€ 25,00 (U)

1810.1.39-L

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I, F. PA

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INI, I. VA

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A (eds.)-W

ASTE RECOVERY

Luciano MorselliFrancesco Passarini

Ivano Vassura(edited by)

WASTE RECOVERYSTRATEGIES, TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS IN EUROPE

FrancoAngeli

The volume contains the main lectures of the Erasmus Intensive Programme“SAMWARE: Strategies, Application and Methodologies of Waste Recovery”, propo-sed by a partnership of 7 European Universities: Univ. of Bologna (Italy), TechnicalUniv. of Braunschweig (Germany); “Rey Juan Carlos” of Madrid (Spain); CatholicUniv. of Leuven (Belgium); “Dunarea De Jos” of Galati (Romania); Univ. of Modenaand Reggio Emilia (Italia); Univ. of Economics and Business Administration of Vienna(Austria).

Different aspects related to waste management are treated, as: managementstrategies; regulations and law definitions; ecodesign of products; technologies formaterial recovery (composting and recycling of different waste types); technologiesfor energy recovery; assessment of impacts from different treatment and disposalprocesses; economical considerations; case studies.

This book can be a useful review for students, researchers, technicians, admini-strators and other people dealing with or interested in waste management issue.

Editors teach and work at the Industrial Chemistry Faculty of Alma Mater Studio-rum – Bologna University (Rimini Branch) in the field of Environmental and CulturalHeritage Chemistry.

Luciano Morselli is Full Professor and President of the 1st Level Degree Course in“Chemical Technologies for Environment and Waste Management”. Leader of manyresearch projects in the same field, he is author of more than 100 scientific paperspublished on national and international journals. He edited many scientific volumesand many proceedings of Italian and International Congresses and Fairs.

Fabrizio Passarini is Researcher; PhD in Chemistry and author of more than 20 pu-blications on International refereed journals. He is member of the Steering Commit-tee of the Division of Environmental and Cultural Heritage Chemistry of Italian Che-mical Society.

Ivano Vassura is Researcher; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences and author of mo-re than 20 publications on International refereed journals.

I S B N 978-88-568-1040-0

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Luciano MorselliFrancesco Passarini

Ivano Vassura(edited by)

WASTE RECOVERYSTRATEGIES, TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS IN EUROPE

FrancoAngeli

On the front cover: Luciano Morselli, Le rane blu (The Bue Frogs), 1989 acrylic on paperboard, cm 70x100 (detail)

Copyright © 2009 by FrancoAngeli s.r.l., Milano, Italy.

L’opera, comprese tutte le sue parti, è tutelata dalla legge sul diritto d’autore. L’Utente nel momento in cui effettua il download dell’opera accetta tutte le condizioni specificate sul sito www.francoangeli.it

5

Contents 1. Integrated Waste Management: Towards a European

Recycling Society, Luciano Morselli, Fabrizio Passarini, Ivano Vassura (University of Bologna, Italy)

page

9 2. The Responsibiliy and the Costs of Waste Management in

the Directive 2008/98/CE, Giuseppe Garzia (University of Bologna, Italy)

»

25 3. Packaging Waste Recovery: The Italian Scheme and the

European Scenario, Eugenio Bora (CONAI – Italian Packaging Consortium, Milan, Italy)

»

41 4. Waste Management in Life Cycle Assessment, Javier Dufour

(Rey Juan Carlos University, Madrid, Spain)

»

60

5. Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment – End-of-Life Management and Design Implications, Tobias Luger, Christoph Hermann (Technical University of Braunschweig, Germany)

»

73

6. Source Segregated Organic Waste Recovery: The Biological Aerobic Approach, Alberto Confalonieri (Scuola Agraria del Parco di Monza, Italy)

»

93

7. Energy Recovery from Organic and Agricultural Wastes: The Case of Italy, Sergio Piccinini (Research Center on Animal Production CRPA, Reggio Emilia, Italy)

»

108

8. Bioliquefaction as a Bio-Refinery’s Approach for the Production of Natural Bioactive Compounds for Functional Cosmetics, Leonardo Setti (University of Bologna, Italy), Dario Zanichelli (Phenbiox s.r.l., Bologna, Italy)

»

122

6

9. Plastic Wastes: Management and Recycling, David P. Serrano (Rey Juan Carlos University, Madrid, Spain)

page

129

10. Using Injection Moulding Technology for Polyolefin

Recycling, Paolo Pozzi, Rosa Taurino, Tania Zanasi (University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy)

»

142

11. Thermal Treatments for the Recovery of Value Added Materials, Fernanda Andreola, Luisa Barbieri, Isabella Lancellotti, Cristina Leonelli (University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy)

»

151

12. European Strategies Concerning Wastes from the Automative Industry. A Focus on the Non-Ferrous Scrap Recovery, Luciano Morselli, Alessandro Santini, Fabrizio Passarini, Ivano Vassura (University of Bologna, Italy)

»

165 13. Industrial Processes for (Domestic and Industrial) Waste

Incineration, Carlo Vandecasteele (University of Leuven, Belgium), Chantal Block (Leuven Engineering College, Belgium)

»

174

14. Waste Minimisation and Recycling, Ion V. Ion, Daniela L. Negoita (University “Dunarea De Jos” of Galati, Romania)

»

188

15. Understanding of Health Effects on Decision Making

Concerning Waste Management: From Evidence to Action. General Comments and Proposals, Paolo Lauriola (Environmental Prevention and Environment Agency, Emilia-Romagna, Italy)

»

202

16. Comieco and the Management of Recovery and Recycling of Paper and Board Packaging, Eliana Farotto (Italian Consortium for the Recovery and Recycling of Paper and Board Packaging, Milan, Italy)

»

215 17. COREPLA. The Italian Scheme, a Success Story,

Mariagiovanna Vetere (Italian Consortium for the Recovery and Recycling of Plastic Packaging, Milan, Italy)

»

224

18. Comparative Analysis of Systems for Separately Collected Glass Fractions in Italy, Massimiliano Avella (Italian Consortium for Glass Recovery, Milan, Italy)

»

231

7

19. The Vinyloop® Technology, Paolo Groppi (SolVin Italia S.p.A., Ferrara, Italy)

page

238

20. Tetra Pak and the Environmental Sustainability, Lorenzo

Nannariello (Tetra Pak Italia, Rubiera, Italy)

»

247

9

1. Integrated Waste Management: Towards a European Recycling Society Luciano Morselli, Fabrizio Passarini, Ivano Vassura Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna (Italy)

Every year about 2 billion tonnes of waste are produced in the EU. Even if the waste production is generally linked to socio-economics drivers, among the Member States there are several differences in municipal waste generation, especially between EU15 and New Member States (Fig. 1). Fig. 1 - Waste generation in Europe, in EU15 (i.e.: A, B, DK, SF, F, D, GR, IRL, I, L, NL, P, E, S, GB) and in EU10 new Member States (i.e.: CY, CZ, H, LV, LT, M, PL, R, SK, SLO) – (ISPRA, 2007).

Different waste treatments and management strategies are adopted by

the Member States (Fig. 2). It can be observed that the 40% of waste is landfill disposed, on average. In particular (but not only) for new EU

10

Countries, that is the principal waste treatment option. However, the use of landfill is decreasing everywhere in EU, year by year (Fig. 3). Fig. 2 - Treatment and disposal of urban waste in Europe (ISPRA, 2007). Fig. 3 - Waste landfill disposal of urban waste in Europe (ISPRA, 2007). 1.1. Waste Management Strategies

The Sixth Environmental Action Programme of EU: “Environment 2010: Our future, Our choice” defines the principles to which the whole environmental policy of European Countries would be referred. Some of

11

these principles, concerning waste production and management are here reminded:

� Pollution caused by transport, agricultural activities, industrial

processes and municipal and industrial waste management contributes to determine a poor environmental quality, which in turn has a negative impact on human health.

� The capacity of the planet to absorb resource demand and wastes deriving from their use is under pressure and negative effects are registered connected to metal, mineral and hydrocarbon consumption.

� In EU waste volume grows constantly with a consequent loss of land and resources and a pollution increase.

� A significant part of waste is hazardous. Thus, many aims have been stated, in order to improve European

situation concerning this issue. First of all, it is necessary to guarantee that renewable and non-renewable resources consumption and their impacts do not exceed the “bearing capacity” of the environment; then, the amount of waste destined to final disposal and the volume of hazardous waste produced must be significantly reduced; different prevention initiatives must be implemented to achieve a considerable overall reduction of waste amounts produced, a greater efficiency and a transition to more sustainable development models, decoupling in this way waste production from economical growth; wastes which will be still produced would not be hazardous or would present a minimum potential risk; it is necessary to favour recovery, and more specifically recycling; the amount of waste destined to final disposal must be reduced to a minimum and must be destroyed or safely disposed; and finally, wastes would be treated as near as possible to the place in which they are produced, provided that this is compatible with the European legislation and do not implies a reduction in the economical and technical efficiency in waste treatment operations.

These principles inspired the strategic approach to the waste management described by EU guidelines (DIRECTIVE 2008/98/EC). The few data reported above are however sufficient to understand that the EU approach, based on the “hierarchy of waste treatments” (prevention; preparing for re-use; recycling; other recovery, e.g. energy recovery; and disposal) is still far from being achieved for most States.

This hierarchy would be applied as a priority order in waste prevention and management legislation and policy. Furthermore, Member States would take measures to encourage the options that reach the best overall environmental outcome. This may require specific waste streams diverting

12

from the hierarchy where this is justified by life-cycle thinking on the overall impacts (Article 4).

The EU legislation highlights the importance to prevent the production of waste, reintroducing it into the product cycle by recycling its components where there are ecologically and economically viable methods of doing so. The variations in the market and in social consumption could result in an improvement in product, technological and management quality. According to the principles of a sustainable development, a waste management strategy devoted to recycling can be described in different steps, as reported in Tab. 1.

Tab. 1 - Waste management strategies devoted to recycling.

WASTE MANAGEMENT devoted to Recycling Reference tools

Environmental Policy and Strategies – Sustainable

Development European and national sector rules

Documents (VI Action Program 2000-2010);

Communications (COM-667)2005. European Directives

Flow Analysis Integrated Waste Management

System

National & European Reports; Reports of

National Consortia

Waste Collection Management Technologies

Mixed Waste: Treatment & pre-selection � material separation � treatment & technologies � material to be directed to the same or to other production cycles Separate collection: Separated materials � Treatment & technologies � material to be directed to the same or to other production cycles

Planning (National, regional e provincial) Information Education

Fiscal benefits (rate system)

BAT IPPC and guidelines

LCA

Waste material selection and physico-chemical analysis

Methodologies APAT, ASTM, ISO-UNI

Enhancement and recovery technologies:

Material recycling and energy recovery

Legislation Case studies Environmental controls

Risk analysis

Envi

ronm

enta

l Sus

tain

abili

ty; S

ocia

l Acc

epta

bilit

y; E

cono

mic

Sus

tain

abili

ty;

Rec

yclin

g C

ultu

re;

Educ

atio

n; I

nfor

mat

ion

RE-PRODUCTS and possible market

Certification, Eco-design, Eco-Label, EPD, GPP

13

Indeed, Integrated Solid Waste Management involves the selection and application of appropriate technologies, techniques, and management practices, to design a program to achieve business goals, minimizing operating costs and environmental hazardousness.

This system must consider the product features and the chemical-physical properties of waste. Furthermore, it is essential to determine the total waste flux and the flux of each commodity class. This approach allows an optimisation in the recovery of materials (by recycling), of electric and thermal energy (by incineration or anaerobic digestion), and a waste disposal with reduced environmental impacts. This EU waste management legislation integrates well with the principles of European environmental policy and reduction of environmental impacts which could be summarised in these few points:

� All the subjects involved must give their contribution: the criterion of “shared responsibility”.

� Reduction of environmental impacts and introduction of Life Cycle concept in waste policies.

� From management to prevention: IPP (Integrated Product Policy). � Use of renewable raw materials and energy. � Minimum waste production and maximum recycling. � Eco-efficiency and dematerialization. � Economy of closed cycles, i.e. extend product life cycle. � ECODESIGN (Project strategy aimed to the supply of “products”,

“processes” or “services” with an environmental design). � Reduction of obstacles in recyclable material markets.

1.2. Tools for the Assessment of Environmental Impact Relevant to Waste Treatment Activities

Every type of activity in the framework of an Integrated Waste Management Systems (reuse, recycling, recovery and landfill disposal) produces environmental impacts, at a global or more local scale. The identification of significant pollutants emitted from the contamination source is the first step in evaluation of impact associated to an anthropic activity.

The technological progress performed in recent years allowed a high improvement in pollution control associated to industrial processes. However, waste treatment facilities still create much concern in public

14

opinion and in the public agencies involved in the safeguarding of human health. A general evaluation of the environmental impacts that derive from these processes is therefore necessary both in qualitative and quantitative terms, looking at the same time at the advantages and the negative aspects.

Below, some important tools which can support the assessment of environmental impacts are described (Morselli et al., 2005). 1.2.1. Integrated Environmental Monitoring System

Since the more remarkable environmental impact is often produced at a local level and since the major pollutants dispersion is limited to a confined zone in the vicinity the plant, it becomes appropriate to investigate the environmental matrixes in the most invested areas. The Integrated Environmental Monitoring System (Morselli et al., 2002) is an important approach that could allows a remarkable understanding of relative impacts due to a contamination source. The first step of this procedure concerns the characterisation of the contamination sources and the application of a mathematical dispersion model to predict the area of higher dispersion of the contaminant emitted. A map representing different deposition loads of particulate emitted from a pollution source in the vicinity is shown in Fig. 4.

The sampling sites were chosen on the base of the dispersion model, in zones affected by different deposition extents, to assess pollutant diffusion. Then, some suitable indicators, that can be well linked to the source emission, are selected, such as the main ions, heavy metals, dioxins or a mix of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH); after, the most important environmental receptors as soil, wet and dry deposition, and particulate matter are analysed. The use of ordinary chemical monitoring instruments, together with biomonitoring methodologies, can give an interesting understanding of the interaction of the various pollutants with the biological matrices and the potentiality of their use in environmental studies.

Finally, the relationship of cause-effect between emissions and environmental concentration is investigated. Statistic tools of multivariate analysis can be very useful. An example of data elaboration is reported in Fig. 5a-b: loading and score plots related to the first two principal components of atmospheric deposition samples are reported, described by their content in the main ions (a) and in heavy metals (b).

As can be seen in Fig. 6a, the similarity between the sampling sites is in line with the choice of the areas at different deposition of pollutants from the plant, according to the distribution of the main ions. However (Fig. 6b), from the analysis of metal distribution, site 1 is more similar to 4, rather

15

than the others; this could suggest that not only the plant, but other contamination sources affect the same zone, resulting in a similar heavy metals deposition for adjacent sites.

Fig. 4 - Annual deposition pattern of particulate from a pollutant source. The four different sampling sites identified for monitoring campaigns are indicated.

Furthermore, the resulting distribution, compared to the temporal

variation of emissions and to the correlation of the same pollutants in the gas flows from the source, can suggest possible cause-effect relationships. 1.2.2. Environment and Human Health Risk Assessment (EHHRA)

Another useful tool is the Risk Assessment approach, which can be

Maximum deposition

11

33

44

22

Maximum deposition

16

applied in order to assess the hazard represented by a waste treatment facility for the environment and for the health of the most affected population.

Fig. 5a,b - Loading (a) and score (b) plots calculated for main ions and heavy metals in deposition samples collected in the vicinity of an incineration plant.

B4-15

B1-1

B1-2

B1-3

B1-4 B1-5 B1-6

B1-7

B1-8 B1-9

B1-10

B1-11

B1-12

B1-13

B1-14

B1-15

B1-16

B1-17

B1-18

B1-19 B1-20

B1-21

B2-1 B2-2 B2-3

B2-4

B2-5

B2-6 B2-7

B2-8

B2-9

B2-10

B2-11

B2-12

B2-13

B2-14 B2-15B2-16B2-17

B2-18

B2-19 B2-20

B2-21 B3-1

B3-2

B3-3 B3-4 B3-5

B3-6 B3-7

B3-8 B3-9

B3-10 B3-11

B3-12

B3-13

B3-14

B3-15

B3-16

B3-17

B3-18

B3-21

B4-1 B4-2

B4-3

B4-4 B4-5

B4-6 B4-7

B4-8

B4-9

B4-10

B4-11

B4-12

B4-13

B4-14

B4-16

B4-17

B4-18 B4-19

B4-20

B4-21

Na+

NH4+

K+

Ca2+

SO42–

NO3– Cl–

F–

NO2–

PC1

PC2

B1-1

B1-2

B1-3

B1-4

B1-5

B1-6

B1-7

B1-8

B1-9

B1-10 B1-11

B1-12

B1-13

B1-14

B1-15

B1-16 B1-17

B1-18

B1-19

B1-20

B1-21

B1-22

B2-1

B2-2

B2-3

B2-4

B2-5

B2-6

B2-7

B2-8

B2-9

B2-10

B2-11B2-12

B2-13

B2-14

B2-15

B2-16

B2-17

B2-18 B2-19

B2-20 B2-21

B2-22

B3-1

B3-2

B3-3

B3-4

B3-5

B3-6

B3-7

B3-8

B3-9

B3-10 B3-11

B3-12 B3-13

B3-14

B3-15

B3-16 B3-17

B3-18

B3-19 B3-20 B4-1

B4-2 B4-3

B4-4

B4-5

B4-6

B4-7

B4-8

B4-9

B4-10

B4-11 B4-12

B4-13

B4-14

B4-15

B4-16 B4-17

B4-18 B4-19

B4-20

B4-21

B4-22

Al

Cr

Fe

Mg

Mn

Sn Zn

PC1

PC2

17

Fig. 6a,b - Cluster analysis (centroid classification) of the sampling sites calculated according to main ions (a) and heavy metals (b) concentration in deposition samples.

This is a powerful methodology, standardised by different

environmental agencies (US EPA, 2005; DEFRA, 2004), to understand the fate of pollutants and their interaction with people. Its definition given by US NAS (1983) is: “the characterization of the potential adverse health effects of human exposures to environmental hazards”.

This approach can be well integrated with the other used as control tools for the environmental impact of industrial processes or facilities.

Administrations, decision makers and public institution for the protection of health and environment can use it in order to oversee and monitor the possible impacts, and to implement a Strategic Environmental Assessment.

Companies can employ it to verify different industrial strategies; to trace the most convenient plant location; to perform the assessment of alternative scenarios; to compile a company certification; to take sustainable and transparent decisions; to communicate their efforts in environmental and health directions.

The methodology of application of HHRA is the following: 1. Hazard identification 2. Exposure assessment 3. Dose-response relationship assessment 4. Risk characterization Once the pollution source is identified, the exposure assessment is

performed by investigating all possible pathways of exposition to people living in the vicinity.

A scheme which summarises this approach is reported in Fig. 7. According to the observation that almost all heavy metal content is in

the fine fraction of particulate from the plant, atmospheric distribution around the plant has been calculated, as represented in Fig. 8.

1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 .0

1 2 3 4

1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 .0

1 2 3 4

18

Fig. 7 - Scheme of exposure assessment applied to the pollution from an incineration plant. Fig. 8 - Atmospheric dispersion of fine particulate (PM10) from an incineration plant.

19

For the toxicity of different heavy metals, a Hazard Quotient can be calculated, defined as the ratio of the exposure estimate to an effects concentration considered to represent a “safe” environmental concentration or dose. The quantification of different exposure pathways for adult people related to Cd and Pb emitted from the plant is reported (in %) in Fig. 9a-b. Fig. 9a-b - Exposure pathways for adult people related to Cd and Pb toxicity (expressed in percentage of Hazard Quotient). 1.2.3. Life Cycle Assessment

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a proven methodological tool, based on a global vision of the production system, in which all of the processes and the operations that occur, from the extraction of raw materials to the end of life, are analysed in terms of input and output, including the burdens associated with resource depletion and the releases on the environment.

The LCA applied to integrated MSW management constitutes a relatively new field of application of the methodology, and has a great potential of development, especially in support of the decisions of planners and companies that manage waste collection, transport and

HQ Cadmium - Adults

40.21% 59.79% 55.44%

3.39% 0.96%

Direct Vegetable Soil Absorption

HQ Lead - Adults

98.94% 0.79%

0.21% 0.06%

1.06% Direct Vegetable Soil Absorption