Biological Concepts

I. Macromoleculesa. Proteins

i. Made of amino acidsii. Coded for in the sequence of DNA

iii. Structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary)

b. Lipidsi. Phospholipd and cell membrane structure

ii. Hormones – cell signalingiii. Fats – long term energy storage

c. Carbohydrates: Glucose – connection to photosynthesis and cell respiration

d. Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

II. Cell Functions (Eukaryotes)a. Organelles

i. Nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, chloroplast, smooth and rough er, golgi, lysosomes

b. Membranei. Structure

i. Phospholipid bilayer, proteins

ii. Functioni. Transport

a. Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, active transport, endo and exocytosis

Osmosis:

ii. Cell communicationa. Reception, transduction, cell response

III. Cell Energeticsa. Photosynthesis

i. Energy transfer: light chemical

b. Cellular Respirationi. Energy transfer: Glucose ATP

ii. Aerobic: with O2 Glycolysis, Krebs, chemiosmosis (electron transport chain)iii. Anaerobic: No O2 Fermentation (in cytoplasm only)

c. Enzymesi. Lower activation energy

ii. Specific

IV. Cell Divisiona. Prokaryotes (Bacteria)

i. Binary Fission

V. Cell Cycle (Eukaryotes)a. G1, S, G2, checkpoints

b. Mitosis (Eukaryotes only)i. Growth of organisms

ii. Replace dead cellsiii. 2 identical diploid daughter cellsiv. Mutations: Errors in DNA replication (S phase)

i. Cancer can result from interruption of cell cycle control checkpoints

c. Meiosisi. Sexual Reproduction

ii. Occurs in gametes/sex cells/sperm and egg cellsiii. Genetic diversity

i. Independent assortment of chromosomes

ii. Crossing over

iv. 4 genetically different haploid daughter cells

Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

VI. Geneticsa. Genotype: genes present: TT, Tt, tt, GgTtb. Phenotype: expression of the genotype: tall, short, green and tallc. Punnett squares

i. Monohybrid Tt x Ttii. Dihybrid TtGg x TtGg

iii. Sex-linked (on the X chromosome) XHXh x XHYiv. Codominant (Blood types) A and B both dominant and O is recessive

d. Pedigreesi. Dominant or recessive gene controls the trait

VII. DNA (Eukaryotes)a. Structure

b. Replicationi. Enzymes

i. Helicase: Unzips DNA breaking H bondsii. Primase: Inserts short RNA strand

iii. Topoisomerase: Relieves stress ahead of helicaseiv. DNA Polymerase I: replaces RNA primer with DNAv. DNA Polymerase II: Proofreads, correcting errors

vi. DNA Polymerase III: Adds DNA bases to a free 3’ endvii. Ligase: Joins adjoining DNA bases on the same strand

c. Transcriptioni. RNA polymerase unzips DNA and adds corresponding RNA bases

ii. Made 5’ to 3’

d. RNA processing (Eukaryotes only)

e. Translationi. AUG – Universal start codon

ii. Three different termination codonsiii. Polypeptide chain being made: protein

Translation on the rough endoplasmic reticulum is for proteins exported out of the cell.

Overview

f. Mutationsi. Gene

i. Point – substitution (negative, positive, neutral effects)

ii. Frameshift – Addition or deletion of a base (always negative effect)

g. Chromosomal (always negative effect)i. Deletion

ii. Duplicationiii. Translocationiv. Inversion

VIII. DNA (Prokaryotes)a. Transcription and translation happen at the same time

b. Operonsi. Lac operon (inducible)

ii. Trp operon (repressible)

IX. Biotechnologya. PCR – polymerase chain reaction

i. Quickly make millions of copies of a DNA segmentii. Taq polymerase is used because it is stable at high temperatures used in the process.

iii. Taq polymerase is found in thermophilic bacteria

b. Gel Electrophoresis

c) Plasmids/Genetic engineering

X. Experiments

i. Variablesa. Independent: Variable controlled by investigator (X axis)b. Dependent: Variable measured (Y axis)

ii. Control Group: Identical group not receiving experimental treatment but data is collected to compare with experimental group

iii. Experimental Group: Group receiving experimental treatment iv. Constants: All other conditions identical between control and experimental groupv. Data Analysis

a. Reading a graphi. Line and bar graphs

b. Error barsi. Small error bars indicate data is consistent

ii. Large error bars indicate wide range in the data collectediii. Overlapping bars means data not conclusive about effect of

experimental variable.

XI. Viruses1. Structure

2. Infection/Reproduction (Cell Communication/Protein Structure/Cell Membrane)

Transformation Conjugation Transduction