PRODUCTION

Agriculture geography describes and explains the spatial variations in agricultural activities over the land surface.

Agriculture refers to the growing of crops and/or rearing of livestock.

Agriculture is important since it Produces food for the local consumption, enhancing self-

sufficiency and improving the livelihood of rural population and standards of living.

Provides employment for 2/3of world population as a source of income

Earns foreign currency when products are exported Produce raw materials for manufacturing industries Provides strong economic base and stability. In Zimbabwe

agriculture contributes more than 10% of GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT.

FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE

At any location, agricultural activities are controlled by the interaction of physical, socio- cultural, political and economic factors as they relate to the use of land at various scales from individual farms to states and regions

PHYSICAL FACTORS

Exert a major influence in determining the type of farming practiced in an area.

The ideal location for a specific type is based on the total cost of production per unit output is minimized for that crop /livestock.

As distance increases from this optimum condition become less than ideal – too wet, too dry, too steep or high, too cold/hot.

The law of diminishing returns operates when either the output decrease /the cost of maintaining high yield become prohibitive.

When physical conditions are too extreme to permit production on an economically viable scale.TEMPERATURE

The growth of different plants requires certain temperatures for germination, photosynthesis and ripping of crops

Optimum temperatures are the best for agriculture. most crops do not germinate at a temperature below 6 degrees

Celsius Very low temperatures result in slow growth hindering

photosynthesis and causes frost bite for example in winter season in Zimbabwe where low temp are experienced.

Measure such as the use smudge pots and green houses are effective in curbing the problem.

High temperatures are associated with low soil moisture which causes crops to wilt leading to total failure for example the case of Zimbabwe 2016.

PRECIPITATION

It is the prime source of water for plants to grow naturally. The annual rainfall totals determines the types of crops,

tree, grass or cereals, irrigation and animals kept for agric purposes.

Excessive rains cause floods which destroys crops, cause leaching and water borne disease which enervates the workers there by reducing productivity.

Growing of water loving crops is a solution. In areas with little rainfall drought is common leading to

disastrous crop failure. Solutions such as dam construction and growing of drought

resistant crops are a solution. The annual distribution of rainfall is important than the

totals as they determine the length of the growing season. The types of precipitation eg drizzle as light rainfall

promotes soil moisture through infiltration whereas heavy convectional rainfall with hailstorms destroys crops reducing quality and output.

In addition there is reduced soil moisture storage due to reduced infiltration by closure of pore spaces.

WIND Wind has severe impact on agriculture for moderate winds

promote pollination but very strong winds such as hurricanes , typhoons and cyclones destroys crops and cause high rates of evapotranspiration.

ALTITUDE It is linked to rainfall and temperature High altitudes are associated with low to moderate

temperatures with chances of high precipitation of orographic nature as high lands act as uplifting mechanisms of warm moist air.

Thin soils and erosion rates on steep slopes is a problem to arable farming

Low altitudes areas are associated with high temperatures and little rainfall this is because of adiabatic warming from descending air which is depleted of water vapour creating regions of high pressure.

Plants grow well in moderate altitudes for example apples and conifers in Kenyan highlands

GRADIENT Steepness of slope affects the depth of soil, its moisture

content and ph value of the soil. Steep slopes are associated with high rates of erosion, thin

soils and also lead the operation of machinery difficult. However these are used for forest production, tree plants

(coffee, tea, citrus,) in the eastern highlands.

ASPECT Has to do with south facing and north facing slopes which determine intensity of solar radiation

SOIL TYPE Farming depends on soil depth, its water holding capacity,

aeration, structure and texture, ph value. Soils with poor structure are easily leached and fast rates of

soil moisture evaporation. Sand soil lack nutrients hold moisture for a short period of

time. Clay soil are heavy to work with under very wet conditions,

are poorly drained which might cause water logging, difficult to use machinery.

sandy soils are good for tobacco growing, loam for maize and potatoes,

PEST AND DISEASES Affect on crops, human beings and animals. Examples include malaria, anthrax, and army worm. Less risk and less prone areas are good for production and

productivity.QUESTIONSMethods to overcome physical difficulties

SOCIAL FACTORS Land tenure –refers to the way the land is / can be owned.

Land tenure act of 1969 forced blacks to own marginal lands with little rains, high temperatures while whites owned fertile soil regions with favourable climate in low density.

Various types of land tenure systems include LATIFUNDA, where land is organized into large estates with landless peasants working for wages.

Cash tenancy the farmer gives part of his income to the land own.

This affect farming systems as the farmer has no time to work harder and develop the land.

Share cropping the farmer pay for using the land by giving part of his harvest to the land owner.

INHERITANCE

It leads to fragmentation of land.

Use of machinery on small portions is difficult but the farmer may benefit if the land has different types of soil which facilitates the growing of different types of crops.

Due to inheritance woman have unequal access to land and limited power decision on it but most of the time with it.How does fragmentation affect farm production?How does fragmentation affect farm productivity?

ECONOMIC FACTORS Transport determines the time taken to transport inputs

and outputs to and from the markets. Some outputs are perishables need fast and quick delivery

mode to market. E.g. flowers to UK by air, timber by road or rail, milk by refrigerated trucks.

However transporting perishable has gone under transformation due to use of refrigerated truks which move long distances.

MARKET Market demand size of population, needs, religious and

determines farming system. Low prices on a market discourage the continued practice of

farming e.g. cotton and tobacco farming in Zimbabwe, rearing of pigs is not common in the Jewish countries and apostolic sects.

Some farming systems are located close to the market e.g. market gardening, dairy farming whilst others are located far away from the market e.g. cattle ranching.

CAPITAL MEDCS have capital in their robust banking systems , from

private investments and government investment through subsidies which encourage capital intensive farming systems like poultry farming kwa gono Luna chickens, Irvine’s in WATERFALLS, piggery , horticulture, and market gardening

Low interest loans in MEDCs increases farm outputs creating ’mountains and lakes ‘of output (overproduction).

LEDCs lack financial support to their farmers as financial institutions are stagnant in terms of investment, facing liquidation, curatorship, have limited capital resources , have high interest rates on loans on farmers without title deeds .

This results in labour intensive farming systems with low productivity.

TECHNOLOGY Improved technology and scientific adjustment through

genetic engineering has enabled farmers to improve output per unit area.

Intensive mechanization of farms has resulted in efficient and fast methods of cultivation, processing and harvesting.

Cross breeding of animals and seeds with the use of irrigation machinery has lead to tremendous improvements in agricultural production.

However LEDCs are rarely able to take advantage of the improvements in technology as they could not afford the

cost of purchasing, maintenance and operation of the machinery.

STATE INTERVENTIONS AND GOVERNMENT POLICY

The state intervention and government policy have negative and positive effects on farming.

Some government in MEDCs help in making farming decisions

Government helps through subsidies for guaranteeing farmers products and production.

governments provides inputs through presidential input schemes, education through extension officers and vet officers , machinery provision mechanization in irrigation infrastructure ,

Empowering ARDA in Zimbabwe, NGOs e.g. FEED THE FUTURE ZIMBABWE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (FTFZ-LD) in Chipinge for cattle marketing, loans to buy input feeds.QUESTIONWith reference to examples from countries studied, describe and explain the role of government policy on agriculture activities.

Central governments can play a regulatory function in agricultural production as

Dumping excess products / donations to hungry countries

Setting agricultural authority boards Deciding on production quotas/providing storage

facilities Regulating through legislation –set aside soil banks

policy Announcing pre-producer prices and guarantees or

assured price e.g. on tobacco and cotton Export incentives /subsidies or withdrawing

them/grants /loans Research and development Land reform policies land consolidation- UJAAMA in

Tanzania, KIBUTZ in ISRAEL,SOVKHOZ, LATIFUNDIA IN LATIN America

Offering incentives to individual farmers

LAND ORGANIZATIONLand can be owned by foreign such as transnational estates, state, individuals, cooperatives, and community which have an effect on farming.FARM SIZE

AGRO- ECOLOGICAL REGIONS OF ZIMBABWE

There are 5 main agro ecological regions which are defined according to rainfall, temperature and intensity of production.

High rainfall is experienced in east, north east and become drier towards west and south west due south e.g. in BEITBRIGDE.

Moderate rains are experienced along the central watershed.

REGION 1-SPECIALISED AND DIVERSIFIED FARMING Rainfall throughout the year high more than 1000mm. Temperatures are normally comparatively low effectively

enabling tree crops, afforestation, seed potatoes and intensive livestock production.

areas include parts of MANICALAND ,VUMBA,NYANGA, CHIMANIMANI ,CHIPINGE

REGION 2 INTENSIVE FARMING Seasonal rainfall, large scale intensive farming of maize,

wheat, and soya beans, tobacco, cotton and livestock. Rarely experience dry spells. 2b is subject to severe dry spells/ with rain season. Rainfall 750-1000mm high.

REGION 3 –SEMI-INTENSIVE FARMING Has rainfall which is moderate at 650-800mm with regular

mid-season dry spells.

Livestock production, fodder and cash crops under good farm management.

REGION 4 SEMI EXTENSIVE Experience fairly low total rainfall (450-650mm). It is subject to periodic drought and seasonal severe dry

spells. The low rainfall is uncertain for commercial cropping except

in localities where drought resistant crops survive. Mainly suitable for livestock production. most 75% of communal lands

REGION 5-EXTENSIVE FARMING Rainfall less than 450mm Cattle ranching is the best practice LOWVELD areas the Zambezi valley and Limpopo valley

REGION 6 .RANCHING AND WILDLIFE Based for wildlife conservation in areas of HWANGE, GONAREZHOU

IRRIGATION FARMING Is the artificial application of water on land /fields in order

to grow crops when prevailing climatic and weather conditions cannot sustain crop growth

It is normally used in areas which are too dry for rainfall fed forms of agriculture thus bringing marginal lands into active production

It is used during the dry period /spell to grow special crops like wheat and cotton in winter to produce crops throughout the year.

It is needed where rainfall is limited and when evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation e.g. in semi –arid and arid land such as the Atacama area in Peru, Chile, the Sahel region in Africa

Used where there is seasonal shortage due to drought Used amount of rainfall is unreliable in southern Africa Used when farming is intensive e.g. rice growing in south

east Asia , creating employment , improving national economy and producing raw materials for industrial thus saving foreign currency imports

To harness and utilize water that might have been lost through runoff.

Due to irrigation areas which are naturally arid and where water is scarce e.g. in Israel , Egypt with all other factors required for agriculture such as fertile soils , undulating terrains and ideal temperatures for plant growth have been converted into thriving agric region at a successful rate.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR IRRIGATION Existence of vast expanses of gently sloping land which

enable easier laying down of irrigation pipes, construction of canals, creation of larger fields or even permitting gravity flow of water onto the fields through reducing pumping expenses

Clayey subsoil reduce water loss by percolation and canal need to be lined with concrete reducing running expenses

Hot dry environments conditions provide the heat required for plant growth.

The dryness reduces the incidence of crop diseases and pests

The area have low population densities and there is less displacement if dams are constructed

Presence of large rivers and aquifers ensure adequate supply of water with water harvesting in dams and lakes

Example are south east lowveld in Zimbabwe with RUNDE and SAVE rivers, flat terrains, fertile alluvial soils.

Mutondwe irrigation scheme in MT Darwin experiencing bumper harvest through the BRAZIL PHASE 1 FOOD FOR AFRICA PROJECT.

Gezira irrigation scheme in Sudan and Egypt Irrigation in Israel has gone astonishing technology

advancement in the desalinization of blackish and saline water from the sea and underground in areas of western Galilee , JEZREEL plain, lake Tiberius and river Jordan

There is use of automated, computer controlled and fertigation of saline water mixed with fertilizer and piped directly to the fields.

OBSTACLES IN IRRIGATION It does not guarantee any agricultural bonanza because Some desert areas are incapable of supporting irrigation

agriculture because of shortage of capital and technology. E.g. CHIRUME irrigation for horticulture in NHEMA communal areas which is failing to raise $400 to maintain the pump, affected by drought effects using wheelbarrow to ferry water.

There is mismanagement of irrigation projects due to sabotage , corruption and political instability

Inadequate drainage result in water logging and muddy conditions with a risk of water borne diseases

Salinization of soils contributes to diminishing yields and abandonment of formerly irrigated lands. High rates of evaporation create a hard pan

The climates are enervating hence discouraging development and productivity

LAND TENURE AND NATURE OF HOLDING LAND TENURE

Is the manner in which land is owned or possessed that is the title to its use

The system of land tenure embody legal contract or customary arrangement whereby individuals or groups gain access to economic and social opportunities through the ownership and use of land

examples include free hold, leasehold

The system of tenure increased problems of land pressure in communal are as due to fragmentation due to accelerated rural to urban migration and subsistence level of production.

The impact of land tenure has been worsened by droughts in communal areas of Zimbabwe with lack of inputs and infrastructure, over cropping and monoculture, land degradation and soil erosion.

Ownership by groups can lead to consolidation

QUESTION

Explain how agricultural land use and production maybe affected by the fragmentation of holdings

Fragmentation occurs when the landholding of a farmer /family is broken up usually by inheritance so that it consists of a number of a number of small scattered fields.

It affects agricultural land use and production on the following ways.

Negatively Inefficiency result the farmer wastes a lot of time as

he / other workers move from one field to another. Much effort is taken in moving inputs from one field

to another region is seed or fertilizers Mechanization is hindered as some plots are too

small Land at the margins can be lost to cultivation (the

margins boundary are not continuous) It is hard to keep an eye on all fields e g for pests and

aridity There can be problems to accessibility Conflicts are common on farm boundaries instead of

production. Positively it can result

A greater variety of crops being grown ,if soil conditions / water supply vary across the area

Risks are minimized e.g. from pests, because some parts of fields are not attacked / will survive

A farmer may gain fertile land by inheritance / on marriage

Observing what others are doing in their fields and copying them is powerful in the modernization of agriculture

Describe how agricultural land use and production have been affected by land consolidation.(6)

Commercialized agriculture activities Larger farmers have necessitated use of machinery

like tractors and combined harvesters Less labour is needed due to use of mechanization Capital intensive / higher inputs increase production Higher outputs per hectare / per worker/ per hour

increased productivity Improved water management and control on large

farmsDisadvantages

Means land into hands of fewer people, loss of jobs due to consolidation, bad publicity due to inconsistent policies Conflicts between land owners and tenants due

disagreements on decisions, preference which vary

The systems of tenure need to be integrated for the benefit of the total population but without endangering the economy of the country

Communal agriculture need to be made more efficient with desires of individual farmers for sufficient land being made while at the same time the commercial base of the country’s agricultural economy being protected.

The best solution to address issues of land tenure is land reform.

LAND REFORM Is a social, political and legislative process aimed at

redressing access to land in a country It involves agrarian revolution and rural

development. The redistribution of land with the method of

expropriation of large estates, plantations, commercial farms and distributed to individual farmers, landless laboures, communal peasant farmers, consolidation of small pieces of land and increases security of tenure.

This can be done through resettlement

RESETTLEMENT Is organization and reorganization of land among the

citizens of the nation more equally in a justified manner

Aims of resettlement To relieve pressure on communal lands Provide people with large enough plots To increase production through individual

cooperatives and state farms To reduce rural to urban migration To improve the standards of living for the poorest

population groups To provide means of employment and source of

income To make use of land productively Rectify the colonial land imbalances

Resettlement programmes

1.OLD RESETTLEMENT PROGRAMME; PHASE 1

This was done after independence around 1982 with the land being acquired on a willing buyer willing seller bases

White settler farmers were to sell their land optionally to the Zimbabwean government which will share the land to black peasant farmers

The models in the programme include Nucleated villages MUSHANDIKE in MASVINGO Registered cooperatives central estates ARDA Ngezi Drier areas development TULI ranch and ranches

Evaluation The programme was restricted by the

Lancaster house agreement until the 1990s only by the willing buyer willing seller, with those farms released where in region 4and 5 which are dry, hot and disease infested.

The government found its hands tied when the commercial farmers did not willingly release land for sale

The money to buy this land and compensate commercial farmers was not available

Deforestation, overgrazing were rampant leading to livestock loss and starvation

The programme recorded a partial success with examples of MUSHANDIKE resettlement scheme registering improved living standards and food production

2.PHASE 2 RESTTLEMENT PROGRAMME It involves commercial land seizures by landless

Zimbabweans This began in2000 by the SVOSVE people of Marondera The programme has been ratified and dubbed fast

track resettlement programme The programme comprise of A1 and A2 models A1 followed the INTENSIVE ACCELERATED

RESETTLEMENT schemes

A2 include those who were resettled in peri-urban areas with farmers expected to be self sufficient in terms of capital, agricultural machinery and inputs

Impacts of resettlement programme

POLITICAL IMPACT The objectives of the government to give land to the

people was achieved to those who applied for land However there was resistance from commercial farm

owners which resulted in conflicts and death of some people

The programme has political interference by political parties in Zimbabwe resulting in political instability during the period

There was bad publicity and imposition of sanctions to Zimbabwe affecting its economy

SOCIAL IMPACTS Raised standards of living as those who were resettled

were able to earn a living from land. there was increased crop and food production which

assures food security for resettled families However, family ties were broken as there was

increased outward migration from the communal areas

Most peasant farmers remain jobless as they were formerly employed by whites farmers

Traditional growing of crops was abandoned in favour of cash crops such as cotton ,tobacco and maize

Some of areas lack basic amenities such as schools , clinics, ablutions, electricity

Nepotism and corruption with multiple farm ownership

There is existence of temporary shelters mainly huts constructed using grass(thatch)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS Conservation and management of soil e.g. crop

rotation on large plots restores soil fertility unlike former overpopulated communal lands.

However deforestation and overgrazing were observed leading to soil nutrient deficient and threatening wildlife due poaching, disturbance of sanctuaries/conservatives

Gold panning and environmental degradation as means of livelihood were disrupted by farm invasion

Salinization due to irrigation and eutrophication due runoff of fertilizers

Natural hazards wreck havoc on farming in form of el-nino effects, drought, cyclone ELINE, hailstorm, frost

ECONOMIC IMPACTS Foreign currency earnings from the selling of farm

products There is establishment of agro based industries

Resettled farmers provide employment seasonally or permanently

Economic growth due to growing of cash crops for export

However fragmentation of large commercial farms has resulted in low agric activities ,low yields due to shortage of inputs and infrastructure,

Transition to commercial farming was not an easy task. Some of the farmers are lazy, anti-development,

embezzlement of funds practice cell phone farming with Zimbabwe no longer a bread basket of SADC

Funds are being channeled to acquire food rather than agricultural developmentQUESTIONSA) Describe how agricultural land reform has been

carried out in any LEDCs you have studiedB) Describe the impact of agricultural land reform on society and the environmentc) Assess the impact of land reform on livestock

production in areas you have studiedANSWER

Research and development Education and training Offer letters for eviction Legislation- bill and acts 1990- LAND ACT BILL Mode of ownership of land models A1 and A2,

historical A, B, C, D, E. Input scheme –seeds and tractors

Violent land invasions chief SVOSVE MARONDERA

THE NATURE OF DEMAND AND DISTANCE FROM MARKET A commercial farmer has to worry on the cost of

producing a particular commodity on the farm plus those of transporting it to the market.

There are certain land use which are profitably located near the market and others that need to be located away from the market for them to be viable giving what is known as locational rent or economic rent

LOCATIONAL RENT is the difference between total revenue received by a farmer for a crop grown on a unit of land and the total cost of production and transport for that crop

Locational rent = total production cost +transport cost It is observed that rent decreases with distance from

the market. Transport cost for intensive farming system than those

of extensive farming systems This can be illustrated by the diagram below

The whole idea of locational rent is central to VON THUNEN model of agricultural land use

Von THUNEN was interested in how and agricultural land use varied with distance from market “ THE ISOLATED STATE”

For von THUNEN , patterns of land use around the market resulted from competition from other land use

ASSUMPTION OF VON THUNEN MODEL There was existence of an isolated state which had no

links with rest of the world There is existence of an urban market as a city as sole

market where all farmers receive the same price for a particular product

There was existence of a homogenous terrain /uniform plain over which soil fertility, climate and other physical factors do not vary(isotropic even),

transport costs is directly proportional to distance The farmers acted as “economic man” wishing to

maximize their profits and having equal knowledge on the needs of market

There was only one form of transport horse and cart which he later changed a linear navigable sea

Principles of VON THUNEN model Locational rent varies with distance from the market

for different intensities of farming Intensity of land use decrease with distance from the

market

DETAILS OF VON THUNEN MODEL

He built concentric zones with land use near the market having high inputs being perishable and having expensive transport cost

For example market gardening and indoor dairy farming

Potatoes were grown close to market because of extra weight which increase transport costs

Intensive crops were grown near to the market than extensive crops or products

The point at which one type of land use is replaced by another which is called the margin of transference

If the market price fall / cost of production increases there is a decrease in both the profits and margin of cultivation

Margin of cultivation is the area where revenue and costs are equal. Locational rent is zero at this point and production becomes less worthwhile.

Question: Briefly define margin of cultivation and locational rent.Question

Account for the variations in the intensity and type of farming shown on VON THUNEN models (modified by river)

Intensity Transport cost Market prices

Nearness to market Economic rent Demand (perishability)

Type of farming Horticulture Dairying Cereal farming Forestry Ranching and grazing

Strengths of the model It is applicable at village level where crops that need

close monitoring are located near the home The intensity of farming decreases as distance

increases from the market for example around major towns of Harare and Bulawayo

It is also observed that transport costs are proportional to distance

As distance from the village increases yields from it decreases

The village service centre act as the only market for agricultural products

At national level for example the spatial pattern of land use in Uruguay

At continental scale e.g. in Europe where zones of agriculture were arranged around industrial centers and intensity of land use decreasing from these centers

Weaknesses of the modelOversimplication

Land is not uniform, few places with featureless plains Different modes of transport are now used An isolated state does not exist in the modern world

due to existence of forward and backward linkages to other parts of the world.

OUT DATEDNESS There is significant advancement in technology with

changing uses of resources and increased pressure on land by population growth, emergence of different economic policies.

Air, road, rail ,water modes of transport have increased accessibility in all directions to the market quicker and cheap costs

Perishable are now produced from the market and could be stored for a long time with use of milk tanks and refrigerated trucks

Improved farming techniques , use of fertilizers , irrigation has improved yields and extended the margins of cultivation

Farming land near to the urban markets have been taken by urban growth far accommodation and development pushing away land uses

The model failed to recognize the role of government for it alter land use by granting /reducing subsidies , imposing quotas e.g. CHINA control the type and amount of production , manipulating market mechanism

The model failed to include the behavioral factors for farmers as some of them have no knowledge of the market, others practice for leisure rather than maximizing profit

MODIFICATIONS TO THE MODEL Later, VON Thunen added two modifications in

an attempt to make the model more realistic. This immediately distorted the land use pattern

and made it more complex. The inclusion of a navigable river allowed an

alternative, cheaper and faster form of transport than his original horse and cart.

The result was a linear, rather than a Circular, pattern and an extension of the margin of cultivation.

The addition of a secondary urban market involved the creation of a small trading area which would compete, in a minor way, with the main city.Later still, VON Thunen relaxed other assumptions.

He accepted that climate and soils affected production costs and yields (though he never moved from his concept of the featureless plain) and that, as farmers do not always make rational decisions, it was necessary to introduce individual behavioural elements.

Questiona) Briefly outline the main principle and assumptions of VON THUNEN’S LANDUSE THEORY.b) With reference to any one area you have studied , examine the applicability of VON THUNEN’S agricultural landuse model . c) Assess the extend to which natural hazards can reduce agricultural productivity.

Distance is no longer a crucial factor in agricultural production due

Low prices of land on the outskirts as competition close to CBD increases which increases cost of production than in the fringes

Improvements in transport (high speed/ bulky carriers) Guaranteed markets –mobile, seasonal Food preservation technologies- refrigeration/

canning/drying/vacuum packing New strains of animals /crops that can withstand stress

–through research and development Demand and supply Cooperative buying and selling inputs and outputs Capitalization

DIMINISHING RETURNS

Is an economic law which states that at a certain point of production , additional units v of inputs will yield proportionately smaller units of output, and additional cost incurred will be greater than the additional revenue received

Initially, as inputs are applied to soil, outputs will continue to increase from O TO Z until a certain point where increase in inputs will not increase outputs from Z TO X.

It is observed that beyond Z the law of diminishing returns occurs despite more inputs leading to a net revenue decline

It can be a negative value

AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION is the process of changing inputs into outputs.

This refers to ability to increase /decrease total output irrespective of the size of the land.

It acts as a function of the interplay of land, labour, capital and market to produce outputs.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY is a measure of output per input referred to the rate of production per unit area for example per hectare, per worker or man power.

Question: distinguish agricultural production and agricultural productivity.

Briefly define the law of diminishing returns.

INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING

Intensive farming is the production of crops/livestock on a small piece of land with maximum utilization of capital and labour inputs.

The relationship between labour , capital and land at small scale with high outputs per unit area.

If the amount of labour is high and capital is low ,it is on intensive type of farming but at subsistence level e.g.…Places 67 The Ganges valley: intensive subsistence agriculture

High output per capita it is called capital intensive e.g. If amount of capital is high but labour low, it is commercial type of

intensive farming.

Ways to intensify farming

Replacing slash and burn Green revolution Small scale self schemes

EXTENSIVE FARMING is carried on a large scale

Small outputs per unit area If amount of labour and capital are small in relation to area being

farmed it is an extensive type of farming at subsistence level If the amount of labour is still limited but input of capital is high, it

is extensive farming at a commercial scale

Attempts to extent cultivation

Irrigation oases Draining of swamps eg draining of old polders in western

netherlands , with flat area drained by canals, excess pumped by diesel and electric pumps into the canals. Cost of reclamation is high so that intensive demends are made on land.

AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS AND FOOD PRODUCTION

Briefly explain the interrelationship between commercial and subsistence farming.

With reference to any country you have studied ,outline the distribution and nature of either crop or pastoral farming

With reference to any country you have studied ,assess the extend to which farming has led to the establishment of processing industries.

QUESTION show how and why seasonal variations in climate affect farming more in tropical than in temperate regions.

How tropical climate summers are hot and wet unlike

in temperate summers are cool and wet/ to warm and wet

In tropical climate winters are cool and dry while in temperate it is cool and wet

Hot and dry in deserts –whilst in temperate there are snowing and thawing

Why land fallow in winter whilst there is perennial

farming in temperate due to moisture abundance all year.

Irrigation is practiced on commercial basis whilst in temperate physical limitations are challenged by synthentic homones, greenhouses, irrigation,hydrogen bombs

Tropical farmers grow small grains which withstand hot and dry conditions

The aim of agricultural systems is to produce the basic outputs and profits.

the nature and efficient of the processes is determined by the range , scale and quality of outputs

In areas where farming is developed physical factors are usually less important but human factors increases they become less effective

Agricultural systems are dynamic as they change with farmers attempt to react to a range of human and physical factors.

Classification of agricultural systems1. Arable, pastoral and mixed2. Subsistence and commercial farming3. Extensive and intensive4. Shifting and sedentary5. Organic and non –organic farming

Arable farming is the growing of crops, usually on flatter land where soils are of higher quality. It was the development of new strains which led to first permanent settlement in the Nile and Indus valley. It led to the construction of railway in the farming regions.Pastoral farming is the rearing of animals usually on land which is less favourable to arable farming in colder, drier, steeper and higher lands. If grazing area has been exceeded its carrying capacity the soil and grass will lead to overgrazing, soil erosion and desertification.

FARMING SYSTEMS IN DETAIL

NOMADIC HERDING is practiced in areas where the climate is too extreme to support permanent settled farmers resulting to nomadic pastoralists

The areas are inhospitable , with sparse vegetation and cold/arid climates

The movement of present day nomads is determined by seasonal nature of rainfall and the need to find new sources of grass /water for animals e.g. Masaai in Kenya, Fulani in Sudan

The indigenous Sami of Scandinavia have to move when pastures become snow covered in winter , while Fulani migrate to avoid tsetse fly

Two types of NOMADISM -total and semi-nomads

Some may own land and travel across national frontiers in search of pastures

Might not have clear migratory patterns but migration routes increase in size under adverse conditions e.g. during droughts in Sahel.

Animals provide source for livelihood ,milk, meat, blood ,wool, skins, dung, transport, exchange

Pastoralists do not part with their animals; retain them if conditions improve for regeneration.

Why nomads have changed in recent times Increasing population size and density has

reduced the area available for grazing with a limited amount of land e.g. Rendille in north Kenya

Land is becoming overpopulated and resource overstretched as the number of animals and people is exponentially increasing.

Due to frequency droughts, effects of climate change , water and vegetation is becoming scarce

Governments have encouraged permanent settlements, organized into cooperative ranches, rotational grazing , dipping services, irrigating pastures, use of supplementary feeds, mixed farming

SHIFTING CULTIVATION(EXTENSIVE SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE)

A farmer moves from one area to another, with field rotation and practiced where population density is low , for family consumption and barter tradingAREAS OF DISTRIBUTION

Moimbo woodlands of Tanzania Northeast of Zambia by Bemba and Ushi tribes Ladang of south east Asia Milpa of Latin America

Changes in shifting cultivation The rapid rise in population densities limit the

size of land to roam about and for fallow Farmers are now able to maintain soil fertility

using manure ,fertilizer sand crop rotation thereby raising productivity , education and training for more settled methods of farming

Urbanization has created markets for agric products and turning farmers into semi-commercial producers

Question :outline the difference between shifting cultivation and rotational bush –fallow.

TROPICAL COMMERCIAL Plantations are large scale productions, usually of one crop, on a large piece of land for extended period of time. Nature

grow cash crops Large estates Others have out growers Local labour used Scientific management Specialized skills, machinery High yields High quality produce Mostly for export /market driven Heavy capital outlay

Take long gestation period Presence of factories /agro complexes

DISTRIBUTION In drier parts On flat terrains, low lying areas in the southeast

LOWVELD- MKWASINE, HIPPO VALLEY, MIDDLE SABI AND CHISUMBANJE.

In rich loam soils and clays Sloppy highland places Sparsely populated areas Hot areas 23 C, dry about 500mm rainfall Areas where major rivers flow e.g. SAVE, RUNDE,

BUBI, MAZOWE, PUNGWE river Areas where rainfall is sufficient for tree growing

NB: Read advantages and disadvantagesQuestion with reference to countries you have studied describe the nature and distribution of plantations.

LIVESTOCK FARMINGDairy farmingIs rearing of cows in order to produce milk and milk products e.g. CHIPINGE jersey, GUSHUNGO dairy in MAZOWE, KENYA HIGHLANDS,RUSITU DAIRY UNITED COOPERATIVE IN CHIPINGE

North Amsterdam and south west of Friesland with computerized animal feeding

Located around major cities where there are markets, perishability of products, get inputs ,medicines, feeds, factories

Locate along major roads to quickly deliver the milk to the consumers

Can be practiced on small scale indoors Beasts feed on non grown fodder crops It is capital intensive for example one beast cost

$1400 each in south Africa/$2000 local High level of technology and computerized High output per unit area intensive

CATTLE RANCHING rearing of livestock for meat and its productsExamples

Areas commercial sheep farming in central Australia

Canterbury plain in new Zealand Patagonia in Argentina and upland

Britain ,ORANGE FREE STATE in south Africa Beef cattle are more tolerant to a wide variety of

environmental conditions, in hot drier semi arid environments

Occur in marginal areas where human population densities are low for ranches e.g. in the PAMPAS in south America

Extensive low level of technology with low output per area e.g. Liebig ranches in west Nicholson, MWENEZI ranch

Practiced in more remote areas where other forms of land use are limited and where there are extensive cheaper land with sufficient grass to support large number of animals

Hot dry areas with sweetveld runner grass, thorn bushes and Mopane trees whose leaves are very nutritious Question: outline the difference between dairying and cattle ranching.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN LIVESTOCK FARMING Prevalence of diseases such as anthrax and foot

and mouth Stock theft Droughts which affect pasture quality and

sources of quality water Soil erosion due to overgrazing and overstocking Shortage of capital to buy chemicals and building

dip tanks Poor quality animals Fluctuations of market prices

EFFORTS TO REDUCE THE PROBLEMS/ INCREASE NATIONAL HERD

Scientifically managing ranches Capitalization National heifer projects

Growing stock feed and irrigating pasture Animals dipped regularly and vaccinated Cross breeding, research and development Artificial insemination Destocking Underground water supplementing Police restrictions and clearance of animal

movementQuestion: for any ledc you have studied ,evaluate efforts being made to improve the national herd.

FOOD SECURITY

Is ensuring that all people at all times have both physical and economic access to the basic food they need.

It ensures that people have the ability to have access, supply of the basic food stuffs at all times to sustain a steady expansion of food consumption and to offset all food production costs and fluctuations.

FOOD SHORTAGES

these are explained by Malthus with fears that population of the world will at a certain period overshoot food supply despite assurance from world organization such as FAO that there is sufficient food for everyone

It is estimated that ¾ of world’s population are inadequately fed with largest proportions in LEDCS such as Zimbabwe , Niger, Somalia,

Inadequate food causes malnutrition, under nutrition and reduces capacity to work, people being less resistant to diseases.

In sub Saharan Africa food output per person has declined due to global and regional rainfall shortages with many countries being unable to afford to buy sufficient food to offset their shortages

Shortages are also as a result of less productive and fragile soils in relation to high quality land being used for urban sprawl, urbanization, and sub-urbanization and counter urbanization.

Human mismanagement, localized war results in famine which contributes to a decline in the access to food.

The vulnerable groups of society which include the poor, physically challenged, children, least skilled and rural population are affected as food prices goes beyond their reach e.g. in Niger

Uneven distribution of wealth, lack of technology in farming, shortage of land and water shortage accelerate food insecurity

The road infrastructure is poor ,making it difficult to distribute food internally in times of shortages and areas with shortages, linking with the outside world

LEDCS have a deficit trade relationship and poor banking system Food shortages in sub Sahara region Causes of shortage are frequent droughts, civil strife , economic

crisis ,locust and pests, floods, HIV and aids This has disrupted food production and displaced large

populations Green revolution is at minimum due limited capital investments in

agriculture activities and reforms The soils have fertility constrains, lower water holding capacity,

limited nutrients making the soils vulnerable to erosion Increased population growth has reduced fallow periods for

shifting cultivation ,bush fallowing and nomadic pastoral farming

Overgrazing has contributed to desertification Sub-Saharan countries rely on overseas aid which is channeled to

unintended projects some of which promote monoculture e.g. growing of cash crops instead of food production and sustainable farming systems

Food shortages are increasing with wars and, HIV and aids reducing time, ability and agricultural productivity.

However MEDCS are at risk from over eating and diseases such as heart diseases ,cancer, obesity

Food output has increased tremendously at a rapid rate due to green revolution with W.H.O reporting that new farming techniques are increasing output ,nutrition, increasing life expectancy

There are problems of overproduction in MEDCS

MEASURES TO CURB FOOD SHORTAGES

With minimum success W.H.O has tried to encourage E.U to reduce tariffs and quotas, subsidies to help LEDCS to have access to food supply

LEDCS can offset food by lobbying for food aid through international organizations like plan international, world food programme ,I.M.O., RED CROSS,

The success of this measure is determined by political stability, international relations and nature of transport network integration

LAND REFORM is a social, political and legislative process aimed at redressing access to land in a country. It involves

agrarian revolution and rural development, redistribution, security of tenure

Is done to overcome inefficient to the use of land and labour It is done through expropriation of large lands, consolidating of

small farms, increasing the security of tenure

E.gs done in CHINA, ZIMBABWE, BRAZIL

It has positive and negative impacts on the economic, social-cultural, political and environmental impacts

This affect food production and livestock productionGREEN REVOLUTION is the breakthrough in plant and

animal breeding that produced high yielding varieties, a package of fertilizers, insecticides ,herbicides, fungicides, machinery for harvesting and planting, water control equipment, loans and grants, training schemes ,marketing and distribution systems, agrarian reform.

The changes brought in by green revolution are observed in biochemical, mechanical and social innovations

Success of green revolution

India, Mexico, Thailand, Kenya, Malaysia, Taiwan ,Pakistan and Philippines benefited from the green revolution packages by using high yielding variety seeds

They produced high yielding varieties which were drought resistant, with shorter growing season

Yields are twice to 4 times greater than traditional varieties e.g. in rice, wheat and maize production

Shorter growing season leading to production of extra crop as they withstand extreme conditions of drought,heavy rains and winds

Farming income increased, allowing purchase of inputs machinery better seeds, fertilisers and pesticides

Diet varied in rural areas and better living standards Local infrastructure upgraded to accommodate strong

market Employment creation in industries supplying farming with

inputs Higher reforms justified significant increase in irrigation

and use of modern machinery

Disadvantages /failures of green revolution

High cost of inputs e.g. fertilizers and pesticides High weed control is needed and susceptibility to pests

and diseases High income farmers benefited most than low income

farmers widening the income gap which increase rural to urban migration

Machanisation has increased rural unemployment Salinisation and eutrophication pollutes water sources Farming becomes capital intensive which is beyond the capacity

of LEDC farmers

Farmers do not have access to loans because of insecure land tenure systems, with high interest loans

H.Y.V foodstuffs are unpalatable as they have strange tastes , early maturing causes healthy diseases such as obesity , cancer , heart diseases which affect life expectancy in LEDCS

Appropriate technology is needed to replace those activities that import capital and technology from the developed countries

With some as community based and NGO funded for example the British based practical action that seeks to develop small sustainable projects which are appropriate to the local climate , environment, wealth, skills and needs of local people

Using more wells Drip irrigation

Stone lining in Burkina Faso

Check dams in the LOESS PLATEAU IN NORTH CHINA

Use of organic fertiliser from animals Mixed farming and crop rotation , intercropping

Impact on populations

Improved standard of living

Low death rates High life expectancy Low dependence load (Waugh page 468)

FARMING AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Pressure groups are claiming /advocating for environmental protection

Environment is being changed due to sheep and growing of cereals at a faster rate

Agriculture intensification is being pointed as the culprit together with urbanization

FARMING AS A THREAT TO THE ENVIRONMENT

Use of chemicals –fertilisers, slurry and pesticides contribute to environmental pollution

Fertilizers and organic manure contaminate underground water supplies and rivers

Eutrophication in north west Europe and united kingdom

Farmyard effluent is a major pollutant and killer of life in rivers in Britain

Pesticides are dangerous to bee and butterfly populations and has caused a decline in fauna in Paris basin

The loss of natural habitants- clearance of hedges, ponds and wet lands resulted in a loss of habitants for wildlife and destruction of ecosystems

In Britain 25% of hedge rows were cleared in Norfolk Farming increase erosion and removes natural land

cover Wind erosion common in parts of east Anglia where

soils are light/peaty Deforestation in tropical rainforests accelerates soil

erosion and desertification In Sahel region Irrigation cause salinization and water logging

in Pakistan, Egypt and 30% of California

Question:Assess the impact of agricultural activities on the environment in areas you have studied.

Set aside woodlands boost ecosystem Designation of environmentally sensitive areas

E.S.A and incentives to plant hedges as well as restoring ponds

Country stewardship schemes (CSS)incentives for improving natural country heritage

Restoring wildlife to arable areas Eutrophication through use of agrochemicals Slurry animal waste pollution

Pesticides kill bees ,butterflies, birds Estates destroy natural landscape and beauty Salinization (irrigation schemes) Leaching through irrigation

ATTEMPTS BY FARMING TO IMPROVE ENVIRONMENTa) Environmental improvement schemes

The E.U and the British government introduced several schemes in which financial incentives were offered to farmers who tried to improve their environment e.g. set-aside, woodland management and environmentally sensitive areas

Many parts of Britain benefited from set aside , soils were left under permanent /rotational fallow with protective vegetation cover and increased humus content

The woodland management schemes increased the number of trees

The countryside commission and the nature conservancy council looked at areas where it was considered landscape under threat for changing farming practices

b) The stewardship scheme is a joint farming environmental initiative that builds on the success of former E.S.A.S

Objectives were to Conserve wildlife(biodiversity) Maintain and enhance landscape quality and

character Protect the natural heritage and natural resources

c) Organic farming –which minimize the damage to the environment and wildlife

d) Genetic modified crops- deliberate attempts of using biotechnology to alter the genetic makeup of a plant with the intention of increasing yields by making them resistant to either diseases, pests or climatic conditions that are extreme.

These are essential to feed the world’s growing food prices and effects of climate change

AGRICULTURE POLICIESWith reference to examples from medcs ,dsrcibe and explain the role of government policy on agriculture activities

Central governments can play a regulatory function in agricultural production as-support/discourage farming

Dumping excess products/donations to hungry countries

Setting up of agricultural authority boards/storage facilities

Deciding on production quotas Regulating through legislation- set aside-soil bank Announcing pre-producer prices-guarantees

/assured prices Export incentives /subsidies Research and development Turning farmland into recreation /urban

settlements Land reform policies-land consoloditation

/collectivization Offering incentives to individual farmers-

loans ,grants

Providing /reducing market for farmer productsTHE E.U SUPRA NATIONAL POLICY

Members of E.U countries are meant to implent the COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY (C.A.P)

Decisions are made in Brussels AIMS

To increase agriculture productivity and self sufficiency

Maintain jobs on land preferably on family farms Improve standard of living (income) of farmers and

farm workers Stabilize markets Keep consumer food prices stable and reasonable

EFFECTS OF C.A.P Draining of E.U financial budget due to diminishing

returns with 70% of E.U ‘S budget spent for supporting farming when agriculture only provided 5% of total revenue

Large surpluses were created as farmers were encouraged and helped with technology to produce as much as possible

Handicapping of LEDCS as imports were subjected to duties to make them less competitive with the E.U prices

As E.U farms become larger and more efficient ,the prosperous farmers benefited at the expense of those farming in uplands areas and periphery especially in southern Europe

There was insufficient regard for the environment E.U farmers were granted generous subsidies to

maintain prices this helped restrict imports from non-economically

LEDCS

MEASURES TAKEN TO REDUCE THE PROBLEMS AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESSSUBSIDIES

guaranteed farmers a minimum price and an assured market for their produce

farmers overproduced and the payment of subsidies became a drain on E.U finances

steps to reduce surplus were taken through reducing subsidies and imposing penalties

In early 1990s, the E.U began the progressive reduction of subsidies on cereal, beef, with success in limiting the ‘mountains and lakes surpluses’.

In 2006 the C.A.P accounted for 45% of the E.U s total budget

QUOTAS were introduced in 1984 to reduce milk output-on

dairy farms ,the E.U has proposed five annual quota increase between 2008 and 2013

SET ASIDE was initially introduced on a voluntary basis ,but

later enforced to try to reduce overproduction of arable crops

Farmers who took 20% of their cultivated land out of production were given £ 20 a hectare provided that land was either fallow , turned into woodland /diversified into non –agricultural land use such as golf course ,nature trails, wildlife habitats and caravan parks

By 2000 there was little surplus production and so when 2007-08 saw a rapid global increase in food prices

The E.U fixed the set aside rate at zero

ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY FARMING is new E.U approach by which instead of

paying farmers to produce more food ,they are given payments if they meet

environmental and animal standards and keep their land in condition

The so called HEALTH CHECK is an attempt to streamline and modernize the C.A.P and to encourage farmers to be guardians of the country side

THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATIONS With minimum success it encouraged E.U and

other well off trade blocks to reduce tariffs ,quotas and subsidies so as to help LEDCS

The C.A.P. reform of early 2000s did not anticipate the increased global needs to fight climate change ,to improve water management ,supply to supply the growing demand for bio crops as a source for renewable energy /rise in food prices

In 2008 claims showed that even within E.U itself 43 million people were at risk of food shortages.

Brifley outline the agricultural characteristics of the urban fringe

Small plots/small scale Growing of vegetables for market Intensive farming.capital /labour Commercial cash cropping /high productivity Crop rotation

Scientific management Modern farming methods Mechanization Use of hybrids, fertilizers ,pesticides Irrigation, mixed farming

a)Briefly explain the interrelationship between commercial and subsistence farming.

b)With reference to any country you have studied ,outline the distribution and nature of either crop or pastoral farming

c)With reference to any country you have studied ,assess the extend to which farming has led to the establishment of processing industries.

There is a symbiotic relationship with out growers(cotton, coffee ,sugar cane, tobacco, plantations)

Labour-seasonal/contract/permanent/for subsistence farmers

Employment/commercial ranchers-ideas Inputs(manure, stock feeds, commercial can

buy on behalf of subsistence-cooperative buying inputs

Sharing of infrastructure e.g. access to road ,deports, tobacco floors

Diffusion of ideas and innovation /sharing both ways

Deliberate transfer of education , knowledge, skills, indigenous knowledge

ARDA CHISUMBANJEb) Map drawing/paragraph

In Zimbabwe –it is based on ecological regions, rainfall patterns ,soil, temperature, relief pests and diseases

Both commercial and subsistence Nature-title deeds Seasonal/perennial ,crops tobacco, wheat, maize,

tomatoes Diversification Intensity scale-intensive/extensive Sale /consumption finance/capital investment Rain grown/irrigation

c) Flow of material from farmland to milling plant Type and nature of crops will determine nature of

establishment raw material/ market oriented Tea/coffee -KATIYO, TANGANDA Sugar-Zimbabwe sugar refinery Cotton KADOMA David whitehead textiles

Beef-abattoirs Citrus –CASHEL valley Perishability GUSHUNGO dairy farm in

MAZOWE