Biological Concepts

I. Macromoleculesa. Proteins

i. Made of amino acidsii. Coded for in the sequence of DNA

iii. Structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary)

b. Lipidsi. Phospholipd and cell membrane structure

ii. Hormones – cell signalingiii. Fats – long term energy storage

c. Carbohydrates: Glucose – connection to photosynthesis and cell respiration

Primary – amino acid sequence

Secondary – alpha helix and beta sheets - Hydrogen bonds

Tertiary – 3D folding – ionic bonds, disulfide bridges, hydrogen bonds, etc.

Quaternary – Two or more proteins linked together – example hemoglobin

d. Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

II. Cell Functions (Eukaryotes)a. Organelles

i. Nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplast, smooth and rough er, golgi, lysosomes

b. Membranei. Structure

1. Phospholipid bilayer, proteins

ii. Function1. Transport

a. Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, active transport, endo and exocytosis

Osmosis:

https://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/osmosis.html

2. Cell communicationa. Reception, transduction, cell response

III. Cell Energeticsa. Photosynthesis

i. Energy transfer: light chemical

b. Cellular Respirationi. Energy transfer: Glucose ATP

ii. Aerobic: with O2 Glycolysis, Krebs, chemiosmosis (electron transport chain)iii. Anaerobic: No O2 Fermentation (in cytoplasm only)

c. Enzymesi. Lower activation energy

ii. Specific

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120070/bio09.swf

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120070/bio10.swf

Different enzymes and optimal pH

IV. Cell Divisiona. Prokaryotes (Bacteria)

i. Binary Fission

V. Cell Cycle (Eukaryotes)a. G1, S, G2, checkpoints

b. Mitosis (Eukaryotes only)i. Growth of organisms

ii. Replace dead cellsiii. 2 identical diploid daughter cellsiv. Mutations: Errors in DNA replication (S phase)

1. Cancer can result from interruption of cell cycle control checkpoints

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120073/bio14.swf

https://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/mitosis.html

c. Meiosisi. Sexual Reproduction

ii. Occurs in gametes/sex cells/sperm and egg cellsiii. Genetic diversity

1. Independent assortment of chromosomes

2. Crossing over

iv. 4 genetically different haploid daughter cells

Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120074/bio17.swf

https://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/meiosis.html

VI. Geneticsa. Genotype: genes present: TT, Tt, tt, GgTtb. Phenotype: expression of the genotype: tall, short, green and tallc. Punnett squares

i. Monohybrid Tt x Ttii. Dihybrid TtGg x TtGg

iii. Sex-linked (on the X chromosome) XHXh x XHYiv. Codominant (Blood types) A and B both dominant and O is recessive

d. Pedigreesi. Dominant or recessive gene controls the trait

VII. DNA (Eukaryotes)a. Structure

b. Replicationi. Enzymes

1. Helicase: Unzips DNA breaking H bonds2. Primase: Inserts short RNA strand3. Topoisomerase: Relieves stress ahead of helicase4. DNA Polymerase I: replaces RNA primer with DNA5. DNA Polymerase II: Proofreads, correcting errors6. DNA Polymerase III: Adds DNA bases to a free 3’ end7. Ligase: Joins adjoining DNA bases on the same strand

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120076/micro04.swf

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120076/bio23.swf

https://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/dnareplication.html

c. Transcriptioni. RNA polymerase unzips DNA and adds corresponding RNA bases

ii. Made 5’ to 3’

https://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/transcription.html

d. RNA processing (Eukaryotes only)

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120077/bio30.swf

e. Translationi. AUG – Universal start codon

ii. Three different termination codonsiii. Polypeptide chain being made: protein

https://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/translation.html

Translation on the rough endoplasmic reticulum is for proteins exported out of the cell.

Overview

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120078/bio_g.swf

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120077/bio25.swf

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gG7uCskUOrA

f. Mutationsi. Gene

1. Point – substitution (negative, positive, neutral effects)

2. Frameshift – Addition or deletion of a base (always negative effect)

g. Chromosomal (always negative effect)i. Deletion

ii. Duplicationiii. Translocationiv. Inversion

VIII. DNA (Prokaryotes)a. Transcription and translation happen at the same time

b. Operonsi. Lac operon (inducible)

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120080/bio27.swf

ii. Trp operon (repressible)

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120080/bio26.swf

IX. Biotechnologya. Restriction enzymes – Cut DNA at specific sequences and leaves single stranded sticky ends

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120078/bio37.swf

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120078/bio38.swf

b. PCR – polymerase chain reactioni. Quickly make millions of copies of a DNA segment

ii. Taq polymerase is used because it is stable at high temperatures used in the process.iii. Taq polymerase is found in thermophilic bacteria

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120078/micro15.swf

c. Gel Electrophoresis

http://highered.mheducation.com/olc/dl/120078/bio_g.swf