€¦ · Web viewCOURSE OUTLINE. TOPIC AREA I: HISTORY OF RWANDA. Unit 1. Independent Rwanda. Unit 2. Consequences of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi . TOPIC AREA . I. I: HISTORY

COURSE OUTLINE

TOPIC AREA I: HISTORY OF RWANDA

Unit 1. Independent Rwanda

Unit 2. Consequences of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi

TOPIC AREA II: HISTORY OF AFRICA

Unit 3. Colonial administrative systems and colonial powers

Unit 4. Colonial reforms and their consequences on African societies

Unit 5. Causes of decolonization in Africa: case study, Ghana and Kenya.

TOPIC AREA III: WORLD HISTORY

Unit 6. Analyze the 1789 French Revolution

Unit 7. Causes and effects of the First World War

Unit 8. Between two wars

Unit 9. Causes and effects of the Second World War

TOPIC AREA IV: SOCIETY

Unit 10. National and international human rights instruments and the protection of human rights

Unit 11. Democratization process

Unit 12. Identify Rwandans in reference to regional groupings

Unit 13. National laws in conflict transformation

Unit 14. Factors for national independence

Unit 15. Concept of disability and inclusive education

Unit 16. Tolerance and respect

By KAREGEYA Naphtal, HISTORY AND CITIZENSHIP, SENIOR 3 St ESPRIT NYANZA Page 1

UNIT I. INDEPENDENT RWANDA

Introduction

After recovering its independence, Rwanda was ruled by Grégoire KAYIBANDA who was the president of the first republic (1961-1973) and Major General Juvenal HABYARIMANA who led the second republic (1975-1994).the two republics were characterized by ethnic and regional divisions which compromised the development Rwanda and led to the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi. Their poor governance provoked the Liberation War which occurred in 1990 and lasted 4 years.

1.1. Major changes that took place in the first and second republics

The first republic started immediately after on independence on 1st July 1962. It ended on 5th July1973. It was headed by KAYIBANDA Gregoire with his party called PARMEHUTU.

The first republic was characterized by dictatorship and civil strife that replaced colonial rule. Many of them were massacred while others ran to exile in the neighboring African countries like Uganda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania.

The major changes that took place in the first republic were as follows:

A constitution was organized and developed for the first time in the existence of Rwanda.

A government that was headed by the president was formed. It was the birth of a republic.

A parliament was also established. There was creation of infrastructure like schools, roads and hospitals. There was development of the first five year plan Some political institutions were created like the national assembly and

the Supreme Court.


Key unit competence: Explain the political, economic and socio-cultural changes in the first and the second republic and the causes, the course and the consequences of the Liberation War in Rwanda (1990-1994).

Class discrimination, torture and hatred against the Tutsi continued. This eventually led to many of them fleeing from their country to neighbouring states of Congo, Burundi, Tanzania and Uganda.

It was characterised by killings against innocent Tutsi who remained in the country.

There was underdevelopment and absolute poverty with the economy remaining stagnant. There was also a high rate of unemployment and goods were scarce.

There was creation of one party state under MDR/PARMEHUTU which designed a racist ideology that was later consolidated in the second republic.

The second republic started on the 5thJuly 1973 under Juvenal HABYARIMANA who came to power through a coup d’état. The government claimed that it had come to save a country that was about to perish. It was later realized that it had done nothing much to accomplish its mission.

Some of the features that took place during the second republic include the following: • Arbitrary arrests and killings • Violation of human rights • Creation of Akazu• Corruption • Poor governance • Increased ethnicity

The major changes that took place in the second republic include:

Infrastructural development continued in some areas roads were constructed, some hospitals though these were not evenly distributed in all parts of the country.

Harassment of opposition leaders and critics against the government. Some were murdered while others imprisoned, for example, in western region in Kibirira and Bigogwe, most of them were Tutsi.

There were human rights abuses where many people were imprisoned and kept into prisons without going to courts of laws for trial.

There existed armed robbery, political violence against civilians. This was due to poor security to the masses.


In the second republic, there was introduction of regionalism. With this Habyarimana got concentrated in members of the Akazu (little house or a clan) from North West hence neglecting other regions.

In 1978 a sham constitution was developed which kept him in office. This was by holding elections in which he was the sole candidate.

In conclusion the first and second republic fed the people of Rwanda with nothing apart from untold suffering, torture, economic stagnancy and death. Rwanda saw a period in which innocent civilians were subjected to untold torture, forced exile to neighbouring countries and tarnishing Rwanda’s history by planning the occurrence of genocide against the Tutsi by 1994.

1.2 Root causes, course and effects of the liberation war in Rwanda (1990 -1994) The 1990 -1994 Liberation War in Rwanda was a war fought by the Rwandans who were in exile in other African countries, especially in Uganda against Habyarimana regime. It was a war of liberation and therefore known as liberation struggle.

1.2.1. Root Causes of the 1990 - 1994 liberation struggle 1. Refusal of return of refugees: Very many refugees in Diaspora

were longing to return to their motherland (Rwanda). The Habyarimana regime had completely refused the return of the Tutsi refugees. As a result, they (refugees) organised a war as a way for them to liberate their country.

2. Increased patriotism: The descendants of the 1959 refugees came together and formed a group called Rwandese Alliance for National Unity (RANU). Its objective was to mobilise all Rwandans in the diaspora into the movement. It later became the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF - Inkotanyi) from which rose the RPA (Rwanda Patriotic Army). The RPA started the liberation war and eventually won it.

3. Mismanagement of government resources: The natural and human resources were not well managed. The issue of population increase was given little attention, only remembered when the refugees demanded to return. The answer was always that there was no room to accommodate them. This increased the spirit of nationalism among the Tutsis in the diaspora.


4. Increased pressure for democratisation: In July 1991, the extreme demand for democracy reached its climax. The ruling party MRND started a multi–party politics, created limited presidential terms and separated the judicial, executive and legislative arms of government. This gave rise to many political parties. It was a turning point for the Rwandans in diaspora to form a group with a common cause.

5. The desire to end dictatorship: The second republic of Rwanda was dictatorial to the extent that people were denied fundamental freedoms such as the freedom of speech and freedom of press. Participation in national politics by the masses was abolished.

6. Desire to end assassinations: The second republic was a military government characterised by assassination of people based on ethnic groupings. Therefore, there was need to end such killings.

7. The desire to end corruption: The second republic of Rwanda was dominated by corrupt officials. Above all, corruption was based on tribes.

8. Need to establish fairness in security forces: There was no fairness in the army. Promotion to high ranks was done based on tribal line. The police was merged with the army. This meant that these institutions were in the hands of one man.

9. Need for unity: The previous governments, that is, the first and second republics had exercised extreme discrimination that largely depended on ethnicity. This led to disunity among Rwandans. It was against this background that the liberation war was considered a necessity.

1.2.2. Course of the 1990 - 1994 liberation war

After the independence in 1962, Rwanda remained with a very big challenge of tribalism. There were basically three tribes: Hutu, Tutsi and Twa. Given the fact that the Hutu were the majority, they did not want to recognize other tribes. They consequently harassed and killed the Tutsi because the Twa were not a threat at all. From as early as 1959, many Tutsi were forced to flee to neighboring countries such as Uganda, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo and Burundi. Those who were capable fled to the United States of America and Europe. Throughout this period of life in different countries, these Rwandans saw and experienced a lot of hardship.


Rwandans (those who were oppressed) did not allow hardship to stop their vision. They considered hardship not only as oppression and humiliation they should fight against, but also as a value to be transformed into common cause. This was a sentiment of national unity and a cause for the struggle for the collective return of Rwandans to their motherland. Rwandans did not have any other avenues for peaceful political change in their native country. They had lost hope of ever returning to their homeland by peaceful means. As a result, a group of young Rwandans, descendants of the 1959 refugees, decided to unite under a group that they called the Rwandese Alliance for National Unity (RANU).

RANU’s objective was to mobilize all other Rwandans in the Diaspora into a movement geared towards resolving their problems by themselves.

As time went by, this alliance matured to a level where all Rwandans living outside Rwanda identified themselves with it. In 1987, this group developed into the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF-Inkotanyi) with its military wing, the Rwanda Patriotic Army (RPA). The RPA later grew into such a strong force that not only defeated the oppressive regime within nearly four years, but also stopped the on-going Genocide in 1994 within a period of only three months.

The RPF developed the eight-point programme that addressed the political, economic and social problems of the country. This made it popular. The eight-point programme was as follows: 1. To restore national unity and reconciliation 2. To establish genuine democracy 3. To prevent genocide and its ideology 4. To build an integrated and self–sustaining economy 5. To eradicate corruption in all forms 6. To repatriate and resettle Rwandan refugees 7. To devise and implement policies that promotes the social welfare of all

Rwandans 8. To pursue a foreign policy based on equality, peaceful co-existence and

mutual benefit between Rwanda and other countries The RPF – Inkotanyi under the leadership of the late Major General Fred Gisa Rwigema attacked Rwanda from the eastern part of the country on October 1, 1990. This was intended to make them realize their long time dream of going back home after decades in exile. This marked the beginning of a nearly four-year war that not only saw the Rwandese Patriotic Front (RPF) finally take over control of the country, but also greatly changing the political By KAREGEYA Naphtal, HISTORY AND CITIZENSHIP, SENIOR 3 St ESPRIT NYANZA Page 6

and social atmosphere in the countries of the Great Lakes region as it is seen today.

1.2.3. Effects of the liberation war of 1990 – 1994

The 1990 - 1994 liberation war was a success and it indeed managed to fully achieve its cause. The effects of the 1990 - 1994 liberation war include:

1. Creation of new Rwanda - Rwanda was known to be a country of evils such massive killings, insecurity and division. Things have now changed completely as Rwanda now has a new image after the 1990 - 1994 liberation war. Rwanda is now known to be a peaceful nation, with rapid economic growth and security.

2. Good governance - The liberation war of 1990 - 1994 brought good governance in Rwanda as seen through freedom of speech, interaction of leaders and citizens and participation in public debates.

3. Many Rwandans returned - The liberation war enabled the return and of very many people who were in exile to their motherland. Even the refugees of 1959 were resettled.

4. Unity - The liberation war of 1990 - 1994 brought about unity among the Rwandans. This was achieved through initiatives such as multiple campaigns of reconciliation and change of the national identity cards to identify citizens as Rwandans, not by ethnic attachments.

5. Restored security - Rwandans today enjoy security around the country. They are free to carry out various activities without interference. This, no doubt, has its roots in the liberation war.

6. Stopping the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi - The RPF liberation army stopped the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi and restored peace in the country that had experienced killings for decades. This is why places such as Burera District in Northern Rwanda where the liberation war started did not witness serious effects of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.

7. Economic growth - Rwanda managed to attain steady and fast economic growth after the liberation war. This has been achieved, among others, through privatization, increased investment and regional economic integrations.


UNIT II. CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1994 GENOCIDE AGAINST THE TUTSI

Introduction

The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi was a carefully planned and executed project to completely destroy the Tutsi population. It was the fastest and most cruel genocide ever recorded in human history and its atrocities have torn the hearts of survivors and severely ruined the country.

2.1. Consequences of 1994 genocide against the Tutsi

In Rwanda, the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi had far reaching consequences. They include the following:

1. Death of people - This was the worst consequence of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi claimed lives of over one million people in less than one hundred days. This has put it in record as the most vigorous genocide in world history.

2. Big number of orphans - Many children became orphans as a result of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. Most Rwandan homes had child-headed families. Consequently, cases of child labour increased as the orphans had to work for people in order get basic needs such as food, clothing and accommodation.

3. Destruction of infrastructure - During the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, a lot of property was destroyed. These included houses, roads, schools and business centres.

4. Poverty - The surviving population did not have anything that would enable them get income. In fact, everything in the economy was at a starting point after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.

5. Trauma and mental health problems – These were generally due to the brutal killings that many surviving Rwandans witnessed during the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. Many Rwandans were traumatized thereafter.

6. Displacement of people - During and after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda, many people became refugees. The Tutsi fled to neighbouring countries such as Uganda, Tanzania and Burundi


Key unit competence: Examine the consequences of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi and how Rwandan society has been rebuilt.

in a bid to save their lives. On the other hand, the perpetrators relocated, especially to the Democratic Republic of Congo.

7. Decline in labour and production - This was due to deaths of very many people, especially the youth. It ended up depriving the country of the necessary labour force to work for its development.

8. Increased dependency on foreign aid - The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi left the country with no option but dependency on foreign aid and external debt. This was because all the resources had then been mismanaged and destroyed.

9. Suspicion and lack of trust - The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi created a very big effect of mistrust among Rwandans and loss of confidence in the administrators.

10. Outbreak of diseases - The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi led to the outbreak of very many diseases such as cholera among adults, and other malnutrition diseases such as kwashiorkor and marasmus among the children.

11. Disability among the victims - During the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, some victims were amputated by genocidaires. This left many people disabled and dependent on others. There was need to provide help to such victims, causing widespread poverty among the population.

12. Famine - This came as a result of many factors such as destruction of farmlands, killing of animals, insecurity, decline in trade and commerce and lack of investment. This left the surviving population with no food to eat.

a. Measures taken by the government to re-build the Rwandan society

After its military victory, on July 19th, 1994 the RPF-Inkotanyi put in place a coalition government called “Broad-Based Government of National Unity”. Its legal framework was based on the constitution of July 10th 1994, the Arusha Peace Accord, the RPF-Inkotanyi declaration of July 17th, 1994 and the joint agreement between RPF, MDR, PDC, PSD, PSR, PL and UDPR regarding the implementation of the national institutions signed on November 24th, 1994.

The RPF-Inkotanyi had worked out a programme addressing the political, economic and social problems of the country. It was this programme that the Government of National Unity (GNU) adopted on coming to power on July 19th, 1994 as listed below:


1. To promote national unity and reconciliation2. To establish genuine democracy3. To provide security for all Rwandans4. To built an integrated and self-sustaining economy5. To eradicate corruption in all forms6. To repatriate and to resettle Rwandan refugees7. To devise and implement policies for the social welfare for all

Rwandans 8. To pursue a foreign policy based on equality. Peaceful coexistence and

mutual benefit between Rwanda and other countries.9. To fight against genocide and eradicate the genocide ideology.

b. Challenges encountered in rebuilding Rwanda

In the process of re-building the Rwandan society, a number of challenges were encountered. They include the following:

1. Poverty and bankruptcy - The government had a very big challenge of the extreme poverty after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. This was serious to the extent that even social and economic institutions were broken and therefore had to be sre-established.

2. The bad image - After the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, Rwanda lost its fame and dignity (which are important aspects in growth) because it had been broken into pieces. The government of national unity had a challenge of creating a dignified state out of nothing.

3. Refugee crisis–Prior to the coming of the government of national unity, many Rwandans were roaming around in the neighbouring countries as refugees. It was therefore a very big challenge to have millions of them return to their motherland and resettled.

4. Insecurity - There was insecurity, hostility and cross border raids in the country even after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. The Interahamwe militias kept on killing, raping and looting in the countryside. This also contributed to low investment.

5. A traumatised population - There is no doubt that even after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, majority of the population was traumatised because of what they had undergone. Massive killings, a divided society, injustice and segregation are what defined Rwanda. This was a very hard situation to deal with because a lot was needed to restore hope.

6. Armed Interahamwe and ex-FAR - The perpetrators of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi were defeated. They relocated to the neighbouring countries, especially the Democratic Republic of Congo.


It was therefore difficult to deal with them when they were not in the country.

7. Weak administrative structure - The administrative structure in Rwanda before the government of national unity was very weak. People lost trust in their leaders. It was therefore hard to establish new and trusted leadership.

8. Huge foreign debt - The Government of National Unity found a torn country that had accumulated a huge foreign debt. There were no sources to pay the debt, yet a lot of money was needed to re-build the country.

9. Disability of many people - There were very many disabled people, especially the victims of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. This therefore called for financial support from the government which had nothing left.

10. Inflation - There was inflation because of low foreign currency in the country and local government revenue especially from taxes.

11. Famine - There was serious famine that resulted from the burning of many farmlands during the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. The youth did not carry out farming because they had to train and prepare for the genocide.

12. Outbreak of diseases - The Rwandans suffered from diseases related to malnutrition and poor hygiene. It was very hard to treat these people because most health institutions had either been destroyed or collapsed.

13. Shortage of labour - In the process of rebuilding the Rwandan society, labour force was also a challenge. Many people had been killed while others fled as refugees. Rwanda therefore had no skilled and semi-skilled personnel to work towards the rebuilding of the society.

c. Achievements of the Government of National unity

Resettlement of returnees - The government united and reconciled its citizens after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. It also repatriated and resettled the refugees who had crossed over to the neighbouring countries especially Tanzania and Congo way back in 1959.

Repair of social and economic infrastructure - The government has repaired the social and economic infrastructure such as schools, health centres, telecommunications, energy and water. Many bold economic reforms such as commercial farming and entrepreneur skills


have been achieved. All this has contributed to the steady economic growth.

Good governance - The government has brought about a new outlook of the Rwandan society based on equality. It has also cultivated a culture of inclusive and democratic politics in a decentralised framework that allows people in their communities to have a stake in governance.

Fighting corruption - Rwanda is among the few countries that have almost succeeded in fighting corruption through its strong institutions such as the police. This has not only promoted economic growth and development but also transparency and accountability in society.

Regional and international integration - The government has engaged in a number of regional and international integrations such as the East African Community, New Economic Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and many others which are all aimed at confronting underdevelopment and globalization.

Security - The government has managed to keep security of all people and their property through formation of many security organs at all levels. Other than the police and the army, there is also the District Administration Security (DASSO), a replacement of the former Local Defense Forces. This has no doubt given peace of mind and security to Rwandans.

Democracy - The government of national unity has registered a number of achievements as far as democracy is concerned. For example, Rwanda experiences regular and peaceful elections, freedom of speech and expression and freedom of press, all of which were not existent in the previous governments.

Justice - The government has done quite a lot in ensuring justice for its citizens. All people are equal before the law. On several occasions, leaders in high positions have been seen in courts of law for failure to execute their duties the right way. There are even the Abunzi at the local level whose duty is to promote justice at the local level.

Creation of a national police - In 2000, the government launched a national police that was in a better position to prevent crime and nearer to people. This has contributed to the prevailing peace and stability in Rwanda.

Education - The government has promoted education through the twelve-year basic education programme and scholarships to best performing students. This has helped in increasing the literacy levels.


Formation of the National Commission for Human Rights - It was formed to investigate and take action against allegation of human right violation.

Gender promotion - The government has promoted gender balance especially by enhancing the position of women in the country. Rwanda has women mayors, senators and members of parliament.

UNIT III. COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS AND COLONIAL POWERS


Introduction Colonialism refers to the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers and exploiting it economically.

3.1 Colonial masters and their colonies At the end of the 19th century, some European countries, which were mainly searching for raw materials and markets for their manufactured goods, came to Africa and colonized it.The following are the former colonial masters and their respective colonies in Africa:

Britain colonized Uganda, Kenya, Sudan, Egypt, Ghana, Nigeria, Gambia, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Sierra Leone, Lesotho, Malawi, Swaziland, Zanzibar and Somaliland.

France dominated Senegal, Ivory Coast, Mali, Mauritania, Burkina Faso, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Chad, Niger, Congo Brazzaville, Chad, Madagascar, Central African Republic, Guinea, Benin, Comoros and Mauritius.

Germany colonized Tanganyika, Togo, Cameroon, Namibia, Rwanda and Burundi

Belgium: The Congo (The Democratic Republic Of Congo) Portugal: Mozambique and Angola, Guinea Bissau and Sao Tome and

Principe. Spain had Western Sahara and Equatorial Guinea Italy: Libya, Somalia, and Eritrea.

3.2 Different colonial administrative methods There were several methods of administration used by colonialists in Africa. These methods, among others, were: (i) Indirect rule by the British (ii) Assimilation by the French (iii) Direct rule by the Germans

i) The indirect rule used by the British


Key unit competence: Identify different colonial administrative systems and colonial powers.

It was the system of administration used by the British where African local kings and chiefs were allowed to maintain their positions as administrators but ruled under the supervision of the British. The British made new policies and decisions which were implemented by African local leaders.

Reasons why the British used indirect rule

The following are some of the reasons why the British used indirect rule:

It was economically cheap. The British wanted to avoid payment of high salaries to white staff/administrators in their colonies.

The British lacked enough manpower to administer all their colonies in Africa. The number of British citizens in Africa was small compared to the administrative positions available in their colonies and therefore had no alternative but to use African chiefs.

In some communities, they feared resistance and hostility from Africans. The British wanted to avoid resistances and rebellions that would come after replacing or overthrowing African leaders.

There existed a language barrier between the colonialists and Africans. The British could not understand the language and customs of Africans, making it necessary to use African leaders who proved to be a better choice to bridge the language problem.

African kings and chiefs were used as scapegoats. In fact, they would act as shock absorbers in case of any conflicts and wars. The African kings and chiefs would be blamed in case the British policies became unpopular among Africans.

In some African communities, there existed a well-established centralized system of administration. An example of an organized system was witnessed in the Buganda Kingdom. This encouraged the British to rely on such systems of administration to implement their policies.

The success of indirect rule in other parts of the world like in India also encouraged the British to apply it Africa because they had been successful with it.

The British adopted indirect rule as a way of training future African leaders in case of eventual self-government. This could be achieved by allowing African leaders to exercise their responsibility.

ii) The French assimilation policy


Under this policy, Africans were expected to emulate the French ways of living including education, dressing, religion and language. Assimilation came from the French word “assimiler” which means cause to resemble or to look alike. The assimilation policy was used by the French in order to ‘create’ French citizens and make African territories not so different from the provinces of France. In general terms, Africans were expected to substitute their indigenous culture, religion and customs with French culture, language, laws, religion and civilization.

Reasons why the French adopted assimilation policy

The French believed in superiority of their culture and civilization. They considered it to be more developed and therefore felt it was their duty to spread it among people with backward cultures through assimilation policy.

The influence of the French revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity also made the French to use assimilation policy because they had a feeling that all people are equal.

The French defeat during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. The French attributed their defeat by Germany to their low population and so assimilation policy intended to increase the French population which would support France in times of problems.

The French wanted to create allies that would support France in future conflicts and international issues. This policy would create friendship between France and her African colonies.

The French regarded their colonies as overseas French territories and not areas of exploitation. Therefore assimilation policy was the best alternative system for changing territories to resemble the French province sin Europe.

The French wanted to create a class of African French men who would help in the administration of their colonies.

The early contacts between the French coastal areas of West Africa especially Senegal made it easy for assimilation because Africans had already adopted French cultures and language.

The French wanted to be different from the British by using a unique system of administration instead of indirect rule.

The French also used assimilation policy because they knew that the assimilated people would produce raw materials which would be used in French industries and offer markets for the French finished products.


They also used this method because its success would earn France political glory and prestige.

iii) The direct rule used by the GermansDuring colonial time, direct rule was a system of administration used by the Germans to administer their colonies in Africa. It involved use of soldiers to directly control their colonies. They would bring in new chiefs where they had no chiefs and bringing in new ones to replace the old chiefs.

Why the Germans applied direct rule

With direct rule, the Germans wanted to ensure that the Africans grow enough cash crops to feed their home populations.

Following her successful unification, Germany as a new state wanted to prove the maturity of her nationhood by using a different method of administration from that used by its rivals, the British.

The Germans wanted to promote their superior culture over Africans. This would involve imposing their culture on them.

They opted for this system because they had enough manpower to supervise all departments. With this in mind, they saw no need to recruit or use Africans.

They feared the expense of training Africans before they could take over administration as this could have also strained their budget.

They also believed that the system would enable them to exploit and benefit from African resources; for example, raise enough revenue through taxation.

Because of early resistance they faced, Germans saw it better to exclude Africans from their administration by using direct rule. In so doing, Germans had to bring in harsh leaders and use soldiers as a way of avoiding more riots.

3.3 African states that were not colonized

There were only two African states that were not colonized during the colonial period. These were Ethiopia and Liberia.

Reasons why Liberia was not colonized

Her way of creation and its pre-colonial history helped her to escape colonization. She had been created by humanitarians of


America and no European power could attempt to go to Liberia on the pretext that they are stopping slave trade and eventually colonize her.

Liberians were already westernized, Christianized, spoke English, and therefore there was no need for Europeans to colonize Liberia under the cover of introducing the above aspects.

Liberia was protected and supported and supported by USA which acted as a police force to prevent any colonial threat

Liberians were already literate, and there was no need to colonize them under the cover of educating them

Liberians avoided getting loans from European countries, which they would have used to colonize them

Economically, Liberia was poor and never attracted colonialists Leaders of Liberia were able and organized to defend their

independence, for example, Roberts, Johnson, which scared Europe an countries that would have attempted to colonize Liberia.

The love for liberty which was the motto of Liberians enabled them to escape colonization because they were determined to defend their independence, the slogan which threatened the European countries to attempt to colonize Liberia.

Reasons why Ethiopia was not colonized

Common language: Ethiopians spoke the same language called Amharic. They believed in a common origin. They also shared some historic events, facts that promoted unity and easy communication amongst themselves. This united them against colonialism.

Able leadership: Ethiopia had able leaders like Theodore, John IV and Menelik II who did their best in preserving their country’s independence.

Strong army: Ethiopia had a large and strong army which was well trained and equipped. Many of the weapons were brought from Europe and it’s no surprise that these were used to defeat Italy at the Battle of Adowa in 1896.

Geographical nature: The landscape of Ethiopia is characterized by rugged mountains, deep valleys and gorges. The landscape acted as war barriers against colonial forces. The relief did not favor the colonialists for attacks as they did not understand it as much as Ethiopians themselves.

Economic weakness: Ethiopia had poor soils that did not favour agriculture. Colonialists found no reason to invest in a country that


would not produce raw materials for their home industries. This reduced the interest of colonialists in the country.

Influence of Christianity: Ethiopia had Christianised as early as 350 AD when Emperor Ezana was converted to Christianity. Since then, Christianity was part of the Ethiopians and it helped to strengthen their unity against colonialists.

Role of nationalism: There were strong feelings of nationalism among Ethiopians. This made it difficult for the Europeans to divide and rule them as they did in other parts of Africa.

Ethiopia did not have many European nationals like traders, missionaries, explorers that would have agitated for European colonization of the country.

UNIT IV. COLONIAL REFORMS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES ON AFRICAN SOCIETIES

After their coming to Africa, Europeans introduced the different reforms which would help them to colonize and exploit African economic resources and Africans themselves. Africans were exploited through the taxation system and forced labour.

4.1 Political, economic and social–cultural reforms Colonial agents in Africa had effects on Africa’s political, economic, religious and social formations. These effects were both negative and positive. Some of them have been analyzed below:

i) Promotion of agriculture


Key unit competence: To evaluate political, economic and socio-cultural colonial reforms and their consequences on African societies.

Various colonial agents introduced plantation farming, where crops such as coffee, cotton and tea were grown in the highland areas of Kenya, Zimbabwe and Algeria. Peasants were encouraged if not forced to grow these cash crops. The harvests were bought by foreigners at low prices through monopolised trade. This meant little attention to food crops, causing famine in many African societies.

ii) Land alienation European colonial agents and their associated companies’ grabbed land belonging to natives and pushed them in reserve camps. Others ended up living as squatters on their lands. This happened in Nigeria and Buganda, where there was creation of crown land. It is here that churches, schools, hospitals and administration centres were set up. Later, land alienation causes to have conflicts with Europeans.

iii) Introduction of forced labourAs a result of inadequate labourers, European agents resorted to forcing Africans to provide free labour commonly known as ishiku in Rwanda. Those who failed to comply with this were flogged, brutally beaten and imprisoned to scare the rest.

iv) Unfair taxation In order to raise a strong tax revenue, Europeans introduced a variety of taxes, including gun tax and hut tax, with the aim of meeting administration costs and revenue for other purposes. These taxes were paid in cash or kind. An example is Leopold in Congo, who oversaw collection of taxes in form of rubber and ivory. This made Africans poor. Worse still, failure to pay would lead to torture. These taxes were repatriated to Europe instead of being used to develop Africa.

v) Introduction of industries Many of these were processing industries that relied on raw materials from cash crops and minerals. Some of them were built in areas where white settlers lived. Such industries were set up in the highland areas in Kenya and South Africa. These were built at the interests of exploitation of Africans rather than developing them. The little that Africans earned was heavily taxed.

vi) Introduction of legitimate trade Slave trade took place long before colonisation. Slave trade caused anguish among many African societies, because they lost their able-bodied men to


slave traders. With colonisation, slave trade was replaced with trade in goods and services.

vii) Infrastructural development The companies and missionaries embarked on the construction of roads and railway lines in areas that had minerals and plantation farms. Unfortunately, this was not meant to develop Africans but rather to enable the whites to trade with ease. At the same time, it was aimed at solving the problem of transport for future colonialists.

viii) Massive exploitation of minerals The explorers located and settled in places with raw minerals and fertile soils. This encouraged the coming of many white settlers who embarked on exploitation of these resources. Areas affected include Kilembe in western Uganda, Witwatersrand and Transvaal in South Africa and parts of Congo and Togo.

ix)Creation of import and export economy Import and export was a type of trade started and promoted by colonial agents. Africans previously practiced subsistence farming with the produce meant for home consumption. This traditional system was altered, with people starting to cultivate crops such as coffee, sugarcane and tea which they could not eat.

x) Promotion of education The missionaries in Africa introduced formal education which replaced informal education that was used in pre-colonial societies in Africa. In Rwanda, schools were constructed in areas such as Astrida and Kabgayi. Technical schools and universities were also built in most parts of Africa. However, this education was meant to train Africans who would assist colonialists in the establishment of colonial rule. Trainees included cooks, drivers, interpreters and caters, who largely benefitted the white population than the local populace.

xi) Spread of Christianity Among other notable things Europeans introduced in Africa was Christianity. Africa was believed to be a ‘pagan’ continent, prompting the evangelicals in Europe to come and spread the gospel and to baptize the converts in the name of God. They also built churches and trained African clergy to facilitate the spread of the gospel. They also gave free Bibles, thereby increasing Christian influence in Africa.

xii) ) Improved health standards in Africa


Various European agents in collaboration built health centres, including dispensaries and hospitals in different places. For example, they build Kigali hospital in Rwanda and Mulago and Mengo hospitals in Uganda. These hospitals were meant to treat malaria, small pox, cholera and to prevent killer diseases among women and children. This not only eased the problem of diseases for the future colonialist but also benefited the natives.

4.2 Consequences of these reforms on African societies

Positive consequences Colonisation led to creation of bigger African states as a result of

combining small African societies by the colonialists. This resulted into unity of Africans.

Colonial reforms led to abolition of slavery and slave trade among African societies. Communities which participated in slave trade, for example the Yao, Nyamwezi, Akamba, had to find alternative ways of generating income. In its place, legitimate trade was started where Africans acquired European manufactured goods in exchange for the African raw materials.

There was introduction of Western Education in the colonies which brought new scientific knowledge. New languages were also acquired, including English and French.

There was establishment of communication networks and infrastructural facilities such as roads and railways in African colonies.

The colonial reforms led to the development of agriculture through introduction of new crops like coffee, cotton, cocoa, rubber and sugar cane.

Colonial reforms led to the spread of Christianity in Africa. Many Africans dropped their traditional religion and were converted to Christianity. Today there are many Christians especially in central, eastern and southern parts of Africa.

There was emergence of towns and urban centers during the colonial period. Most of them, such as Kigali City, started as administrative centers for colonial governments which have now developed into modern towns today.

Colonial reforms led to rise of African nationalism where Africans wanted to rule themselves instead of being ruled by Europeans. This brought unity of African people verse Europeans.

Colonial reforms opened up parts of African continent to the outside world. This led to the creation of links between African countries and the rest of the world.


Negative consequences Colonisation led to loss of independence for many African

communities. Many of them had been independent, until when they were colonised by Europeans.

Colonial reforms opened up the relationships between the Africans societies and the outside world. These relationships have helped in terms of economic growth through trade partnership and others.

The reforms led to rebellions that resulted from resistance by some Africans. Examples of such rebellions were the Maji Maji in Tanzania, Shona–Ndebele in southern countries of Africa and Mau-Mau in Kenya. Many Africans lost their lives in these wars of rebellion against Europeans.

Colonial reforms led to creation of artificial boundaries in Africa which caused conflict between African modern states. Boundary disputes were witnesses between Uganda and Tanzania, Nigeria and Cameroon and Ethiopia and Eritrea. This has led to wars among such states.

The colonial reforms divided many communities which were not initially co-exiting, causing inter-ethnic conflicts. This also created hatred and disunity among Africans. Some methods of administration, such as divide and rule, also created division among many African societies that had initially co-exited peacefully

It led to loss of good African culture as Africans took up the Western culture, which they equated to civilisation. Examples include cultural dances, hospitality and traditional foods.

Colonisation made African countries to remain underdeveloped and dependent on the colonial masters. In some countries, dependency continued to date.


UNIT V. CAUSES OF DECOLONISATION IN AFRICA WITH CASE STUDIES OF GHANA AND KENYA.

Introduction

Decolonization is the act of withdrawal of colonialists, granting independence to a colony. Decolonization was a mass movement for emancipation of the colonized people which characterized the history of the world in the second half of the 20th century.

5.1 Causes of decolonisation in Africa

The role of the United Nations OrganisationThis was formed in 1945 after World War II. Right from the start, The UNO became a voice for the colonised. It put pressure to former colonial masters to grant them self rule. It also gave military support to African nationalists to help in the struggle as well as organising conferences where they expressed the need for self rule. This greatly contributed to decolonisation of Africa.

The 1941 Atlantic Charter This was a document signed by American president Franklyn D Roosevelt and the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. It stated that all people of the world have a right to choose a form of government they prefer and all those under colonial rule were to be restored to self-rule. This charter later inspired Africans to demand their human rights including self governance which led to decolonisation in Africa.

The anti-colonial attitude of the Super Powers These included United States of America (USA) and Russia (USSR). They both had anti-colonial attitude and as such they exerted pressure to former By KAREGEYA Naphtal, HISTORY AND CITIZENSHIP, SENIOR 3 St ESPRIT NYANZA Page 24

Key unit competence: examine the causes of decolonization in Africa with two case studies of Ghana and Kenya.

colonial masters in Africa to decolonise. The super powers gave both military and financial assistance to African nationalists to enable them fight for self-rule against their former oppressors and this too led to decolonisation.

The impact of Second World War During this war that took place between 1939 and 1945, many Africans were recruited to fight on behalf of their colonial masters. The ex-service men witnessed European cowardice, how they could retreat as some of them died during the war. The soldiers also learnt how to operate guns. After the war, they trained fellow Africans and led liberation movements against colonizers which in turn led to decolonization.

The growth of African nationalism This was a strong desire for self-determination, desire for political, economic and cultural independence by Africans locally and those living in Diaspora. This was due to the independence enjoyed by other independent African states like Ethiopia and Liberia. African nationalism was also against colonial exploitative policies like over taxation and forceful plantation agriculture where cash crops were to be grown. This made Africans to agitate for self-rule, leading to decolonisation.

The 1935 invasion of Ethiopia by Italy Ethiopia had survived the 19th century European colonisation only to be attacked by Mussolini in 1935. This made Africans to mobilise funds, soldiers and weapons to liberate Ethiopia from Italian invasion. This contributed to decolonisation of Africa because Africans came to appreciate the fact that armed resistance was one of the ways that would resist colonialism.

The rise of pan-Africanism This was a movement that was started by Africans in diaspora including Doctor William Edward Burghardt Du Bois of USA, Marcus Garvey of Jamaica and George Padmore of Trinidad. They aimed at uniting and sensitising all Africans against colonialism. They formed a united voice that pressurized the UNO to speed the process of decolonisation. Pan-Africanism stressed that “Africa is for Africans.” The end result was decolonisation.

The independence of Ghana in 1957 Ghana was one of the earliest African countries to get self-rule. Thereafter, Kwame Nkrumah stated that “The independence of Ghana alone would be meaningless if the rest of Africa was still under colonial rule”. He went ahead to give moral, financial and military assistance to African nationalists to aid


their struggle against foreign rule. He also allowed nationalists to use Radio Accra as a voice to transmit nationalistic ideas leading to decolonisation.

The 1952-1955 Mau-Mau rebellion in Kenya Mau-Mau stands for ‘Mzungu Arudi Ulaya, Mwafrika Apate Uhuru’. This was an armed rebellion by the Kenyans against British colonialists in Kenya. This rebellion contributed to uprisings in Tanzania, Angola, Algeria and the rest of Africa that colonialism could only be stamped out using armed struggle. This saw many rebellions against colonialism which led to decolonisation.

The formation of OAU (Organisation of African Unity) in 1963 This was a continental body that aimed at promoting African unity. It set up a liberation committee based in Dar-es-Salam. Through the liberation committee, OAU provided military, financial and moral assistance to liberation movements in Angola, Algeria and Mozambique to fight against colonialism. This led to decolonisation.

The influence of Asian countries Asian countries, particularly India, had common problems with African countries. After India got her independence in 1947, Mahatma Gandhi advised Africans to use non-violence means against colonialism by forming political parties as well as mounting non-violent struggle. Africans were also invited to attend Bandung Conference of 1955 in Indonesia. These developments sped up the decolonisation process in Africa.

Formation of political parties These included African National Congress (ANC) by Nelson Mandela in South Africa, Parti du Mouvement de l’Emancipation Hutu (PARMEHUTU) by GrégoireKayibanda in Rwanda, Convention People’s Party (CPP) by Kwame Nkrumah in Ghana and Tanzania African National Union (TANU) by Mwalimu Julius Nyerere. All these helped in mobilising Africans to struggle against colonial rule.

5.2 CASE STUDY 1. DECOLONISATION IN GHANA Ghana, formerly known as Gold Coast (due to many gold deposits), was colonised by the British. It remained a British colony up to 1957 when she obtained her independence under the leadership of Kwame Nkrumah.

Factors that helped the decolonisation of Ghana


Ethnic unity: Ghana had a homogeneous population. Most people were Akan speakers. The non-Akan speakers also cooperated with others, leading to easy mobilisation and decolonisation. This was unlike other African countries like Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda which had many communities aligned along ethnic lines.

Historic background of Ghana: Natives of Ghana hated colonial rule. This history speaks for the Asante who had fought and defeated the British twice in the 19th century. The youth were also active, forming nationalistic parties like United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) that advocated for the independence of the country. This became successful, leading to decolonisation in 1957.

A small, manageable population: The size and population of Ghana was small and manageable. In 1950’s, she only had around 5 million people which made it possible to mobilise for early independence and decolonisation.

The influence of elites: Unlike other African countries, Ghana had a developed education system. In the 1950’s, she had produced a big number of intellectuals like lawyers, doctors, businessmen and teachers like William Ofori, Francis Awoonor and Kwame Nkrumah. These provided the required leadership for early independence and decolonisation.

A stable economy: Ghana’s’ economy was more developed than any other African country at that time. The revenue was obtained from sale of gold and cocoa to foreigners. This was used to fund and facilitate anti-colonial struggles hence obtaining her independence and decolonisation.

The influence of World War II: Ghana’s ex-service men who participated in the war on behalf of Britain, upon coming back, found life to be hard. They formed political parties and taught people western democracy. All these increased nationalistic feelings among Ghanaians which led to early independence struggles and decolonisation.

The independence of India 1947: At the end of World War II, Asian states like Pakistan and India got independence. This became a point of reference to Ghanaians in a number of ways - like formation of political parties and use of peaceful means (the Ghandhism policy) to agitate for independence. All of this led to decolonisation of Ghana.

The 1941 Atlantic Charter: The Charter stated that all people of the world have a right to choose a form of government best suited to them and all those under colonial rule were to be restored to self-rule. It therefore became a point of reference for Ghanaians to seek for decolonisation.


The formation of political parties: The formation of political parties in Ghana like Convention People’s Party (CPP) and the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) aided in the mobilisation and sensitisation from the grassroots of the need for independence which led to early decolonisation.

The role of the media: This also favoured early independence of Ghana. There were newspapers like Accra Evening News, Cape Coast and Daily Mail. All these helped to spread awareness to all people in the countryside and equally exerted pressure to the British to decolonise Ghana.

The role played by Kwame Nkrumah: He was a gifted speaker with good organisational skills. He was also friendly to people from all walks of life, including school leaders, ex-service men, traders and the jobless. He gave new life to politics of Ghana and mobilised people which led to early independence and decolonisation of Ghana.

The influence of United Nations Organisation: As a new international peace keeping body, it pressurised former colonial masters including Britain to speed up independence for the colonised states. In Ghana, it gathered moral, financial and military assistance as a way of making decolonisation a success.

Colonial exploitation of resources: Most of the African natives were not satisfied with the exploitation of the natural resources by the British. They were also unhappy that most of cash crops such as coffee and cocoa fetched low prices. Moreover, the bulk of mining profit went to European shareholders instead of being used to develop their countries. This formed Ghana’s economic grievances that gave them a basis to react against colonial power.

2. DECOLONISATION IN KENYA Kenya became a British colony in 1895 until 1963 when she attained independence. Nationalism in Kenya took both peaceful and violent means. The Kikuyu used armed resistance while other tribes negotiated while others tribes negotiated. All these efforts led to independence 1963 with a big role played by Jomo Kenyatta.

Causes for decolonisation in Kenya

Colonial exploitative policies: The British, in trying to increase their earnings in Kenya, grabbed farms in the Kenyan highlands and the Rift Valley areas for cash crop production. This was followed by forced labour


on plantation farms and homesteads. This annoyed Kenyans who began independence struggles that led to decolonisation by 1961.

Desire for political independence: The British dominated Kenya’s political, social and economic sectors which had a limiting the powers of the traditional rulers. After formation of the colonial administration, all top government positions like governors and commissioners were dominated by the British excluding Africans who were given lower levels only. This was widely resented, raising nationalistic feelings. This, too, led to decolonisation in Kenya.

The influx of white settlers in Kenya: After World War II, many white settlers relocated to Kenya where they displaced locals, took their land and set up permanent residence. This made the locals to be suspicious, making them to rise up against the British in order to fight for decolonisation.

The formation of political parties: In order to unite and mobilise the masses with ease, nationalists like Jomo Kenyatta, Tom Mboya and Eliud Mathu formed political parties such as Kenya African National Union (KANU) and Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU). These parties spread nationalistic feelings, eventually leading to decolonization.

The role played by 1945 Lancaster Conference: The outcome of this conference stimulated nationalistic feelings. Nationalists like Jomo Kenyatta attended it and adopted the slogans used during the conference like “self government now” and “Mass action now”. Upon his return to Kenya from the conference, he put to use the Pan African principles, leading to decolonisation of Kenya.

The role of the media: Kenyan elites formed newspapers like Muigwithania, which were used to circulate nationalistic feelings among them so as to fight for their self rule. This was in addition to radio Cairo in Egypt and Radio Accra in Ghana that used to spread nationalistic ideas among the Kenyan, leading to decolonisation.

Role of western education: Many Kenyans like Jomo Kenyatta, Tom Mboya, Oginga Odinga acquired missionary education. This sharpened their reasoning and critical sense, they studied about wars of independence like American Revolution, democracy which encouraged them to fight for their independence hence decolonisation.

The role of Mau-Mau rebellion in 1952: Mau Mau was an armed struggle started by the Kenyans against the British. The rebellion started in areas dominated by the Kikuyu under Kikuyu leadership. It acted as an eye opener to the British, who were required to speed up independence for Kenyans. Although independence was not granted


immediately, the rebellion played a key role in decolonization, which eventually came in 1961.

The formation of UNO: The United Nations Organisation’s charter emphasised the right to self-governance for all people around the world. It also supported nationalists militarily and financially. Kenyan nationalist therefore used this provision to pressurize the British to grant independence to Kenyans.

The independence of India 1947: India’s attainment of independence was a big blessing to decolonisation in Kenya. India’s Prime Minister Nehru supported Kenyan nationalists in their struggle for independence through military, financial and good will to fight colonialism.

The influence of 2nd World War: The war had a big impact on decolonisation in Kenya. Upon arrival from the war, Kenyan ex-servicemen formed political parties and propagated nationalistic ideas. The soldiers who took part in the war encouraged locals to fight against the Europeans because they realized that it was possible to defeat them. With increased demand for independence, Kenyans finally achieved decolonisation.

The role of Swahili language: This was widely known to all and acted as a medium of communication as well as a uniting factor for Kenyans from all walks of life. Intellectuals, urban dwellers and villagers, all united by a common language, united against decolonisation in Kenya.

Unfair political representations: Kenyans were excluded from various administrative organs, including parliament and colonial executive councils. Since they were the majority yet not fairly represented, they united with a nationalistic feeling, leading to decolonisation.

The independence enjoyed by other African countries: These included independence of Libya in 1951, Morrocco and Tunisia in 1956, Ghana in 1957 and Congo in 1960. This made Kenyans to unite against the British oppressors leading to decolonisation of Kenya.

Role played by trade unions: The formation of labor organizations played a big role in sensitizing and creating awareness among workers about their rights. For example in 1939, trade unions organised strikes against colonial employers. In 1947, Chege Kibachia, the trade union leader led a strike in Mombasa. Although he was later imprisoned, he had already set in motion the process of decolonisation of Kenya.

5.3. EFFECTS OF DECOLONISATION IN AFRICA


The decolonisation of African continent had far reaching consequences which were both positive and negative.

It led to acquisition of independence by African states. Africans liberated themselves from the hands of foreign rule.

It stopped the colonial exploitative policies in Africa including forced labour, land alienation and forced cash crop production.

It led to self-esteem and pride among Africans due to getting a chance to fully participate in the running of their own affairs.

Self governance has enabled countries such as South Africa, Nigeria, Egypt and Kenya to attain fast growing economies in Africa.

With the departure of colonialists, Africans got back their land. It led to the reestablishment of social-cultural institutions that had

collapsed due to colonial interference. It opened space for good governance based on democracy and

constitutionalism which was not there previously.

Negative effects It has led to continued indirect colonial influence in African affairs,

popularly known as neo-colonialism. It led to rise of dictators in Africa. For instance, most post independent

governments became dictatorial because they were formed based on revenge and reward for those who agitated for independence, for example the first and second republics in Rwanda.

Many African economies still depend on their colonial masters for market of their goods. In return, Africa has been turned as a dumping ground for European inferior manufactured goods.

It made some African leaders to become too dictatorial due to lack of foreign influence. Examples of such leaders include Kamuzu Banda of Malawi, Iddi Amin of Uganda and Mobutu SeseSeko of Congo.

Many economies in Africa have remained backwards. This has been attributed to defective production where they produce what they cannot consume and consume what they cannot produce.


UNIT VI. ANALYSE THE 1789 FRENCH REVOLUTION

Introduction

The French Revolution refers to the political, economic, religious and social changes that took place in France. The revolution was characterized by the removal of ancient regime and establishment of new social order based on ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity.

The French people started the revolution during the reign of King Louis XVI and his wife Queen Marie Antoinette. It started on 5th May 1789 and ended in 1799 when Napoleon rose to power.

6.1 Causes of the French Revolution

Social inequality By 1789, the French society was divided into 1st, 2nd and 3rd classes or estates, namely the nobles, the clergy and middle class with the peasants respectively. The king and the wealthy belonged to the 1st class. The clergy and the nobles were privileged classes who enjoyed privileges like owning


Key unit competence: Explain the origin, causes and consequences of the 1789 French revolution

land, dominating government posts, exemption from taxation and exemption from forced labour. They were also entitled to education and could be promoted into the army. Peasants were 3rd unprivileged class. They were 23 million out of 25 million but were denied all sorts of freedom, subjected to forced labour, over taxation, denied promotion in the army, were imprisoned without trial and denied access to higher education.The middle class (bourgoisie) was composed of teachers, lawyers, doctors, scientists and industrialists. Despite their education, they were excluded from top posts in the government and in the army.This made the French to begin a revolution against King Louis XVI to bring equality of all people before the law.

The nature of the Ancient regime The ancient regime refers to the rule of the Bourbon monarchy due to its unfair political system. Some of the rulers of the ancient regime included Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Louis XV and Louis XVI. Their administration was characterised by:

o Dictatorship: Power rested into the hands of the king, for example, Louis XIV who could say things such as: “I am the state and the state is me”, “The thing is legal because I wish it”.

o Nepotism: Promotions in high government posts, the army and police was for the nobles and the clergy as opposed to peasants.

o Abuse of human rights: People got arrested under the arrest warrant of letter-de-cachet (arbitrary arrests without trial in courts of law).

o Corruption: State funds were embezzled by the clergy and nobles without a sense of shame.

o Lack of democracy: There was no election of leaders according to people’s choices in the French society. In fact, democracy was unheard of.

o Lack of a functional parliament: The French parliament had not functioned for a period of 175 years since 1614. People’s problems remained unsolved up to 1789.

o Absence of constitutionalism: There existed different codes of laws in different parts of the country. This led to a lot of confusion and raised a lot of concern among the peasants and middle class, who resorted to removing the ancient regime, causing the French revolution.

The character of King Louis XVI


King Louis XVI ruled from 1774 up to 1793 when he was tried and executed by revolutionary die-hards led by Robespierre. His weakness that led to the French revolution includes the following:

o He married a beautiful but less intelligent, arrogant and proud Marie Antoinette from Austria, a traditional enemy of France. Besides, she poorly advised the king hence committing blunders that resulted into the French Revolution.

o He involved France into useless wars like the American War of independence where France lost massively in terms of finance and human resources like soldiers. This too increased hatred towards him from the masses.

o The king lacked firmness and sometimes shade tears during hot debates. This made people to lose confidence in him, making a revolution inevitable.

o Louis XVI was responsible for the financial crisis that hit France due to corruption, embezzlement and extravagancy that characterised his reign. This created a revolutionary mood among the masses against him.

o He signed a free commercial treaty with Britain to allow her sell her goods in France untaxed. This led to collapse of local industries and generated a lot of hatred from the middle class who also joined the revolution against him.

Unfair land ownership system Land was unfairly distributed amongst the nobles and the clergy at the expense of the majority peasants. Peasants rented land from absentee landlords who exploited them. The church also owned 20% of the land that it rented to the peasants. This made peasants to stay temporarily on their landlords’ estates and so made them to begin the 1789 French revolution to end the serfdom.

Financial crisis By 1789, France was financially bankrupt which was caused by corruption, embezzlement of funds and American War of independence. There was also mismanagement and extravagance of the king and his wife as well as expulsion of financial ministers. All this led to French revolution as follows:

o King Louis XVI resorted to borrowing from the middle class, and later failed to pay. This raised a lot of hatred from the bourgeoisie who also joined revolutionaries to force him out of power.


o It led to undesirable economic conditions like unemployment and inflation which forced people to resort to a revolution.

Dismissal of financial ministers The dismissal of capable financial controllers including Necker and Turgot worsened the financial crisis in France. These had been appointed by the king to promote financial management. They had suggested reforms of taxing the wealth of the nobles and the clergy but were later expelled by the king upon the advice of the queen after they had attacked financial mismanagement at the palace.

The influence of philosophers These were great thinkers and intellectual giants who were highly educated. They put their ideas in writing and condemned the social, political and economic injustices that existed in the French society at that time. The major French philosophers included Voltaire, Montesquieu, Jean Jacques Rousseau and John Locke.

Unfair taxation system In France, the taxation system was unfair in a way that the poor, landless and unemployed peasants paid a lot of taxes like salt tax, land tax and tithes or church tax. The nobles and the clergy were exempted from these taxes. In addition to this, tax collectors were unfair where defaulters were flogged and imprisoned. This became a burden to the peasants forcing them to fight in the French revolution.

The American war of independence In 1776, a war of independence broke out in America where the thirteen American states which were under British control wanted their independence under the leadership of George Washington which ended in 1783. During this war, King Louis XVI sent military and financial assistance to the American nationalists. The reason behind this was to revenge to Britain that had defeated France in the famous Anglo- French War where France lost India and Canada to Britain.

This war led to financial crisis in France and also created revolutionary mood among the French ex-soldiers who came back with determination to get reforms in the French government that Louis XVI failed to implement. It is this that made Veterans of American revolution like Marquis De Lafayette to cooperate with revolutionaries against the king.


The influence of Britain

By 1789 Britain/England was regarded as the most democratic state in the whole world. She had a constitutional monarchy, a functional parliament and an independent judiciary. In addition to that, Britain had a stable economy based on industrialisation and modern agriculture. The French philosophers admired the British lifestyle and advocated for the same in France but King Louis kept a deaf ear about it. This fueled a revolutionary spirit in France which later graduated into a revolutionary movement by 1789.

The role and character of Marie Antoinette She was a wife to King Louis XVI. Her mother was Marie Theresa, the empress of Austria-Hungary. Marie Antoinette played a big role in the outbreak of the French Revolution as follows:

o Her origin: She was from Austria, a traditional enemy of France. Austria had played a role in assisting Britain during the seven years’ war where France lost India and Canada to Britain. This generated a lot of hatred for her from the French masses.

o She was arrogant and insensitive to the needs of the French masses. She abused the hungry masses that had come to ask the king to reduce the price of bread. She went ahead and stated: “Go and eat cakes if you cannot afford bread”. This made the peasants more violent than ever before and many joined the revolution against the king.

o She poorly advised the king on political matters. Marie Antoinette over involved herself in French politics. For example, she advised her husband to expel the financial ministers. She also had many political blunders which made by the king were attributed to poor advice of the queen which generated a lot of hatred for her.

o She was too extravagant. She is known to be one of the most extravagant ladies in history, for example, by buying four pairs of shoes per week, she had 2000 horses and also had 500 servants. All these were maintained using government funds which led to financial bankruptcy in France. This paved way for the outbreak of French Revolution.

The calling of estates general meeting


This was a meeting of all estate leaders in France. It was held in the hall of mirrors in Versailles. It was called by King Louis XVI so as to find the solutions to the financial crisis that had hit France as advised by Necker. It was attended by 308 clergy, 295 nobles and 621 peasants. The estate general meeting led to French revolution in the following way:

o It united the members of the 3rd estate from different parts of France who later exchanged ideas and finally began the revolution.

o It showed the weak character of the king after he was presented about 600,000 complaints, making him to cry in front of the masses instead of providing solutions. This made the masses to lose confidence in him hence the beginning of the revolution.

o The meeting was characterised by disagreements on sitting arrangements and voting procedures which the king failed to handle. This culminated into a revolution.

o It made the 3rd estate led by Count Mirabeau to declare itself into a national assembly after the king dissolved the meeting before providing the solutions to the masses. This marked the beginning of the French revolution.

6.2. The course of the 1789 French revolution

1. Rise of the third estate

In the May 5 meeting, the Third Estate began to mobilize support for equal representation and the abolishment of the noble veto – in other words, they wanted voting by head and not by status.

While all of the orders shared a common desire for fiscal and judicial reform as well as a more representative form of government, the nobles in particular were loath to give up the privileges they enjoyed under the traditional system.

2. Tennis court oath

By the time the Estates-General convened at Versailles, the highly public debate over its voting process had erupted into hostility between the three orders, eclipsing the original purpose of the meeting and the authority of the man who had convened it. On June 17, with talks over procedure stalled, the


Third Estate met alone and formally adopted the title of National Assembly; three days later, they met in a nearby indoor tennis court and took the so-called Tennis Court Oath (serment du jeu de paume), vowing not to disperse until constitutional reform had been achieved. Within a week, most of the clerical deputies and 47 liberal nobles had joined them.

3. The storming of the Bastille of July 14th, 1789

On June 12, as the National Assembly (known as the National Constituent Assembly during its work on a constitution) continued to meet at Versailles, fear and violence consumed the capital. Though enthusiastic about the recent breakdown of royal power, Parisians grew panicked as rumors of an impending military coup began to circulate. A popular insurgency culminated on July 14 when rioters stormed the Bastille fortress in an attempt to secure gunpowder and weapons; many consider this event, now commemorated in France as a national holiday, as the start of the French Revolution.

4. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

On August 4, the Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The document proclaimed the Assembly’s commitment to replace the ancient regime with a system based on equal opportunity, freedom of speech, popular sovereignty and representative government. Drafting a formal constitution proved much more of a challenge for the National Constituent Assembly, which had the added burden of functioning as a legislature during harsh economic times.

Adopted on September 3, 1791, France’s first written constitution echoed the more moderate voices in the Assembly, establishing a constitutional monarchy in which the king enjoyed royal veto power and the ability to appoint ministers. This compromise did not sit well with influential radicals like Maximilien de Robespierre, Camille Desmoulins and Georges Danton, who began drumming up popular support for a more republican form of government and for the trial of Louis XVI.

5. Women’s March on Versailles (1789)

Women in Paris are mad about bread prices and Louis XVI’s detachment, so they march on Versailles so that they can take part in the Revolution too. A mob of women from Paris with weapons forced Louis XVI to leave the comfort of Versailles to go to Paris.


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women's_March_on_Versailles

6. Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)

The National Assembly doesn’t like the church having power, so they use this opportunity to assert their authority over the clergy. The clergy has to swear loyalty to the state, give up land, and be paid by the state so that they have a duty not only to God but also the nation of France

7. Flight of Royal Family to Varennes (1791)

Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette want to gather forces from the countryside to regain power through a counterrevolution. Louis XVI tries to run from Paris, but he is recognized and stopped in Varennes, so he fails and also disgraces himself as trying to run away from the French people. Even though Louis XVI tried to make it sound like he was kidnapped, he completely loses the French people’s trust and is set to face trial.

On January 21, 1793, it sent King Louis XVI, condemned to death for high treason and crimes against the state, to the guillotine; his wife Marie-Antoinette suffered the same fate nine months later.

8. Reign of Terror

Following the king’s execution, war with various European powers and intense divisions within the National Convention ushered the French Revolution into its most violent and turbulent phase.

In June 1793, the Jacobins seized control of the National Convention from the more moderate Girondins and instituted a series of radical measures, including the establishment of a new calendar and the eradication of Christianity. Many of the killings were carried out under orders from Robespierre, who dominated the draconian Committee of Public Safety until his own execution on July 28, 1794.

i) THE CAUSES OF REIGN OF TERROR IN FRANCE:

The death of Mira beau (April, 1791.)The death of Mira beau in 1791 had deprived the revolutionary France a true parent, soul and spirit. His death led to power struggle and reign of terror in France. He had been one of the most outstanding revolutionary leaders since 1789 when the revolution started.


https://www.google.com/search?q=Flight+of+Royal+Family+to+Varennes&oq=Flight+of+Royal+Family+to+Varennes&aqs=chrome..69i57.369j0j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

http://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/civil-constitution-of-the-clergy/

The formation of political clubs;

In 1792, many political parties have been formed which led to outbreak of reign of terror in France. These clubs among others included the Jacobin club under Robespierre, Girondin led by Murato and the Cordilier which was also under leadership of Danton. This political clubs and their leaders had different ideologies and actually had hatred for one another that built foundation for reign of terror in France.

The influence of the émigrés:

Émigrés were the nobles and clergy who fled out of France when revolution was in motion. They went to countries like Austria, Russia, and Prussia etc and began asking for military assistance from these countries to come back to fight the revolutionaries and to restore a king back to power. In 1792, they had mobilized over 20,000 troops in the boarder of Austria and France. This forced Murato to murder over 1500 suspected royalist in prison, hence, causing reign of terror

The declaration of rights of man:

The declaration of rights of man that were confirmed by the 1791 constitution also created a period of violence. It made France men mad under emotion of excitement of freedom. There was lack of conduct, general norms and guideline. Instead people set up personal self regards and principles where by everyone acted his own way claiming for personal rights hence, causing reign of terror.

Declaration of civil constitution of the clergy:

This caused the gap between Catholic Church leaders and revolutionaries to be wide. This led to hostility especially by the non juring priests (those who refused to take an oath. E.g., non juring priests defied orders of government and organized rebellions against it. These rebellions were seen in districts like Lavendee and were organized by Catholic leaders. These rebellions could not be suppressed peacefully, hence, leading to reign of terror in France.

The death of King Louis and his wife:

The murder of King Louis threatened the whole Europe and it made all the monarchs in Europe to become enemies of the French revolution. It made revolution to be an international matter and concern of all powers in Europe.


European powers therefore, declared war against France and inviting reign of terror in France. The fact that the whole king would be killed by revolutionaries shows that the life of an ordinary French man was surely worthless.

Economic crisis in France:

France experienced inflation, unemployment, and shortage of basic necessities were very common in France. This was because there was wide spread smuggling and hoarding by the business men. Business men were therefore, accused of sabotaging leading to massive destruction and looting of their property and commodities, this led to economic terror in France.

The weakness of King Louis xvi:

The king refused to accept the reforms proposed by the revolutionaries. He stubbornly refused to sign the document of the declaration of rights of man, the civil constitution of the clergy; he dismissed Necker and provoked violence from the revolutionaries. He even made attempts to suppress revolutionaries using foreign army. To make matters worse, the attempt of his flight to Varennes made him be referred to as a traitor and some documents against revolution were discovered in his pocket during his arrest at the border with Austria. This led to reign of terror in France.

The need to export the revolutionary ideas:

The revolutionaries had an ambition to carry revolutionary ideas to other countries. The first coalition was made comprising of Britain, Austria, Russia and Holland in 1793.They invaded France, defeated France and occupied towns like Verdun. This made revolutionaries to turn on suspects and those who never showed interest in the revolution were killed i.e., over 1000 royalists were butchered.

ii) EFFECTS OF REIGN OF TERROR

Loss of lives:

The reign of terror led to massive loss of lives in France. It’s estimated that about 17,000 people were guillotined and this included high level persons


like King Louis and his wife Antoinette, Robespierre, Danton, and other persons of high profile were put to death.

Destruction of property:

Besides, there was destruction of property and infrastructure in France. This includes Hotel Deville and the Bastille prison which were destroyed by the mob. Several castles and mansions including property were attacked and destroyed by the revolutionaries.

Economic decline:

There was general economic decline that arose from unstable political atmosphere. Inflation, unemployment famine and starvation reached their highest levels during the reign terror. Many industries were also destroyed which affected the French economy.

Wars with other nations:The reign of terror brought war between France and other neighbouring nations. Countries like Britain and Russia formed a coalition in 1793 and invaded France. This was because they were scared by massive loss of lives including the king and his wife Marie Antoinette. The revolutionaries also wanted to export the ideas of the French revolution to neighbouring nations which was opposed by other states leading to wars.

Rise of Napoleon to power:

The reign of terror contributed to the rise of Napoleon I to power in France. He was the young artillery officer who gained experience and became popular when he suppressed the royalists uprising at Port Toulon. Besides, the reign of terror led to the disappearance of important senior officers and politicians which opened military and political space for Napoleon to rise to power in France by 1799.

Exile of nobles and clergy:

The fear of the guillotine and the mob justice led to self exile of several nobles and clergy. They fled. They fled to neighbouring states like Austria, Prussia, and from where they became Émigrés. They regrouped and planned to attack France. The émigrés organized themselves into fighting units and asked for assistance from these countries.


Rise of directory Government:The social, economic destructions caused by reign of terror paved way for the rise of Directory Government in France in 1795. It was instituted in 1795 as a full stop to the destructive reign of terror in France and to end dictatorship in France.

End of political parties:The reign of terror led to the downfall of political clubs and political pluralism in France. Before the reign terror, there were some political parties that were formed such as The Jacobin under Robespierre, Cordllier under Danton and Girondin led by Murato. But the terror machinery killed all the leaders of these political Parties in France.

Other kings became more despotic:Outside France, the reign of terror made conservative kings more conservative. e.g., the despotic kings of Austria, Russia and Prussia became more despotic to safe guard themselves from the terrorist actions of the French men. Even pit, the prime minister of Britain expelled all suspicious characters and passed an act of Treason.

Spirit of Republicanism:Lastly, the reign of terror strengthened Republicanism and the rise of Republican Government in France in 1792. The violence speeded up the collapse of the Bourbon Monarchy and the execution of King Louis xvi was the last even that ended Bourbon monarchy rule in France. The reign of terror made France a Republican government up to now.

9. The Directory Government (1795)

France is becoming too safe to be willing to submit itself to the Reign of Terror and Robespierre’s insane spree of executions, so it has a counterrevolution against the radical Jacobins. Ironically, Robespierre is executed at the guillotine just like so many of his rivals before him, and the more conservative Bourgeoisie form the Directory, a new government with an executive branch of five directors and a bicameral legislature, and unleash a White Terror where suspicious Jacobins are imprisoned and killed. France can’t seem to make up its mind on what kind of government it wants, and while this one is moderately successful, it’s not strong enough to stand up to all the threats in France right now


https://www.britannica.com/topic/Directory-French-history

https://www.britannica.com/event/Thermidorian-Reaction

10. Napoleon Bonaparte Stages a Coup d’Etat

The Directory is losing power and many French citizens wants a single leader again to restore a sense of order and national pride, so they decide this diminutive 30-year-old war hero Napoleon is the perfect candidate. Conservative members of the government led by Abbe Sieyes, a member of the Directory, help stage a coup d’etat so that Napoleon becomes the first consul of France’s new consulate government where they hope he’ll be an easily maneuverable puppet and figurehead. This Napoleon guy ends up being a lot more than the Directory signed up for, and in no time becomes Emperor of France and almost takes over Europe

6.3. Effects of the French revolutionSome of the effects of the French Revolution were as follows:

The feudal privileges and despotism were abolished. Land that belonged to the Catholic Church and the nobles was nationalised and given to the landless peasants at cheaper prices.

It led to the declaration of rights of man and citizens on August 27th 1789. The document abolished the social class divisionism which had existed in France during the Bourbon monarchy (ancient regime), bringing equality among the French citizens. It also declared that all men were equal before the law.

The revolution ended the rule of Bourbon monarchy that had ruled France for four hundred years. This was fulfilled after the death of King Louis XVI in 1793.

It ended dictatorship and despotism in France. This was after formation of a new constitution which rolled despotism under the political carpet.

It laid the foundation stone for the unification of Italian and German states. This was due to the destruction of the great Austrian empire by Napoleon under France and the spread of revolutionary ideas in such states. This aided their future unification strategies in 1870 and 1871 respectively.

It led to the introduction of multiparty politics in France. During the course of French Revolution, different political clubs emerged including Girondins, Feuillants, Jacobins and Cordeliers. Though they were short lived, they gave an example of multi-party politics in France.

The revolutionaries introduced reforms in education system. Polytechnic schools were built to train and produce skilled labour. Secondary schools were built and old ones were rehabilitated which promoted efficiency in the education sector.


It resurrected the French parliament. This had been inactive for a period of 175 years, only to be revived after the French Revolution. From here henceforth, people were able to vote parliamentary members during the directory government.

The French Revolution ushered in constitutional rule in France. During the Bourbon monarchy, there was no constitution. However, the revolutionary government formed a new constitution for France in 1791 that was later modified in 1793 and 1795.

It led to a poor relationship between France and the rest of Europe. France got involved into wars, and kept her on a collision course with her neighbours between 1793 and 1814.

The revolutionary tri-colour flag replaced the white flag which was a symbol of despotism during the Bourbon monarchy.

The royal guards of the Bourbon monarchy were replaced by the revolutionary army known as the national guards responsible for the security of all citizens.

It led to the exportation of revolutionary ideas to Italy in the famous Italian campaign. These ideas also spilled over to Egypt, Germany and so many European states.

It led to the occurrence of other future revolutions in Europe such as 1830 and 1848 revolutions on the European continent.

It forced many people into exile in Austria, Russia, Prussia and Italy where they came to be known as the émigrés.

The French Revolution led to freedom of worship. The monopoly of the Catholic Church was removed, which saw many religions coming in.

It led to disorganization of the map of Europe. This was done by France in her expansionist policies and conquering of various states like Spain, Naples, Germany and Italian states.


UNIT VII. CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

Introduction

The First World War was the most explosive and bloody war mankind had ever experienced by 1914. The war took place in Balkan states of Europe. It began on 28th July 1914 and ended on 11th November 1918 when Germany surrendered. This war was fought between two camps, that is, the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. The Triple Entente was made of Britain, Russia and France while The Triple Alliance was led by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. This war broke out and began in Balkan region following the double murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie at Sarajevo, the capital of


Key unit competence: To be able to explain the causes and effects of the First World War

Bosnia. They were assassinated at 10 am by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian student.

7.1. Causes of the First World War

i) Long term causes The Alliance system: This was started by Otto Von Bismarck after

Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871. His intention was to isolate France not to wage a war of revenge against Germany. Dual Alliance (Germany and Austria-Hungary) was formed in 1879. Italy joined in 1882. This later transformed to Triple Alliance. Britain and France also formed Dual Entente in 1904, Russia joining in 1907. This transformed to Triple Entente. This left the world divided into two parallel camps that created tension, disorder and mistrust hence causing the First World War.

Arms race and naval competition: This was mainly between Germany and Britain. It was started by King Kaiser William II of Germany. He manufactured hard weapons and recruited large armies up to 4.3 million soldiers. Britain produced 18 dreadnoughts (battle ship) while Germany produced 9. Most states in Europe heavily invested in industries. This arms race and naval competition put European peace at risk leading to outbreak of World War 1.

The role of the press/media: The newspapers, radio presenters and journalists exaggerated and magnified the fear, suspicion and mistrust among the European masses. Their major aim was to earn money. For example, London Times left British masses intoxicated with hatred against Germany. Different European powers were forced to join rival camps that led to World War 1.

The aggressive and arrogant character of King Kaiser William II: He strengthened the military department of Germany that was a big threat to Britain and France. He was naturally arrogant. He had a negative attitude towards the English race. He also broke the 1839 London Treaty and declared war on France and Russia. He disagreed with fellow statesmen in disarmament Conferences of 1899 and 1907. This brought fear and tension among European leaders, leading to World War 1.

The rise of rival imperialism and economic jealousy: By 1906, areas of peaceful occupation were no longer there. Most European


countries started using force to remove one another in order to have territories in Africa and Balkans for economic benefits, raw materials, markets and fresh areas for investment of surplus capital. This led to conflicts which later exploded during World War 1.

The Balkan wars of 1912-1913: After Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece had attained their Self-rule (independence) from the Turkish Empire, conflicts and crushes began in the Balkans. In 1912, these independent states declared war on Turkey and defeated her. This victory increased Serbia’s’ military capacity in the Balkan and sealed her relationship with Russia in Europe. This victory also led to Austria the enemy of Serbia to be annoyed. As a result, it intensified enmity, suspicion and tension between Austria-Hungary and Serbia leading to the Sarajevo incident.

The effects of Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871: In this war, Germany defeated France and took Alsace and Lorraine. It resulted into the unification of Italy and Germany. Germany became the new land master of Europe at the expense of France. This led France to begin nursing a way of revenge against Germany. Later, Bismarck started the Alliance system that destroyed the global peace.

The absence of international organization: By 1914, Europe and the rest of the world had no international peace keeping body to control the events of the world. The international court of arbitration at The Hague had been very inefficient and unable to solve world disputes. Therefore, World War 1 was inevitable because of conflicts and clashes.

The growth of nationalism in Europe: By the beginning of the 20th

Century, nationalism had grown in Europe. This was so much that countries could only express it by forming clandestine movements such as the Pan-Slavism, the greater Serbian movement, Pan-Germanism and the French revenge movements. These were aimed at revenging against Germany because of defeat in 1871. This created greater hostilities in Europe. Each had to struggle for her rights and privileges which resulted to World War 1.

ii) Immediate cause:

Sarajevo incident The most immediate cause was the Sarajevo double murder incident in June 1914. On 28th June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian


throne and his wife Sophia, were assassinated at 10:00 am by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian student of the Black Hand movement at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia

On July 23rd 1914, Austria was forced to send a harsh ultimatum to Belgrade, the capital of Serbia, which was to be replied in 48 hours. The ultimatum had the following requirements: a) Suppress all anti Austria activities or propaganda. b) Dismiss anti Austria officials in the administration and in the military

sector. c) Allow Austrian officials to enter into Serbia to investigate Serbia’s guilt in

the murder. However, Serbia accepted the first two and rejected the third one. Austria decided to declare war against Serbia on July 28th 1914, leading to outbreak of World War 1.

7.2. Effects of the First World War

7.2.1. The following were some of the effects of the First World War: There was massive loss of lives. People who perished were estimated

to be about 13 million on the front. About 10 million people were left with permanent disability.

The destruction of property and infrastructure was experienced as a result of World War 1. There among others included hospitals, shops, industries, roads, bridges, residential areas, hotels, institutions, administrative offices and railways.

It led to women emancipation in Europe and finally worldwide. This was as a result of death of a big number of men during the war. Women and children were allowed to work in factories, public offices, schools, shops and hospitals.

Germany and her best allies were defeated leading to her disintegration. Germany was divided into two parts, that is, West Germany and East Germany.

It led to change of governments in Europe. For instance, Italy fascist regime under Mussolini rose. In Germany, Kaiser William II fled into exile to Holland, who was replaced with Hindenburg in the Weimar republic.

The war resulted into signing of various treaties between victor powers and defeated powers. For example, the 1919 Versailles Peace


Treaty was signed between Germany and victor powers, mainly Britain, France, Russia and Italy.

The war left European economies in shambles. A lot of resources were channeled in war industries. This resulted into heavy bombings, resulting into destruction of infrastructure. This led to the 1913-1929 economic crises.

It led to territorial changes especially in continental Europe. France gained back Alsace and Lorraine while Germany lost her colonies in Africa like Togo, Cameroon and Rwanda. Italy gained Trieste and Trientino from Austria.

World War 1 contributed to the rise of a democratic republican government known as Weimar Republic in Germany.

The war led to improvement in education. Science and technology improved in Europe which further led to the spread of industrial revolution.

World War 1 led to massive displacement of people in continental Europe. Over 21 million people were displaced from their homes, becoming refugees or internal displaced persons. After the war, most people were settled in camps, mainly in Western Europe.

World War 1 left a number of people as prisoners of war. The allies captured many Austria-Hungary, German, Bulgarian and Turkish soldiers as prisoners of war. Likewise, the central powers were able to capture many Russians, British, French and Belgians. Russia alone had over 427,000 prisoners of war.

7.2.2. Versailles peace treaty

a) Introduction

The Treaty of Versailles was the primary treaty produced by the Paris Peace Conference at the end of World War I. It was signed on June 28, 1919, by the Allied and associated powers and by Germany in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles and went into effect on January 10, 1920. The chief people responsible for the Treaty of Versailles were U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, French Premier Georges Clemenceau, and British Prime Minister David Lloyd George. Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando was a delegate but was shut out from the decision making.

b) Aims of the Versailles treaty

To maintain lasting peace in the world


https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vittorio-Orlando

https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Lloyd-George

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georges-Clemenceau

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Woodrow-Wilson

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Woodrow-Wilson

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Palace-of-Versailles

https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Allied-Powers-international-alliance

https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I

https://www.britannica.com/event/Paris-Peace-Conference

https://www.britannica.com/event/Paris-Peace-Conference

To look for ways of punishing Germany and her allies To promote political integrity of independent states To reduce production of dangerous weapons To redraw the map of Europe To set up a body for maintaining international peace

c) Provisions/terms of the Versailles peace settlement Germany was entirely blamed for causing world war I Germany was to reduce her soldiers from 4,000,000 to 100,000 soldiers She was stopped from having submarines Germany was forced to pay war reparation of 6.5 billion pounds Germany lost her overseas territories in Africa like Rwanda, Togo,

Cameroon, Tanganyika and Namibia. Germany lost Alsace and Lorraine to France The League of Nations was formed in 1920 as a new international peace

keeping body Germany was not allowed to have tanks and was restricted to only six

second hand battle ships

d) The strength of the Versailles treaty

The treaty was realistic because it helped in establishment of an international peace keeping body, that is, League of Nations which was to maintain world peace

According to Versailles treaty, Germany aggression was put on probation The Versailles treaty was realistic because some nations like Poland were

given independence The Versailles treaty was realistic because it reduced the strength of

Germany by taking away Germany’s overseas territories The Versailles treaty brought diplomatic understanding that had failed in

Europe before, during and after World War I. The Versailles treaty came up with the disarmament policy, and although

it was only applied on defeated powers, it helped in maintaining world peace

The Versailles settlement made France to regain Alsace and Lorraine which it had lost in Franco-Prussian war, which reduced France’s need for revenge

Versailles settlement granted neutrality to international water bodies which reduced the possibility of conflicts that would cause another war

The Versailles settlement made arrangements for exchange of prisoners between the defeated especially Germany and allied powers.


e) The weakness/failures of the Versailles treaty

The treaty was too harsh on Germany in terms of disarmament where Germany had no chance for explanations, which led to the rise of Adolph Hitler, who began arms race that led to World War II

The financial provision of the treaty was unfair, that is, 6,5 billion pounds to be paid by Germany after it was defeated, after taking away its territories, was unfair. This led to unemployment, economic depression, rise of Hitler hence World War II

The composition of the treaty was also unfair, that is, the treaty comprised of the triple entente members while triple alliance members were not invited and indeed that’s why it became unfair

The chairmanship and place of the conference was also unfair. France being the host, and George Clemenceau who hated Germany made the treaty to be unfair.

The time of signing the treaty was also unfair, that is, January 1919 was not good time because people’s wish at that time was that Germany must pay, and Kaiser William II should be hanged because at that time, some people were still traumatized and remembered what they had lost in terms of income and even their loved ones

The war guilty clause was also unfair, whereby Germany took the whole blame for causing World War I which was unfair, and a good treaty would have been the one where all countries were blamed but not blaming Germany only.

The territorial adjustment with the aim of redrawing the map of Europe made Germany to lose 2.5 million people in the creation of Poland, 2 million people in creation of Yugoslavia and 3 million people in creation of Czechoslovakia, which made future trouble possible because Hitler used this protest to invade Poland which led to World War II.

The confiscation of German territories in Africa was seen as a way of making victorious powers rich, which made Germany aggressive leading to World War II

The treaty led to a very weak foundation for the League of Nations as an international peace keeping body. But it did not provide the league of nations with an army to fight against future aggressors

f) Germany rejected the Versailles peace settlement due to the following reasons:


The treaty was simply dictated on Germany which had no chance for explanation since she was excluded from peace negotiations

The treaty only condemned and blamed Germany for the outbreak of the First World War

The war reparation of 6.5 billion pounds was impossible for Germany to pay alone with her colonies taken by other countries

The disarmament policy was also unfair because it was only Germany to be disarmed while other European powers were busy manufacturing weapons

The loss of territories in Europe and in Africa was rejected by the Germans because it was their source of raw materials and markets, hence leading to their economic decline

The Germans rejected the Versailles peace treaty because it was monopolized by three leaders who had intense hatred for Germany

The Versailles peace treaty distributed German nationals to different states of Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. This violated the principle of nationalism which later encouraged Hitler to build the German empire by starting from Austria and Czechoslovakia, Poland which led to the outbreak of the Second World War

The venue where the treaty was signed, in the Hall of mirrors was where the German empire was proclaimed in 1871. For this reason, the treaty was considered as the French revenge by most Germans

The treaty was signed under the chairmanship of George Clemenceau of France who had been Germany’s enemy since the 1870-1871 Franco-Prussian war.

7.2.3.League of Nations a) Introduction

The League of Nations (LON) was an international peace keeping body formed after the First World War. It officially came into existence on January 10, 1920 with its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.

b) Objectives of the League of Nations

To maintain international peace by solving international conflicts peacefully

To grant independence to member states To promote inter-state cooperation To enforce disarmament of both victorious and defeated countries


To promote and enforce international justice To promote social welfare of member states by solving problems

created by the world war Ic) Organs/structure of League of Nations

1. The assembly: This consisted of member states and each state was represented and had one vote in the assembly. They were 24 members, but in 1926, the number increased to 55 after including the defeated powers.

2. The council of the League: this was the small body that contained four (4) permanent members, that is, France, Britain, Italy and Japan; and 4 other non-permanent members which were elected by the assembly for three (3) years, but the number increased from four (4) to nine (9) by 1926.The permanent members were supposed to be 5, but USA refused to be a member because of her isolationist policy.

3. The Permanent Court of International Justice: this consisted of 15 judges of different nationalities and it was centered at Hague in Holland, and its function was to deal with conflicts among countries.

4. The Secretariat: this dealt with the League’s paper work like preparing agenda, writing resolutions and reports.

5. Commissions: these were a number of commissions that dealt with specific problems like the League of Nations’ Mandate commission that looked after mandated states, which were colonies of Germany in Africa. There were other commissions concerned with workers (international labor organization), concerned with women, children, health and refugees.

d) Achievements of the League of Nations

1. The League of Nations achieved success in dealing with matters of human welfare, for example, the international labor organization (ILO) was formed to improve general conditions of workers.

2. The League of Nations recorded success in looking after refugees. World War I had left a problem of caring and settling millions of prisoners of war, and by 1934, the League of Nations had provided assistance to people of such category.

3. League of Nations recorded success in health organization which was concerned with control of diseases, where it helped in reporting epidemic diseases, their spread and finding ways of controlling them. It also organized campaigns against malaria, leprosy, rabies and syphilis


4. The League of Nations recorded success in maintaining peace by solving political conflicts that involved smaller powers

5. The league of nations monitored and controlled mandated states by sending questionnaires to mandated states asking them how they are controlled by the new colonial masters

6. The League of Nations made an achievement in disarming Germany which helped in reducing Germany’ supremacy.

7. The League of Nations effectively solved the problem of slavery and drug trafficking by setting up anti-slavery commissions and encouraging member states to cooperate in stopping slave trade.

8. The financial commission of League of Nations succeeded in negotiating for loans for the reconstruction of the economy of Austria after World War I.

e) Weaknesses/ failure of League of Nations

1. The League of Nations failed to disarm victorious powers like Britain, France and Russia which forced Hitler to revive Germany’s militarism, thus leading to World War II;

2. The league of nations failed to form a joint international army that would have been used in checking the activities of dictators;

3. The league of nations failed to check and control the activities of dictators like Adolph Hitler of Germany and Benito Mussolini of Italy which led to World War II;

4. The league of nations failed to handle conflicts that involved strong powers, for example, it failed to control the conflicts between Japan and China, conflicts between Italy and Ethiopia;

5. The league of nations failed to win the membership of USA, whose military and economic strength would have helped the league in controlling the dictators;

6. The League of Nations failed to put in place precautions against membership and withdrawal of nations, where countries were free to enter and withdraw without any penalty and in 1935, many countries had withdrawn, which made the league very weak.

7. It failed to prevent the economic depression of 1929-1935 which had many negative effects like inflation, unemployment, famine, etc in many countries;

8. It failed to follow up the payment of the war indemnity imposed on Germany which Hitler stopped paying immediately after rising to power in 1933;


9. It failed to establish financial sources of its own and depended on handouts from its member states which sometimes delayed consequently delaying its activities and interventions.

f) Problems faced by League of Nations Because of the following problems faced the League of Nations, it failed to preserve peace in the inter-war period of 1920-1939:

Lack of international army that would have been used to fight dictators It was linked to the unpopular 1919 Versailles peace treaty The USA refused to join the LON although its foundation was proposed

and supported by the US president The great economic depression of 1929-1935 made it difficult for most

of the member states to meet their financial obligations to the league It lacked enough finances of its own which made it hard to execute its

duties properly and impartially It had no mechanism to control the entry and exit of the member

states The appeasement policy of France and Britain from 1935 which

allowed Adolph Hitler to expand German territory undermined the league’s operations and made it impossible to succeed

The League of Nations had no real world support because it appeared to be much centered in Europe.

Emergency of dictators like Adolph Hitler and Mussolini greatly undermined the programmes of the league of nations and ended up by invading other countries leading to the failure of League of Nations


UNIT VIII. BETWEEN TWO WARS

8.1 The world economic crisis of 1929 - 1933 This was a general economic decline in economic activities after World War I, characterized by low production, unemployment, low aggregate demand, low income, low prices, low investment and low economic activities.

8.1.2. Causes of the economic crisis of 1929 – 1933

1. The impact of World War I The war was very destructive in nature. Many industries were destroyed war. This affected the production of goods causing a scarcity of essential items. In addition, the War indemnity charged on the defeated powers like Germany, Hungary, Austria, Bulgaria and Turkey meant that the funds had to be diverted from the state businesses to pay for war costs of the victor powers. Due to this, factories had to close leading to a surge in unemployment. The aggregate demand went down, leading to the economic crisis.

2. Domestic overproduction Due to mechanisation which was rewarded by high profits, American industries started producing many goods, causing to a pile up of stocks. With no market to sell to, industries started incurring storage costs. They soon found that they could neither produce nor keep the labour force they had, leading to job cuts. This checked the volume tones of goods produced by the industries. This also contributed to the economic crisis.

3. Poor distribution in income


Key unit competence: To be able to explain the causes and effects of the 1929 economic crisis and the rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe (Fascism and Nazism)

Most profits of industries were not equally shared by the workers, who were major consumers of the products. Between 1923 and 1929, the average wage bill rose by 8% while the industrial profit had risen by 72%. The employers were determined to continue taking huge profits while minding less on the workers. Workers refused to continue working; leading to the result was economic depression in the long run.

4. Collapse of international trade There was a general reduction in the level of international trade during and after World War I. During the war, Germany submarines sunk all the trade ships, crippling international trade. After the war, world trade still remained low because it took long for industries to be reconstructed.

5. The rise of young and weaker states after world War These states could not support themselves financially. The powerful countries of the world like U.S.A spent large sums of money giving loans and grants to the newly created countries formed after World War I, which included Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia and Iraq. These loans and grants reduced the production capacity of donor countries.

6. General decline in agriculture During and after World War I, there was a great rural-urban migration throughout the world, specifically in USA and other European countries. The result was a decline in the production of raw materials, which affected activities of Agro-based industries. Some factories had to close leading to unemployment and thus economic depression.

7. Failure of the League of Nations to carry out proper trade policy

Poor trade policy after World War I also contributed to the economic depression. The defeated powers were not allowed to export their products even though they could import goods from other bigger nations. They were not allowed to participate in the sale of military equipment, despite this being the age of military innovations. Bigger nations also avoided transactions with smaller nations. This forced every country to practice trade protectionism that resulted into world economic depression.

8. Increased population with limited welfare services After the war, there was rapid population growth in countries such as France, Germany and USSR. The rate of population growth was higher than the rate of economic development which resulted into unemployment. There was a


low purchasing power due to unemployment. This weakened the internal markets, reducing the government revenue, thereby contributing to the economic depression.

9. The Wall Street crash of 24th October 929The effects of the Wall Street crash contributed to the great slump experienced between 1929 and 1935. When people in Europe got the news about the Wall Street crash, they quickly withdrew their savings. The banks did not provide any reassurance either, which blew the issue out of proportion. All investment plans were put off. This contributed to the economic depression.

10. High interest rate charged on foreign aid Financial aid which USA had granted to European countries involved in World War I caused economic losses in European countries. Such countries included Italy, France, Britain and Belgium, which wanted to defeat Germany. After 1918, they embarked on the payment of debts incurred during the war with high interest rate involved. From 1918 – 1930, such countries could not engage in any meaningful production which resulted into economic depression.

11. Reduced efficiency in the European labour force This came as a result of World War I where many able bodied people were killed. This affected efficiency in factory production. Inexperienced women and children got jobs in industries leading to the production of low quality goods that had little demand in world market.

8.1. 3 Effects of the 1929 - 1935 economic crisis

Economic effects

1. Trade protectionism (Economic nationalism) Economic protectionism is the economic policy of restraining trade between states (countries) through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, restrictive quotas, and a variety of other government regulations. Trade Protectionism further affected the international trade and relations. Due to reduced demand for goods, every country preserved their internal markets for the own products. Every country was on her own, in terms of trade relations, in a bid to fulfill the policy of economic nationalism.

2. The stock market wall crash sunk millions of dollars


This belonged to investors who had paid high prices for their shares anticipating higher profits. Some of these shares had been bought on credit. These investors registered terrible losses during the Wall Street crash.

3. Gold standards were neglected The economic depression made countries of Europe and U.S.A to abandon the gold standards of backing up their currencies. They opted to improve the exchange rate and provided the exchange rates on better terms of trade to all countries.

4. Closure of industries The economic depression led to collapse of industries which affected many sectors of the economy. Due to low purchasing power by many people in Europe, some factories had to be closed. The poor industrial performance also affected economic activities which were dependent on industries. The rate of investment came down which eventually affected the standards of living.

5. The fall in prices affected the production process Stores were full of surplus goods. Manufacturers stopped the production process. As a result, salaries could not be raised, workers were laid off and purchasing power lowered, contributing greatly to the economic depression.

6. The 1933 Economic Recovery Acts were instituted Under the scheme of Farmers Relief Acts, farmers were compensated with higher prices, especially those who had produced less output. These farmers were trying to solve the problem of overproduction which had been considered strong in the emergence of economic depression. The national Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 tried to maintain workers by provision of a permanent wages that was to come monthly.

7. It led to closure of banking institutions The news about the Wall Street Crash made many customers withdraw their savings from the Bank. This forced banks to close down as they could no longer continue bank operations without capital. Some of depositors’ funds had been used to purchase bank facilities and stock exchange shares. It became hard to pay off their customers in a short time.

8. It led to collapse of capital markets The economic depression led to collapse of industries and other capital markets. This was because industries were operating at a loss. Poor


industrial operations had led to the drastic fall of investments in both U.S.A and Europe. This lowered the living standards of the people.

Political effects

i) Hoovers’ Regime in USA became unpopular The US president Herbert Hoover, a Democrat, was widely blamed for all this economic suffering. Homeless Canadians who had failed to pay their house rents were accommodated in reserve camps called “Hoovervilles”. Franklin Roosevelt used this economic crisis to convince the masses to win the next elections. He repeatedly blamed Hoover for the Depression and worsening economy, winning the hearts of the electorate against the incumbent.

ii) It made the League of Nations unpopular After the period of massive suffering due to destructions of World War I, there came the economic depression. The League of Nations failed to provide immediate practical solutions to this deepening crisis. This made it unpopular among the people. It also became more unpopular partly due to the 1929 – 1934 economic depression.

Social effects

(i) New economic block were formed These were to overcome economic deepening trend in U.S.A and European states. These include SIETCO, EEC and later E.U. In 1933, The Scandinavian Countries formed OSLO block while Americans developed a regional integration between North and South America to combat the economic depressions.

(ii) It led widespread unemployment As the demand for factory products fell, wage payments became hard and workers had to be laid off. Industrial production in 1933 was only half of the 1929 total production. This left about 14 million people unemployed. There was a decline in the living standards of people both in America and Europe.

(iii) World aggression increased Powerful countries of the world undertook to solve their economic problems by launching aggressive expeditions on weaker countries to exploit their economies. An example is Japan which invaded China in 1931; Germany invaded Rhineland in 1934 while Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935. The aim was to open new markets outside their home countries and offset economic depression.


(iv) It aided the expansion of socialism in Germany The economic crisis provided an opportunity for the spread of socialism especially in Germany and other Balkan states. The economic crisis had been blamed on policies and ideologies of capitalism. The agitators for socialism used this opportunity to spread their ideas widely in Europe in countries like Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Germany and Russia.

8.1.4. How was the economic depression controlled?

Germany on her part attempted to solve the depression by violating the Versailles peace terms where she stopped paying the war indemnity and started serious industrialization thus solving the depression

World economic conference was held on Genoa in 1933 in which they resolved to remove obstacles to free trade and implementing a uniform tax on imports and exports

World powers attempted to solve the depression by using an aggressive policy where they invaded weak states so as to solve the problem of market for their goods

America depreciated the value of her dollar so as to increase the purchasing power

European countries formed regional economic integration, for example, the EEC (European Economic Community)

The gold standard system which had caused the depression was abandoned

Socio-economic reforms were also used to solve the depression, for example, agriculture and industrialization were modernized, and trade unions were given more powers to bargain for rights of workers

Powerful countries like Britain, France and USA started providing unemployment benefits to their nationals which was free money given to anybody above 18 years old for the purpose of surviving.

8.2. Totalitarian regimes in Europe Totalitarianism or totalitarian regime is a political system where the state recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible.

8.2.1.Fascism in Italy Fascism is a form of governance that came too prominent in the early 20th

Century in Europe.


The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I, before spreading to other European countries.

The original symbol of fascism in Italy under Benito Mussolini was the fasces. A fasces was an ancient Imperial Roman symbol of power carried by lictors in front of magistrates. It was made of a bundle of sticks featuring an axe, indicating power over life and death. In Italian language, fascism was “fascio,” means a group of superior and courageous characters.

It should be noted that after the First World War, fascism was used to refer to the groups fighting against the waves of communism. These groups were sponsored by the Italian well-to-do merchants who hated communism. In March 1919, Benito Mussolini became the moderator of “fascio” in the Italian town of Milan. By 1920, over 300,000 fascist disciples (believers) were already registered in the states of Romagna, Lombardy and Tuscany. Mussolini was the “high priest” of fascism. He led and conducted several acts of vandalism against the socialists and enemies of fascism.

Mussolini, with his “Black shirts” combatants, marched to Rome from Milan on October 28th 1922. King Victor Emmanuel III was forced to welcome him and form a broad based government with Mussolini as a prime minister.

a) Factors for the rise of Benito Mussolini and fascism in Italy

Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), an Italian dictator, rose to power in the wake of World War I as a leading proponent of Facism. Originally a revolutionary Socialist, he formed the military wing of the Fascist movement in 1919. On 29th October 1922, King Victor Emmanuel appointed Benito Mussolini Prime Minister of Italy.

The following are some of the factors that led to the rise of Benito Mussolini:

The negative effects of the First World War During the First World War, Italy lost about 600,000 people. It also experienced economic decline due to the destruction of industries by the Allied Forces. This made King Victor Emmanuel III unpopular and availed Mussolini’s fascism a fertile ground to mobilise the Italian masses.

Corruption and embezzlement of public funds


The ministers and other government officials took bribes and embezzled public funds shamelessly in broad daylight. This made King Victor Emmanuel unpopular hence soft landing for Mussolini and Fascism.

The influence of socialist (communist) party The rich middle class and businessmen supported Mussolini morally and financially. In return, Mussolini promised to destroy socialism, which earned him support and confidence during his rise to power.

The weakness of King Victor Emmanuel III King Victor Emmanuel III was extremely weak. He failed to solve the Italians problems that needed immediate attention. There was a problem of lawlessness, inflation, unemployment and violence. Mussolini took advantage of this weakness and criticised the government, aiding his rise to power.

Absence of unity among members of different political parties in Italy

Different political parties in Italy failed to merge against Mussolini and Fascism. In addition, there were disagreements between communists and non-communists. Prime Minister Giolitti convened a parliamentary elections and fascism gained 22 seats. As Fascism became famous in Italy, this encouraged Mussolini.

Benito Mussolini’s personality and oratory talent He was gifted by nature in making sensational and appealing speeches. He regularly made promises to the masses and showed them hope for better life in future. This aided him and fascism to rise to power.

The role of fascist terrorist groups He used a group of hooligans and law breakers that were jobless to bring chaos in Italy. This made democratic government unpopular, hence leading to his rise to power.

The disappointment that the Italian patriots got as a result of the 1919 Versailles Peace settlement/treaty

Italy joined Triple Entente in 1915 during World War I and was promised the territories of Trieste, Adalia and Trientino after the war. The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty poorly rewarded Italy. This prompted the masses to accuse the government of Victor Emmanuel III. This was an advantage to Mussolini and Fascism.

The May 1921 parliamentary elections


Before 1921 elections, it was only Mussolini and some few fascist members who were in parliament. The May 1921 elections increased the fascist representation to 35 in parliament. This was a big step forward for fascism as Mussolini gained courage to advocate for the downfall of King Victor Emmanuel III.

Extreme nationalism in Italy Mussolini promised to restore the Italian greatness and prestige especially the defeat of Italy in the Battle of Adowa in 1896 in Ethiopia. He promised the Italian masses to return Italy to the great days of the ancient Roman Empire. This gave Italians move hope and nationalistic heart.

Pope Pius XI and the Roman Catholic Church The pope mobilised the church to support fascism and Benito Mussolini whom argued would fight against communism.

The pope also campaigned against the monarchical government which had annexed the Papal States in 1871. Mussolini used this opportunity to rise to power.

The successful Fascist March to Rome in 1922 Mussolini mobilised the armed fascists called Black Shirts plus other supporters of fascism from all walks of life to march from Milan to Rome on 28th October 1922. This created a state of panic and forced King Victor Emmanuel III to welcome and appoint him the prime minister.

The Italian army and police forces They also contributed to the rise of fascism and Benito Mussolini to power. The army and police never intercepted or stopped Mussolini’s soldiers and other fascist supporters who were carrying out acts of intimidation against Mussolini’s opponents. This greatly helped Mussolini to rise to power.

The weakness of the League of Nations It lacked a standing army to protect the government of King Victor Emmanuel III. This encouraged Mussolini to intimidate and threaten the government of Victor Emmanuel III hence rising to power.

The Fascist propaganda Propaganda also contributed to fascism and Benito Mussolini’s rise to power. Through public speeches and newspapers like Mussolini’s “POPOLO D’ITALIA” newspaper, fascism gained popularity throughout Italy. This helped him to


organise rallies and military parades with fascist’s slogans that strongly emphasised Italian prestige.

b) Reasons for the downfall of fascism in Italy

Censoring the press Newspapers of fascist critics were stopped from publishing articles. More so, radio presenters, news editors and producers were often arrested and harassed. This made the fascist regime unpopular.

Dictatorship In 1925, Mussolini banned political parties in Italy and established a single party system (fascist state). He crashed the opposition leaders and tortured them. This made the fascist regime unpopular.

Corruption, embezzlement and corruption during Mussolini’s regime

During Mussolini’s regime, corruption, embezzlement and bribery were rampant in Italy. A number of government programs like land reclamation and poverty eradication were rendered a failure. Money disappeared in the pockets of government officials.

Mussolini’s regime was discriminative It favoured fascist supporters and discriminated against those who opposed it. He neglected southern Italy where people seemed not to support his regime compared to other regions in Italy. His government also discriminated against the Jews.

Election malpractices in 1924 Mussolini rigged election in favour of the fascist party. The army intimidated and tortured people to make them vote candidates of fascist party. This made the fascist regime unpopular.

Failure in the policy of economic self-reliance The fascist government adopted protectionist policy to promote domestic industries by safeguarding against foreign competition. The policy backfired. It gave rise to inflation and unemployment. This is because cheap and better quality products imported from England and Belgium was stopped.

Poor land policy There was land shortage in Italy mainly in rural areas due to Mussolini’s policy of increasing birth rates and restrictions of rural urban-migration. Land By KAREGEYA Naphtal, HISTORY AND CITIZENSHIP, SENIOR 3 St ESPRIT NYANZA Page 66

was unfairly distributed. For example, more than 1 million acres of land was owned by only 15 families at the expense of majority peasants.

Failure in the social services sector Before 1943, there were no efforts made to establish any official state health insurance and employment scheme. This brought suffering to Italians especially during the 1929-33 great economic depression in Europe. They hated Mussolini and his fascist party.

Benito Mussolini alliance with Adolf Hitler This alliance led to the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. They signed the Rome-Berlin axis with prime objectives to promote Fascism and Nazism respectively in Europe. This led to the downfall of totalitarian regimes in Europe.

8.2.2. Nazism in Germany

Nazi (national socialist party) was transformed from Germany workers party which was set up in 1919 in the Germany town of Munich. In the same year, Adolf Hitler joined it and soon became its president in 1920. It had to be remembered that he later changed this party (Nazi) into Deutsche Arbeiterpartei – DAP or “The National Socialist Germany Workers Party”. On January 30th 1933, Hitler was appointed a chancellor. Later, on August 1, 1934, President Hindenburg died. This gave Hitler an opportunity to assume presidential powers, which he did with no hesitation. He rolled the two offices of the president and the chancellor into one.

a) Factors for the rise to power of Nazism and Adolf Hitler in Germany

Some of the factors that led to the rise to power of Nazism and Adolf Hitler in Germany are:

The talent and personality of Adolf Hitler He was a blessed demagogue and a celebrated orator with emotional speeches and an infectious mind. His propaganda won him the presidency of the Nazi party in 1920. He would shed floods of tears while talking and this was somewhat appealing to the Germany masses that in turn supported him.

The effects of World War I The war enabled Hitler to acquire military skills which he used to suppress the enemies of Nazi party. World War I also made him popular as a celebrated military officer.


Adolf Hitler writings (publications)

He wrote articles in various newspapers and pamphlets. Hitler’s most important publication was “Mein Kampf” (My struggle) which he wrote while in prison. This made him popular and aided his rise to power.

The negative impact of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty The signatories of Versailles Peace Treaty imposed a huge war indemnity on Germany. This left her economy in poor state and the Weimar republic vulnerable and succumbing to downfall. This gave a chance for Nazi party to rise to power.

Weakness of the Weimar Republic This republic was unpopular because its leaders accepted to sign a dictated and harsh Versailles Peace Treaty which left Germany humiliated. Similarly, the government failed to solve the problems of unemployment, inflation, famine and starvation. Hitler and Nazi party promised to solve these problems which earned him popularity.

The negative effects of the 1929-1933 world economic crisis The crisis created a lot of miseries in Germany including unemployment, inflation, famine and starvation. Germany masses lost confidence in the Weimar Republic. They turned their support to Adolf Hitler and Nazi party.

The role played by Nazi storm troopers This was Hitler’s private army. It was formed to eliminate enemies (opponents) of Nazi party. They carried out a lot of vandalism and acts of sabotage in Germany. This made Weimar republic unpopular and masses supported Nazi party.

The support Hitler gained from the army A good number of army leaders including General Ludendorff who was the Germany supreme commander in World War I supported Hitler. This made Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as a chancellor.

The effective organisation of Nazi party It had representatives in almost every town of Germany. The Nazi party strategically adopted ‘Swastika’ flag as its national emblem which symbolised peace, unity and development. This greatly inspired a good number of Germany patriots to support Nazi candidates during the 1933 elections.


The death of Marshal Von Paul Hindenburg on August 1st 1934 He died at the age of 82, creating a power vacuum in Germany. Hitler quickly took over his position. He became the Chancellor, President and Supreme Commander-in-chief of Germany armed forces. This led Nazi party rise to power.

b) Reasons for the downfall of Nazism and Adolf Hitler in Germany

Hitler’s lack of a comprehensive and clear political agenda and meaningful principles

His regime was mainly dominated by World War I ex-service men. They had no experience as far as political affairs were concerned.

The execution of Benito Mussolini on April 28th 1945 by his own army officers

The killing of Mussolini caused dilemma in Adolf Hitler’s future political survival. He decided to commit suicide on April 30th 1945. This marked an end to the political career and life history of Hitler and the Nazi Party.

Hitler’s dictatorship and oppressive policies Under his orders, most of his opponents were imprisoned or killed. For example, Captain Roehem, the leader of storm troopers was short dead on June 30th 1934. These and many others atrocities made him unpopular.

The size of the Germany Empire Hitler created a huge empire through conquering weak states such as Czechoslovakia, Austria and Poland. The conquered states turned against Nazi party and Hitler hence contributing to downfall.

Hitler’s withdrawal from the League of Nations He stopped the payment of war indemnity. This led to the breach of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty causing an automatic withdrawal from the League of Nations. This left him isolated, and led to his eventual downfall.

The decline of Germany economy Many industries and agriculture farms were left in a bad state. This was because of heavy bombings by the Allied Forces during World War II. This led to misery in Germany in form of starvation, inflation and unemployment. This later led to the downfall of Nazi Party.

The invasion of Poland on September 1st 1939


This was the immediate cause for the outbreak of World War II which became a turning point to the political career of Hitler and the Nazi Party in 1945. After Germany’s defeat, Hitler decided to commit suicide on April 30th 1945. This was the final blow to the Nazi Party which later disintegrated.

8.2.3. Characteristics of Nazism and Fascism

Two totalitarian regimes, Nazism and Fascism, developed in different countries and were led by different leaders but had the same and common characteristics or principles such as:

Extreme nationalism i.e emphasis on rebirth of the nation after a period of decline with an implication that one’s own state is superior to all

Dislike of the importance of human rights (abuse of human rights) Identification of enemies as a unifying cause in order to divert the

people’s attention from other problems Supremacy of the military because the ruling elites were always

identified closely with the military and the industrial infrastructure that supported it

Rampant/ extensive sexism where males dominated and these regimes inevitably viewed women as second class citizens

Over-control of mass media through the control of licensing and access to resources, economic pressure, appeal to patriotism and implied threats

Defense and protection of religion because fascist regimes attached themselves to the predominant religion of the country and wanted to be considered as militant defenders of the religion

Fraudulent elections in form of plebiscites or public opinion polls which were usually bogus. When elections with actual candidates were held, they would usually be perverted by the elite to get the desired result.

UNIT IX. CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR


Introduction

The Second World War was the most destructive war that mankind has experienced. It started with Germany invasion of Poland on September 1st

1939 and ended with the surrender of Japan on September 2nd 1945.

The war was fought between the axis powers, that is, Italy, Germany and Japan (Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis) against the allied powers, that is, Britain, France, Russia and USA.

9.1. Causes of the Second World War

There were a number of factors that played a role in the outbreak of World War II:

The Versailles settlement of 1919led to World War II: The peacemakers in Versailles treaty were unrealistic and instead of creating peace they prepared the ground for outbreak of the Second World War as already explained.

The appeasement policy led to the Second World War: This was a policy adopted by France and Britain in order to appease Hitler when he occupied the Rhineland and Czechoslovakia. This encouraged Hitler to invade Poland and when he refused to withdraw as demanded by Britain and France war broke out.

The Alliance System or military alliances: these were the three axis powers (Italy, Germany and Japan) and Allied democratic powers formed by Britain, France, USA and later Russia among others. The alliance system divided the world into two hostile camps which created enmity fear, mistrust and suspicion leading to the war.

The weakness of the League of Nations: it failed to keep peace since its formation. It failed to put an economic embargo on the countries which violated peace. It also failed to condemn and react against the aggressors of the time, hence resulting in war.

The effects of the world economic depression of 1929-1933: the dictators became aggressive by attacking other countries partly as


Key unit competence: To be able to explain the causes and consequences of the Second World War

a solution to the economic depression. For instance, the invasion of Poland by Germany.

The rise of dictators: the period between wars saw the rise of dictators such as Mussolini in Italy, Hitler in Germany, Franco in Spain and Hirohito in Japan. The dictators formed the axis alliance and started an aggressive foreign policy. The Allied democratic powers waged the war to stop the influence of dictators which created fear, panic and hatred.

The rise and growth of nationalism: Hitler used nationalistic feelings to demand the occupation of Poland, leading to the Second World War.

Influence of the press: this exaggerated the military capacities of the countries, especially of Germany and the Allied powers, creating a war atmosphere among the world powers.

The Spanish war of 1931-1939: this was where the Spanish throne was overthrown and replaced by the Republican Government and leaders of the overthrown monarchy like General Franco fled to America where he coordinated a rebellion against the republican government being supported by Italy and Germany while the republican government was supported by Britain, France and Russia and the war ended in 1939 with the defeat of the republican government by Franco and he established the fascist regime in Spain. The war created enmity between allied and axis powers, increased prestige for Italy and Germany and gave confidence to Hitler to attack Poland, which led to World War II.

Arms race led to World War II: like in the World War I, arms race contributed to World War II. Adolph Hitler got an excuse to re-arm Germany because other powers did not disarm themselves. The same was done by other axis power, which made them to adopt a foreign aggressive policy leading to World War II.

Germany’s invasion of Poland on September 1st 1939 led to the outbreak of World War II: with false impression of Germany, Adolph Hitler attacked Poland knowing that France and Britain would not intervene because of the appeasement policy. Britain and France gave


an ultimatum of 48 hours to withdraw from Poland which was neglected, leading to World War II.

9.2. The course of the Second World War

The war started on September 1st 1939 when Germany troops moved into Poland and within four (4) weeks Poland surrendered because the new kind of warfare called lighting war, where tanks and planes were used, and although Britain and France joined, they could not offer any help to Poland.

After defeating Poland, Hitler planned to attack France and Britain and in April 1940, war started in western side as Hitler’s forces captured Denmark despite attempts of France and Britain to stop Hitler’s forces and in May 1940, Neville Chamberlain resigned and was replaced by Winston Churchill.

In September 1940, Hitler’s forces invaded the Soviet Union but Germany forces were defeated because of heavy rains, muddy roads and severe winter of -38oc.

In December 1941, without warning, Japan destroyed the American naval base at Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean which attracted USA in World War II with Japan, Italy and Germany but USA had France, Britain and Russia, making world war inevitable.

In Africa, Britain was fighting with Italy and Germany for the control of Mediterranean Sea. But the British defeated the Italians and Germans and in July 1943, Sicily was invaded, began march through Italy towards Germany.

In 1942, the Allied powers started series of bombing on Germany and in February 1945, 135,000 people died and in April 1945, Berlin had been turned down and people were starving. By April 1945, Germany was on a point of collapse and on April 30th 1945, Hitler and his wife Eva committed suicide which marked the defeat of Germany the Second World War.

With the war won in Europe, the allies poured their resources into defeating Japan. The Japanese showed that they would fight to death rather than surrender. US president HARRY TRUMAN decided to use the new weapon to defeat Japan.

On August 6th 1945, an American plane dropped an atomic bomb “little boy” on the city of Hiroshima, killing more than 84,000 people and leaving thousands more slowly dying of poisoning radiation, but the government of Japan refused to surrender.


And on August 8th, 1945 the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria. Still, Japanese leaders did not respond.

The next day, on August 9th, 1945, the USA dropped a second atomic bomb nicknamed “Fat Man” on Nagasaki, killing more than 40,000 people and Japan had no alternative but emperor Hirohito broadcasted news of Japanese surrender.

On September 2nd, 1945 the formal peace treaty was signed on board the American battleship Missouri, which was anchored on Tokyo Bay. The Second World War was over.

9.3. Reasons for axis powers’ defeat in the second world war

The axis powers were defeated by the allied powers because of the following reasons:

They had a numerical advantage because the axis powers were few in number compared to the allies

Germany, as a leader of the axis powers, had many internal weakness that made her fail to get massive support at home because her leader Hitler was a dictator

Germany did not have support from the countries she had occupied The dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki by

Americans which forced Japan to surrender The economies of the axis powers were weak compared to those of the

allied powers and they were suffering from a serious shortage of raw materials and other essential military hardware.

The allied powers were much more experienced in fighting on sea than on the axis powers

Hitler failed to realize the danger of winter and refused to withdraw his troops from Russian territory. The strong winter weakened German troops at the battle of Stalingrad leading to the loss of approximately 300,000 killed, wounded or captured soldiers.

The axis powers underestimated the military capacity of the allied powers.

Lack of the foresight because the leaders of the axis powers ignored the importance of fighting planes instead the Japanese concentrated on the production of battleships which were defeated by allied powers.

9.4. Consequences of the Second World War


It led to loss of lives, that is, during the war, it is estimated that about 62,000,000 to 76,000,000 people died, 45,000,000 people wounded and about 21 million people were displaced from their homes.

Massive destruction off infrastructure, especially in France and in Japan due to heavy bombing of major cities

Large influx of homeless refugees. Thousands of them were in camps of western Europe and most of them were the Jews who were running away from Adolph Hitler

World War II paved way to formation of United Nations Organization (UNO) in 1945 to replace the League of Nations that had proved incapable of controlling world peace.

World War II led to production of nuclear weapons which up to now have disorganized world politics

The war led to the defeat and downfall of dictators in Europe, for example, Adolph Hitler who committed suicide and Benito Mussolini who was killed by his own soldiers towards the end of the war.

There was economic decline since agriculture, trade, transport, and industries were destroyed, which brought famine, starvation, inflation and unemployment among European countries.

The war changed balance of power in the world because of the rise of new superpowers, that is, USA and USSR.

The war led to the rise and growth of nationalism in the Middle East and in Africa leading to decolonization process

It led to partition of Germany into two zones till 1989; East Germany, known as Democratic Republic of Germany, was controlled by Russia; and West Germany, known as Federal Republic of Germany, controlled by USA, Britain and France.

It led to the outbreak of “cold war” which was a non-violent confrontation between the western capitalists led by USA and eastern communists led by USSR.

UNIT X. NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS AND THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS


Key unit competence: To be able to analyze the effectiveness of national and international human rights instruments and ways in which human rights can be protected in the context of democracy

10.1. National Human Rights instruments The National Human Rights instruments, also known as National Human Rights institutions (NHRIs) are public institutions that are not under the direct authority of the executive, legislative or judiciary although they are, as a rule, accountable to the legislative either directly or indirectly.The various Human Rights Instruments in Rwanda include: a) Parliament b) The National Commission for Human Rights c) The Office of the Ombudsman d) The Supreme Court and other courts provided for by the Constitution e) The Public Prosecution Authority

Each of these instruments is discussed below in detail.

a) Parliament This has Human Rights Committees (both the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate) which conduct investigations and research in relation to various human rights. This has enabled parliamentarians to enforce respect of human rights in local communities.

b) The National Commission for Human Rights This is an independent and permanent institution. It is in conformity with Paris Principles and has “A” status. It is composed of seven commissioners whom at least 30% are women. Commissioners are appointed from different categories of the Rwandan society, including the civil society. Commissioners enjoy immunity in the process of execution of their duties.

C) The Office of the Ombudsman This is an independent public Institution established by the Constitution. It is responsible for acting as a link between citizens, the public and private institutions. It aims at preventing and fighting against injustices, corruption and other related crimes in public and private administration. The office also receives and examines the context, complaints from individuals and independent associations against the acts of public officials and private institutions. It also aims at mobilising these officials and institutions to find solutions to such complaints.


d) The Supreme Court and other courts provided for by the Constitution

The Supreme Court and other courts provided for by the Constitution exercise their judicial powers in the protection and promotion of human rights through fair and timely judgments. Judgments of the Supreme Court increasingly refer to international human rights treaties ratified by Rwanda. The Supreme Court regularly compiles with these cases and avails them to courts for reference.

e) The Public Prosecution Authority The Public Prosecution Authority also plays a key role in the protection and

promotion of human rights. For example, it has been tracking the Genocide fugitives, providing protection of witnesses and victims, fighting against Gender Based Violence and fighting against corruption and drugs. The Judiciary is independent from the influence of the Legislature and the Executive Branches of the Government.

10.2. International human rights instruments International human rights instruments are treaties and other international documents relevant to international human rights law and the protection of human rights in general.

International human rights instruments can be classified into two categories namely declarations and conventions.• Declarations are adopted by bodies such as the United Nations general Assembly which are not legally binding although they may be politically binding like the soft law. • Conventions are legally binding instruments concluded under International law, treaties and even declarations, and over time, obtain the status of customary international law.

International human rights instruments can be divided further into global instruments, to which any state in the world can be a party, and regional instruments, which are restricted to states in a particular region of the world.

Global human rights instruments These are human rights instruments to which any state in the world can be a party. Global human rights instruments include the following:

a) International bill of human rights


This includes universal declaration of human rights (UDHR), International covenant on economic, social and cultural rights and international covenant on civil and political rights.

b) United nations human rights conventions This includes the following conventions:

i. Convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide.

ii. International convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination.

iii. International convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women

iv. Convention against torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

v. Convention on the rights of children. vi. International convention on the protection of all the rights of all

migrant workers and their families. vii. Convention of rights of persons with disabilities.

Regional human rights instruments These are human rights instruments which are restricted to states in a particular region of the world. The regional instruments in different parts of the world include the African Union, Organisation of American States, the Council of Europe, the European Union, Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference.

10.3.Effectiveness of national and international human rights instruments

National and international human rights instruments become effective when they:

a)Enjoy public legitimacy National institutions win public or popular legitimacy when they are seen to stand up for the right of the powerless against powerful interests and act fairly in treating issues within their control. An institution’s legitimacy is also always partly rooted in its formal or legal status.

b)Are accessible


National institutions should make known what they do, and how they can be contacted, to the general public and non-governmental bodies. Their offices should be accessible. Disadvantaged groups in society should be encouraged to use them.

c)Have an open organisational culture The public and partner organisations should be confident that NHRIs will be welcoming and will take them seriously. Organisations that are open, collaborative and self-critical are far more likely to respond well to the needs of the public and other organisations and to identify shortcomings in their practice.

d)Ensure the integrity and quality of their members The quality of members, leadership and staff vitally influences human rights institutions’ effectiveness. Good appointment procedures are likely to result in independent, professional and courageous members. Members and staff should not be closely connected to the public service.

e)Have diverse membership and staff To be open and accessible, human rights institutions need to ensure that members and staff are representative of a society’s social, ethnic and linguistic composition. Good gender balance is vital. At the same time, selection should always be on merit.

f)Consult with civil society civil society organisationsIn particular, human rights NGOs and community based groups can be effective links between national institutions and individuals or groups. Such groups are those that may be politically, socially or economically marginalised.

g)Have broad mandates The most effective national institutions generally have a broad and non-restrictive mandate, which includes civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights. Programmes should focus on issues of immediate daily concern and be relevant to the public and to public bodies.

h)Have an all-encompassing jurisdiction The credibility of any human rights institution is seriously undermined when certain authorities with potentially great impact on human rights (such as military or special security forces) are excluded from their jurisdiction. By KAREGEYA Naphtal, HISTORY AND CITIZENSHIP, SENIOR 3 St ESPRIT NYANZA Page 79

i)Have powers to monitor compliance with their recommendations

National institutions should have power to monitor the extent to which relevant authorities follow their advice and recommendations. Monitoring should become a consistent practice.

j)Treat human rights issues systemically National institutions should identify and respond to issues that are of general concern. Investigations, public inquiries and policy reports are all useful ways of doing so.

k)Handle complaints speedily and effectively Complainants expect national institutions to have authority to deal with bodies against which complaints are made. Procedures should be simple, accessible, affordable and speedy. Securing compliance with the human rights institutions recommendation is also crucial. National institutions should have power to refer their findings to courts of law or specialised tribunals for adjudication when their offices fail.

10.4. Ways through which human rights can be protected in the context of democracy

During violent conflict, safe places to protect refugees and war victims from any surrounding violence in their communities can sometimes help to safeguard human lives.

Putting in place peace keeping organs like the police and the army. These strategies can physically separate conflicting sides and prevent further violence or damage. These measures, together with violence prevention mechanisms, can help to protect human rights.

Education about human rights must become part of general public education. Technical and financial assistance should be provided to increase knowledge about human rights.

Use of dialogue groups that assemble people from various ethnicities should be organised to overcome mistrust, fear and grief in society. This was the same with the former Gacaca courts and Abunzi mediators.

External specialists can offer legislative assistance and provide guidance in drafting press freedom laws, minority legislation and laws securing gender


equality. They can also assist in drafting a constitution, which guarantees fundamental political and economic rights.

Those who perpetrate human rights violations find it much easier to do so in cases where their activities can remain secret. International witnesses, observers and reporters can exert modest pressure to bring violations of human rights to public notice and discourage further violence.

Truth commissions are sometimes established after a political transition. This is to distinguish them from other institutions established to deal with a legacy of human rights abuses.

Trying into courts of law without fear or favour all those who are believed to abuse human rights.

Establishing and having written constitution so that people know their limitations.

Use of an iron hand against those found guilty of abusing human rights. This is meant to teach a lesson to the rest to stop such habits

UNIT XI. DEMOCRATISATION PROCESS

Introduction In Senior One, we learnt about ‘Forms and Principles of Democracy.’ This year, we will focus on the democratization process with an aim of understanding more about: a) The Process of democratization. b) Indicators of democratization.


Key unit competence: To be able to compare the democratization process in Rwanda and the sub-region

c) Comparing democratization in Rwanda and the sub-region.

Democracy is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or through elected representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as a parliament. Democratization process is the way people or governments try to build democratic societies so that people are involved in the governance of the country.

11.1. The process of democratization

The following are some of the basic conditions that must be fulfilled in order to sustain the process of democratization:

1. A fair distribution of wealth

Democracy cannot exist where people do not enjoy equal right distribution of national resources. A democratic regime must satisfy basic needs of its population such as food, shelter, education and security.

2. Strong civil society

Powerful civil society organizations like churches, NGOs, human rights leagues, etc. must be involved in the process of democratization.

3. Education It has long been theorised that education promotes stable and democratic societies. Research shows that education leads to greater political tolerance, increases political participation and reduces inequality among population. When all the children in a given country go to school, they develop and become more tolerant than others in most of the cases.

4. Decentralization policyDictatorship power is decentralized for the purposes of administrative procedures. The population feels involved in national policy elaboration and participates in decision making at the local level.

5. International pressureThe developed countries encourage the process of democratization through economic assistance given to developing countries. Countries must organize free and fair elections, which consequently lead to succession to political power.

11.2 The indicators of democratization


The following are some of the indicators of democratization:

a) The respect of human rights There is a strong link, directly and indirectly, between democracy and human rights. Indeed, civil and political rights are constitutive elements of democracy.

b) Power limitation This indicator checks against the interference of one arm of government against the other. In a democratic state, all arms of government are autonomous but work cordially as they depend on each other for effective delivery of services to citizens. Power limitation is not preventing other important wheels of government from revolving, but rather ensuring that there is no excessive or domination of one function of government over the other.

c) Control This indicator reflects whether citizens and the civil society are able to control the political authority of the monitored organisation. Can citizens appraise whether their representatives implement the mandate according to which they are elected? The answer implies the evaluation of transparency in decision-making process.

d) Popular participationThis indicator describes citizens’ ability to influence and participate in the decision-making process. Are citizens entitled with the right to address petitions and with the right of legislative initiative?

e) Free and fair elections

This indicator explains the ability of the state to organise free and fair elections from the local councils to the president. There should be freedom to choose leaders of peoples’ choice and these should be voted down upon failure to perform to people’s expectations.

f) Multi-party democracy This is the existence of many political parties competing for power. Many parties should exist in a democratic country and favourably compete for power and the party with a high number of votes to form government.

g) Freedom of press and expression Here people within a given country are supposed to express their views and entitled to such through newspapers, radios, television and magazines. 11.3. Comparison of democratization in Rwanda and the sub-region


Rwanda, like other countries of the sub-region, has common indicators of democratization like:

The existence of the opposition The existence of opposition power and a realistic possibility for the opposition to increase its support or gain power through elections explains the presence of democracy in Rwanda just like it is in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.

Open political space for all There is participation of cultural, ethnic, religious and other minority groups in political life of Rwanda. Everybody is allowed to contest and convince the public to vote for him/her. This is the same with other countries in the sub-region.

Existence of multi-party democracy The Government of Rwanda, under Rwanda Patriotic Front, has promoted democracy in the country by allowing opposing political parties such as Democratic Green Party of Rwanda and Central Democratic Party. This gives citizens the right to organise themselves in different political parties and political groupings. This is the case with other countries in the sub region, where governments have allowed their citizens to belong to political parties of their choice.

Accountability and transparency This is seen in the openness, transparency and accountability of the government to its constituents between elections, freedom from pervasive government corruption and government policies that reflect the will of the people. Everybody is accountable to the public. This is a reflection of other democratic countries in the sub-region.

Elections There is free and fair executive and legislative elections where there is fair polling and honest tabulation of ballots. Through this, people are able to choose leaders they like, just like in other democratic states in the sub-region.

Availability of press freedom There exist many newspapers, including the New Times, Rwanda Express, ImvahoNshya, Igihe and many others. There is freedom of expression in these papers, which is a clear sign of democracy in Rwanda, just like in other countries in the sub-region.


Religious freedom There is freedom of religion in Rwanda. People belong to religious denominations of their choice. For example, there are Protestants, Pentecostals, Catholics and Adventists among others. This is the same with other countries within the sub-region.

Respect for human rights This is another aspect of democratisation in Rwanda. Children, the youth, men, women and the elderly all are accorded respect and fundamental human rights. This is the case in democratic countries like Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.

Rule of law The presence of a functional parliament with elected and competent legislators in Rwanda has brought the rule of law. This has led to a peaceful co-existence in the country. There is no domination by the army or police. This is the same with other democratic states in the sub-region.

Women emancipation This is another unique indicator of democratisation in Rwanda where she has been named a model state with 56.2% of its political representation are women. This is super and above other countries with in the sub-region something that has earned her international recognition.


UNIT XII. IDENTIFY RWANDANS IN REFERENCE TO REGIONAL GROUPINGS

12.1 Understanding oneself in reference to Rwanda and East Africa Identifying Rwandans in reference to regional groupings can be done in the following ways:

a. Understanding ones’ self by location b. Understanding one’s self in terms of languages spoken c. Understanding ones’ self in terms of religion d. In terms of ethnic groups e. In terms of economic activities f. In terms of culture g. In terms of clans h. Understanding by settlement patterns i. Understanding social life j. In terms of hygiene k. In terms of education l. In terms of a fast growing economy

Each of these has been explained below: a) Understanding ones’ self by location

Rwanda is a landlocked country found in Central/Eastern Africa. It is bordered by the Democratic Republic of Congo to the west, Uganda to the north, Tanzania to the east and Burundi to the south. It lays a few degrees


Key unit competence: To be able to evaluate Rwandans in reference to regional groupings

south of the equator. The capital, Kigali, is located near the centre of Rwanda.

Rwanda is also known as a “Land of a Thousand Hills” due to her green, mountainous landscape. Its renowned Volcanoes National Park is home to mountain gorillas and golden monkeys.

b) Understanding one’s self in terms of languages spoken The languages spoken in Rwanda are French, Kinyarwanda, English and Kiswahili. However, Kinyarwanda is the widely spoken language and has been one of the uniting factors among Rwandans. This is different in other countries like Uganda, which has many ethnic groups who speak over 30 different local languages.

c) Understanding ones’ self in terms of religion In Rwanda, there are religions such as Christianity, traditional African religion and Islam. There is freedom of worship and everybody belongs to a religious denomination of his/her choice. This is unlike some countries like Libya where people are forced to belong to certain religions.

d) In terms of culture Rwandans have a rich culture facilitated by Amatorero, Ingando, Umogoroba w’ababyeyi, games and sports among others. These impart cultural values among the youth and the old which has enabled the country to have a more advanced cultural heritage. There are also national museums such as Butare and Kandt House Museum in Kigali. These preserve and teach young Rwandans of their culture as was practiced in the past.

e) In terms of clans There are many clans in Rwanda such as the Abanyiginya, Abega, Abacyaba, Abasinga and Abatsobe. Everybody in the country belongs to one of these clans but they are no longer significant in daily life as it used to be during traditional Rwanda.

12.2. The importance of regional integration in East Africa

Rwanda has been integrated in the East African Community since 2007.

The following points explain some of the reasons why regional integration in East Africa is important:


Regional integration promotes trade among countries that are found within the same region. In some cases, this has developed to a point leading to formation of trading blocs. This is because it attracts investments in various sectors of the economy such as manufacturing and industry. They foster political cooperation. A group of countries with a common political agenda can significantly influence the strategies within the region, which can help to address conflicts and political instability within such a region.With regional integration, acquisition of raw materials to support local industries is made easy. Economic integration enables countries to get cheap commodities from countries within their region. It stimulates the expansion and establishment of manufacturing industries in a rational way. Raw materials are cheaply obtained within the integrated area while market for the goods is readily available. An additional advantage is that there is easy transfer of technology across borders. It leads to free movement of factors of production. These may include labour and capital. The smuggling of goods from one country to another is reduced. This is due to free trade with free competition and no trade barriers. It allows member countries to conduct research and to collect information jointly at a cheaper price. This is used to encourage industries within cooperating nations to compete and improve the quality of products they produce. Regional integration increases the bargaining power of countries within the integrated area. This leads to favourable trade policies with other countries. It increases gains from international trade since costs of duplication are reduced. Within the East African Community, Uganda is well placed in the education sector, Kenya the manufacturing industry and financial services; Rwanda is advancing in the tourism sector and Tanzania in the transport sector. With such specific areas of production, each country benefits from the other. It enables the promotion of trade since there are no complications of converting currencies. Essentially, trade is freely carried out among members while custom unions are put in place to support trade.


Employment opportunities are provided to the people of the countries involved to harmonize and modernize the customs procedures. For example, a team of competent personnel is always placed at major ports of entry.

UNIT XIII. NATIONAL LAWS IN CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION


Key unit competence: To be able to assess how national laws leads to conflict transformation

13.1. Definition of Conflict transformation

Conflict transformation is the process by which conflict, such as ethnic conflict, are trans formed into peaceful outcomes.

Conflict transformation process follows the following order: conflict settlement, conflict management, conflict resolution and conflict transformation.

13.2. Sources of Rwandan codes and laws

Law is system of rules that are made and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior.

A source of law, in its restricted sense, means the origin of law, the binding rules governing human conduct.

The sources of Rwandan codes and laws include:

Constitution

In Rwanda, the main source of law is constitution. The constitution is a set of fundamental ground rules setting out the powers of the different branches of government (executive, legislature and judiciary) and how these entities operate and interrelate.

International treaties and conventions

Other sources are the international treaties and conventions, where a host country like Rwanda may be subject to laws made by a regional or world grouping by becoming a signatory to a treaty.

National legislation

This consists of the declaration of legal rules by competent authority. Parliament in Rwanda deliberates on bills and passes them into laws.

Case law

Judicial precedent/case law is the accumulated principles of law derived from centuries of decisions. Judgments passed by judges in important cases are recorded and become a significant source of law.

13.3.Legal mechanisms and organs vis-à-vis conflict transformation


In Rwanda, there are different legal mechanisms and organs which play a big role in conflict transformation. These are the following:

Constitution and other relevant laws: the constitution is a set of laws governing the country. The role of the constitution is to protect rights, establish rules for peaceful change of government, ensure the predictability of state action and the security of private transactions through legal system, as well as establishing procedures for the settlement of disputes.

National commission for human rights: the national commission for human rights improves both analysis and practice involved in moving from violence to sustainable peace in Rwanda.

National unity and reconciliation commission: this was created after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi for reconciliation and transforming the conflict situation into a peaceful period.

The office of the ombudsman: the ombudsman has the power to investigate a citizen’s complaints of maladministration and administrative injustice.

Rwanda national police: conflict transformation by the police involves the use of authority and prevention of criminal activity. It also builds trust and understanding among the community members.

Abunzi committee: Abunzi reduced the number of cases introduced in ordinary courts because many problems are resolved in local community.

UNIT XIV. FACTORS FOR NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE


Introduction

Independence is the freedom for a nation, a country or a state from being under control or influence of another country.

In order to maintain the independence, the factors to be considered include the following:

14.1. Political factors for national independence

Respect of principles of democracy

Democracy means rule by the people. The principal purposes for which the people establish democratic government are the protection and promotion of their rights, interest and welfare. Democracy requires that each individual be free to participate in the community’s self government, thus political freedom lies at heart of concept of democracy.

Good governance

Good governance is about the process for making and implementing decisions. It is not about making correct decisions but about the best possible process for making those decisions.

The main characteristics of good governance are accountability, transparency, rule of law, responsiveness, equity, inclusion, effectiveness, efficiency, and participation of the citizens in decision making.

Having a strong sense of patriotism

Patriotism is the attachment to a homeland. It is acquired through education of citizens. In Rwanda, for instance, the channel through which this value is inculcated into the citizens is the National Itorero Commission.

Having self-esteem and confidence among the citizens

Being independent demands a strong mindset, thinking positively and a belief in the possibility to achieve the desired set goals.

National security and sovereignty

This should be tightly guarded in the whole country for both citizens and foreigners living in the country. This attracts the investors in the country.


14.2. Economic and socio-cultural factors for national independence

Promotion and support of the private sector

The government has to enhance collaboration and cooperation between the private sector and the public sector. This will improve service delivery and the performance of the private sector hence paving the way for economic independence.

Improvement of the industrial sector

In developing countries, lack of independence is caused by a deficit balance of payment. The creation of local industries will substitute the imported manufactured goods and with such a strong economy, the country will be economically independent.

Promotion of good investment climate

To be economically autonomous, the country needs to promote business and investment by setting up favourable investment policies and supporting local investors. This can lead to desirable independent economy.

Good resource management

The good management of national resources helps to avoid wastage and underutilization of resources. The national resources include human resources, raw materials, finances and all inputs that can produce outputs. Once well utilized, the available resources can lead to both political and economic independence.

14.3. Promoting and sustaining self-reliance

Self-reliance is a state of being independent in all aspects. It can be social, political, and economic independence.

To stimulate development and self-reliance, Rwandans have adopted a number of home-grown solutions such as:

Girinka (one cow per poor family) programme

The programme of Girinka primarily aims at improving the livelihoods by offering and managing dairy cows for increased milk, meat and fertilizer


production. It also boosts social cohesion by passing on the first calf to another household.

Umuganda

This was created to help supplement the national budget spent construction and repair of basic infrastructure.

Establishment of forums of mediators (Abunzi)

The forums of mediators known as Abunzi are panel councils of the people from the local community who play a big role in conflicts resolution.

They have reduced the number of cases introduced in ordinary courts because many are resolved in local communities

The establishment of Agaciro development fund

Agaciro development fund has been the most remarkable home-grown solution that drives Rwanda directly to achieving self-reliance. Though its establishment coincided with the cutting off of aids from donor communities, it has showed signs of home.

Ubudehe

Ubudehe is a poverty eradication programme under the ministry of finance. This consists of categorizing Rwandans into different income groups according to self sustenance. The poor are given priority in terms of health insurance, education, electricity, water supply and even accommodation.

Kuremera

This is the initiative created by the government of Rwanda that aims at solving the problem of unemployment, especially among the youth.

The National Itorero Commission

This was launched in all districts from November 19th, 2007. According to the policy of Itorero ry’igihugu, volunteerism, which is any unpaid communal work, voluntarily undertaken in the service of the nation, is encouraged.

Ndi Umunyarwanda

Ndi Umunyarwanda is a programme of the government of Rwanda aimed at restoring the unity of Rwandan society. This unity had been destroyed by


colonizers who, after their arrival in Rwanda, changed social classes into ethnic groups by telling Rwandans that they did not have the sane origin and that they were not equal.

Ndi Umunyarwanda is aimed at building national cohesion and unity with the purpose of avoiding suspicion and distrust among citizens.

The campaign of “Made in Rwanda”

This campaign aims at finding a solution to the country’s socio-economic challenges by promoting locally made products and services to boost domestic production and reduce the country’s heavy import bill.

UNIT XV. CONCEPT OF DISABILITY AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

15.1. Definition of concepts

Inclusive education: refers to an education system which takes into consideration the learning and educational support needs for all learners irrespective of their abilities and backgrounds.

Special needs education is a specific educational arrangement put in place for learners with learning difficulties or disabilities.

Special educational needs are learning difficulties or disabilities which make it harder for learners to learn in the same way as their peers of the same age.

Inclusion is based on the right of all learners for a quality and equitable education that meets their basic needs and takes into account the diverse backgrounds and abilities as a learning opportunity.

Exclusion is the act of not allowing someone to take part in an activity or to enter a place.

Integration is the combining of two or more things so that they work together effectively. When people become part of a group or a society and are accepted by them, integration has taken place.

15.2. Children with special needs

Children with special needs are children who have a disability or a combination of disabilities that make learning or other activities difficult.


Key unit competence: To be able to differentiate special needs education and inclusive education and appreciate

Special needs children include those have:

Intellectual disability (ID), also known as general learning disability or mental retardation (MR) is a generalized neuro developmental disorder characterized by significantly impaired intellectual and adaptive functioning.

Physical disability is an impairment that makes one unable to use his or her limbs to perform a function.

Visual impairment (low vision, totally blind) is a condition of someone being unable to see the blackboard, cannot read print textbooks and cannot write in notebooks.

Hearing impairment (d of hearing or total deafness) is a condition of a learner being unable to hear.

Developmental disability results in problems with growth and development. For example, learners with intellectual disability ( slow learners, autism) may not be able to understand the teacher or to socialize with other children, and may need more time to accomplish class works

Gifted and talented learners: these are learners who have higher abstract thinking. They often get bored in class after finishing tasks quickly and may not be understood by the teachers.

15.3. Ways to help children with special needs

Some strategies are necessary to enhance the learning environment of the students with special needs:

Inclusion: in this strategy, learners with special needs education spend all the school day with fellow learners who do not have special needs.

Specialized services may be provided inside or outside the regular classroom. These include speech and language therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, rehabilitation and counseling.

Facing the learner while you speak might help the learner with a hearing impairment

Use large writing on the blackboard and on visual aids Try to understand the specific talents of the learner and develop them Be motivational Give learner lots of practice and time Improve the diet of the children for a better growth

15.4. Impact of inclusive education


When all children, regardless of their difference, are educated together, everyone benefits. This is the role of inclusive education:

Learners with special educational needs can access basic education Special education needs learners can interact with their peers and

develop social skills Special educational needs learners have an opportunity to become

adults who can work and contribute to the community All learners gain respect for others Inclusive classrooms develop generic competences of cooperation and

life skills Reduces dropout rates in schools Creates motivating environment for special educational needs learners

UNIT XVI. TOLERANCE AND RESPECT

16.1. Definition of terms

Bias: is an inclination towards something. A preconceived opinion about something or someone.

Prejudice: is an opinion formed beforehand or without knowledge of the facts. It is preconceived, usually unfavorable, judgments toward people or a person because of gender, political opinion, social class, age, disability, religion, ethnicity/race, language, nationality, etc.

Stigma: is a mark of infamy or disgrace. It is also defined as an association of disgrace or public disapproval of something, such as an action or condition.

Intolerance: is the fact of not accepting other people’s opinions or beliefs or practices.


Key unit competence: To be able to recognize and respond to the effects of bias, prejudice, intolerance and stigma on individual and family.

Harassment: is persistent attacks and criticism causing worry and distress or an excessive intimidation.

Rejection: is refusal of accepting other people’s performance. Bullying: is an act of intimidating a weaker person to do something,

especially with repeated coercion. Bullying is also defined as the activity of repeated, aggressive behavior intended to hurt another individual, physically, mentally or emotionally.

16.2. Impact of bias, prejudice, stigma and intolerance

1) Impact of bias

It leads to loss of confidence (self-esteem) It leads o crimes against those biased including violence and death It leads to exclusion from society which can lead to psychological

problems Bias makes an individual lose a sense of belonging Bias at work places may lead one to be fired from places of work, hence

unemployment results It leads to loss of reputation

2) Impact of prejudice

Victims of prejudice may experience shame and anger, leading to detrimental behavior, such as aggression

They tend to perform worse when they feel they are being stereotyped Prejudice forces the victims to have a false social status that strongly

influences who they are, what they think and even the actions they take. Prejudice greatly influences what people expect from the future and how

they feel about their chances for self-improvement, referred to as their life chances

People acting out their prejudices cause domestic violence, crime or even death

Opportunities in life are lost and personal relationships damaged when people act upon their prejudice

3) Impact of intolerance It leads to disunity among the peers because some people will be

tolerated in groups while others are segregated It makes people feel like the social misfits It also leads to school drop outs. A learner who is not tolerated may

decide to drop out of school


Intolerance leads to desperation. This is usually with people living with HIV/AIDS, and disabilities. Such people once not be accommodated in society, they despair and this may lead to death mostly with patients

It make someone wild, rude for he/she knows that the public is against them

It makes such people live with regrets for the rests of their life It leads to suicide Intolerance leads to hatred and malice by those whom it directed to.

4) Impact of stigma

HIV related stigma and discrimination refers to prejudice, negative attitude and abuses directed at people living with HIV and AIDS.

The consequences of stigma and discrimination are the following:

Stigma makes the victims develop fear and mistrust of others and do not want to meet them

It leads to depression and anger in the victims It leads to poor care in the health sector It leads to withdrawal of care-giving in the home It makes some people ashamed by family, peers and the wider

community It results in poor treatment of patients in healthcare and educational

settings

5) The consequences of harassment It leads to disbelief It causes anger It leads to self-blame It leads to loss of self-confidence I causes a feeling of powerlessness It leads to isolation, withdrawal, illness, depression It causes loss of sleep It causes headache, stomachaches It leads to increased anxiety or panic attacks It makes one feel humiliated It leads to inability to concentrate at school It causes increased absenteeism at school

16.3. Support to victims of these negative attitudes


The following ways can be suggested to support the victims of such injustices:

Use a respectful language because language reveals a lot about what we think and how we feelTreat everybody with respect and awareness even if you are differentShow empathy towards the victims and try to understand their problems because it can also happen to youEducate and inform people about the misconception. Consider people with disability the same as other personsTo avoid these negative practices, political leaders have to elaborate laws to protect children against bullying, harassment, prejudice, stigma, intolerance.The bullied student surrounds himself with supportive friends and stays n groupsThe bullied student can also avoid places where they are bullied

In conclusion, tolerance provides an opportunity to learn from others while respecting and valuing their differences in religious and cultural beliefs. Tolerance works as a barrier to prejudice and brings people of a community together.


Documents

€¦ · Web viewCOURSE OUTLINE. TOPIC AREA I: HISTORY OF RWANDA. Unit 1. Independent Rwanda. Unit 2. Consequences of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi . TOPIC AREA . I. I: HISTORY