Waste Management - UE

A report

With support from

ISWA Working Group on Collection and

Transportation Technology

Written by Thomas Kogler

2007

Waste Collection

KOGLER Table of Contents

I

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................1

1.1 Waste generation ........................................................................................................3 1.2 Urbanisation ...............................................................................................................5 1.3 Waste management in the European Union ...............................................................7 1.4 Scope and research questions ...................................................................................10

2 TRADITIONAL WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEMS...........................................13

2.1 Waste collection systems .........................................................................................13 2.1.1 Collection methods...................................................................................................15 2.1.1.1 Simple emptying ......................................................................................................15 2.1.1.2 Exchange method .....................................................................................................15 2.1.1.3 One-way method ......................................................................................................16 2.1.1.4 Non-systematic collection ........................................................................................16 2.1.1.5 Special collection .....................................................................................................16 2.1.2 Container systems ....................................................................................................17 2.1.3 Vehicles ....................................................................................................................19 2.1.3.1 Vehicles for simple emptying method .....................................................................19 2.1.3.1.1 Rear-loading trucks ..................................................................................................19 2.1.3.1.2 Side-loading trucks...................................................................................................21 2.1.3.1.3 Front-loading trucks .................................................................................................22 2.1.3.1.4 Vacuum collection vehicles .....................................................................................24 2.1.3.1.5 Multi-chamber trucks ...............................................................................................26 2.1.3.2 Container vehicles ....................................................................................................27 2.1.3.3 Special vehicles and latest inventions ......................................................................28 2.1.3.3.1 Vehicles with subdivided build-up...........................................................................29 2.1.3.3.2 Vehicles with subdivided driving cab ......................................................................30 2.1.4 Personnel ..................................................................................................................32 2.2 Household waste collection......................................................................................33 2.2.1 Separated collection of recyclables ..........................................................................37 2.2.2 Kerbside collection...................................................................................................39 2.2.2.1 General features........................................................................................................40 2.2.3 Drop-off systems ......................................................................................................42 2.2.3.1 General features........................................................................................................42 2.2.3.2 Drop-off sites............................................................................................................42 2.2.3.3 Drop-off recycling centres .......................................................................................44 2.2.4 Waste tarifs...............................................................................................................45 2.2.4.1 Traditional fee systems.............................................................................................45 2.2.4.1.1 Flat Fee Systems.......................................................................................................45 2.2.4.1.2 Container Tag Fee Systems......................................................................................45 2.2.4.2 Alternative fee systems ............................................................................................46 2.2.4.2.1 Individual billing systems ........................................................................................46 2.2.4.2.2 Coin systems ............................................................................................................49


II

2.2.4.2.3 Card Systems............................................................................................................49 2.2.4.3 Case study for individual billing system ..................................................................50 2.3 Developments in waste management .......................................................................51 2.3.1 Collection method ....................................................................................................52 2.3.2 Container systems ....................................................................................................52 2.3.3 Vehicles ....................................................................................................................52 2.3.4 Personnel ..................................................................................................................53 2.3.5 Route planning and supervision systems .................................................................53 2.3.5.1 Route planning .........................................................................................................53 2.3.5.2 Supervision systems .................................................................................................54

3 ALTERNATIVE WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEMS AND CONCEPTS ...........57

3.1 Container systems ....................................................................................................60 3.1.1 Deep Collection........................................................................................................60 3.1.2 Hydraulic underground compactors .........................................................................63 3.2 Vacuum suction systems ..........................................................................................64

4 THE AUTOMATED WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEM OF ENVAC .................65

4.1 General explanation of the system ...........................................................................65 4.2 Technical description ...............................................................................................65 4.2.1 Waste collection terminal.........................................................................................68 4.2.2 Waste transport pipes Pipe network ......................................................................74 4.2.3 Waste discharge valves ............................................................................................75 4.2.4 Charging stations......................................................................................................76 4.2.4.1 Waste inlets ..............................................................................................................77 4.2.5 Air inlet valves .........................................................................................................79 4.2.6 Separated collection with vacuum collection systems .............................................80 4.2.7 Function....................................................................................................................81 4.3 Case studies ..............................................................................................................85 4.3.1 Denmark ...................................................................................................................86 4.3.2 Norway .....................................................................................................................86 4.3.3 Spain.........................................................................................................................87 4.3.3.1 Seville.......................................................................................................................87 4.3.3.2 Victoria-Gasteiz .......................................................................................................87 4.3.3.3 Mallorca ...................................................................................................................88 4.3.4 China ........................................................................................................................89

5 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEMS ...............90

5.1 Criteria for comparison ............................................................................................90 5.2 Quantifiable criteria..................................................................................................92 5.2.1 Costs .........................................................................................................................92 5.2.2 Traffic load ...............................................................................................................96 5.2.3 Noise.........................................................................................................................99 5.2.3.1 Traditional collection with rear loading trucks ......................................................100 5.2.3.2 Vacuum suction systems ........................................................................................100


III

5.2.3.3 Exkursus Project SYLVIE ..................................................................................101 5.2.4 Safety for collection workers .................................................................................102 5.3 Non-quantifiable criteria ........................................................................................106 5.3.1 Hygiene ..................................................................................................................106 5.3.2 Unpleasant odour....................................................................................................109 5.4 Collection systems and trends in waste management ............................................112

6 CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................114

7 APPENDIX ............................................................................................................118

7.1 Summary of Vstra Hammarby Sjstad study: ......................................................118

8 REFERENCES.......................................................................................................119

KOGLER List of Figures

IV

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1: Trend of municipal waste generation, GDP and private consumption

expenditure (PCE) in OECD countries 4 Fig. 2: Household waste volumes in European cities 5 Fig. 3: Urban population projections for 2020 6 Fig. 4: Containers in different sizes (120l, 240l and 1,100l) 17 Fig. 5: Rear-loading truck 20 Fig. 6: Side-loading truck 22 Fig. 7: Front-loading truck 23 Fig. 8: Schematic depiction of collection activity with vacuum collection vehicles 25 Fig. 9: Multi-chamber truck 26 Fig. 10: Container vehicles 28 Fig. 11: Collection vehicle with subdivided build-up 29 Fig. 12: Vehicle with subdivided driving cab 31 Fig. 13: Correlation of efficiency and costs in waste collection (adapted) 38 Fig. 14: Collection systems (adapted) 40 Fig. 15: Drop-off site in a Viennese neighbourhood, Vienna 1998 43 Fig. 16: Individual billing system 47 Fig. 17: Fleet consumption (24 vehicles) in the city of Hamburg (adapted) 56 Fig. 18: Innovative concepts: Attractiveness of markets 59 Fig. 19: Deep collection containers 60 Fig. 20: Cross section of a deep collection container 61 Fig. 21: Emptying of deep collection containers 61 Fig. 22: Hydraulic underground compactor in normal and emptying position 63 Fig. 23: Schematic depiction of the major components of an AWCS (adapted) 66 Fig. 24: Air exhausters in waste collection terminal 69 Fig. 25: Cyclone waste separator 70 Fig. 26: Containers in waste collection terminal 71 Fig. 27: Container ready for pick-up 72 Fig. 28: Waste collection terminal 74 Fig. 29: Schematic depiction of an out-door charging station 76 Fig. 30: Waste inlet (outdoor) 77 Fig. 31: Waste inlet with surrounding 78 Fig. 32: Waste inlet in the centre of the Spanish city Seville 78 Fig. 33: Indoor waste inlets 79 Fig. 34: Three way diverter valve in different positions 80 Fig. 35: Scheme of a suction system 83 Fig. 36: Product life cycle 84 Fig. 37: Waste inlets in the historic city centre of Victoria-Gasteiz 87 Fig. 38: Schematic depiction of transport occurring in kerbside and

vacuum suction systems 97 Fig. 39: Regional traffic load 98 Fig. 40: Methods for improved container handling 103 Fig. 41: Work related fatalities per 1000 gainfully employed men 103 Fig. 42: Work related accidents per 1000 gainfully employed men 104 Fig. 43: Comparison of collection systems regarding workers safety 106

KOGLER List of Figures

V

Fig. 44: Comparison of hygiene in different waste collection systems 109 Fig. 45: Comparison of level of unpleasant odour occurring in different

waste collection systems 111

KOGLER List of Tables

VI

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Average price levels for collection vehicles 24 Table 2: Investment costs for individual billing systems for 10,000 bins 48 Table 3: Waste generation in pay-per-kg municipalities and reference municipalities 50 Table 4: General information on the Stockholm region Hammarby Sjstad 92 Table 5: Comparison of total operating and capital costs for the region

Hammarby Sjstad 93 Table 6: Comparison of operating- and investment costs per dwelling 94 Table 7: Comparison of costs per dwelling in Sdra Station, Stockholm 95 Table 8: Traffic load in collection area 97 Table 9: Outdoor noise for the whole area of Hammarby Sjstad

Manual waste handling 100 Table 10: Outdoor noise for the whole area of Hammarby Sjstad

Vacuum suction system 100 Table 11: Collection systems and trends in waste management 112

KOGLER Terms and Definitions

VII

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS (GLOSSARY)

Since the chosen topic deals with many terms and concepts it is of great importance to define certain terms that are frequently used in the underlying thesis. In both the English and the German language, there are many different words for the things we throw away, e.g.: trash, waste, garbage, rubbish, refuse and so on. In order to be able to discuss problems regarding waste scientifically it is of great importance that these different terms, mentioned above, are clearly defined.1 Waste Abfall

Waste is unwanted or undesired material left over after the completion of a process. Waste is a human concept: in natural processes there is no waste, only inert end products. Waste can exist in any phase of matter (solid, liquid, or gas). When released in the latter two states, gas especially, the wastes are referred to as emissions. It is usually strongly linked with pollution.2 Waste management Abfallwirtschaft

Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal of waste materials, usually those produced by human activity, in an effort to reduce their effect on human health or local amenity. A sub focus in recent decades has been to reduce waste materials' effect on the environment and to recover resources from them.3 Waste management encompasses the sum of all measures of waste avoidance, non-harmful treatment, recovery, reuse and final disposal of wastes of all types while giving due consideration to ecological and economic aspects.4 Solid waste management Abfallwirtschaft

Solid waste management may be defined as the discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in accord with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics and other environmental considerations and that is also responsive to public attitudes.5

1 BHMER, G.: Solid waste and the hierachy in solid waste management systems, Diplomarbeit an der Wirtschaftsuniversitt Wien, Wien 1995, p. 2 2 BIOCRAWLER: http://www.biocrawler.com/biowiki/Waste, 25.10.2005 3 WIKIPEDIA: http://www.wikipedia.org, 25.10.2005 4 BILITEWSKI, B., HRDTLE, G., MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 259 5 TCHOBANOGLOUS, G. et al.: Integrated solid waste management Engineering principles and management issues,

MC Graw-Hill, New York et al. 1993, p. 7


VIII

Solid waste services Mllabfuhr

Solid waste services include the collection, transportation and disposal of solid waste. In everyday language the less comprehensive term refuse collection is more common.6 In a narrow sense, the German concept of Mllabfuhr corresponds to refuse collection and does not comprise the disposal of solid wastes, but since the collection and transportation authorities are usually responsible for the disposal as well, the terms Mllabfuhr and refuse collection can be interpreted as the overall services rendered by the waste authorities or companies.7

Waste collection systems Sammelsysteme

A collection system is defined as a combination of technology and human labour, specially:

Collection method

Container system

Vehicles and

Personnel8

Landfilling Deponierung

Landfilling is the controlled disposal on or in the earths mantle and it includes monitoring of the incoming waste stream, placement and compaction of the waste and installation of environmental monitoring and control facilities.9

Municipal solid wastes Kommunale Abflle

Municipal solid waste includes all the wastes generated from residential households and apartment buildings, commercial and business establishments, institutional facilities, construction and demolition activities, municipal services and treatment plant sites10

6 JENKINS, R.R.: The economics of solid waste reduction The impact of user fees, Edward Elgar Publishing, Hampshire 1993, p. 1 7 BHMER, G.: Solid waste and the hierachy in solid waste management systems, Diplomarbeit an der Wirtschaftsuniversitt Wien, Wien 1995, p. 105 8 BILITEWSKI, B., HRDTLE, G., MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 64 9 TCHOBANOGLOUS, G. et al.: Integrated solid waste management Engineering principles and management issues,

MC Graw-Hill, New York et al. 1993, p. 362 10 TCHOBANOGLOUS, G. et al.: Integrated solid waste management Engineering principles and management issues,



IX

Commercial solid wastes Gewerbliche Abflle

Commercial solid wastes are wastes that originate in wholesale, retail, or service establishments, such as office buildings, stores, markets, theatres, hotels and warehouses, which are usually discarded with residential solid waste.11

Industrial wastes Industrielle Abflle

Industrial wastes are wastes generally discarded from industrial operations or derived from manufacturing processes.12

Recyclables Altstoffe

Recyclable resources are materials that still have useful physical or chemical properties after serving a specific purpose and therefore can be re-used or recycled for the same or other purposes.13

Residual waste Restmll

Residual waste is mostly solid waste from private households not including bio-waste, potential recyclable and household hazardous waste (HHW). Organic waste Biogener Abfall

Organic waste is the biodegradable component of municipal waste (e.g. food and garden waste).14

Bulky waste Sperrmll

Bulky waste refers to large worn-out or broken household, commercial and industrial items such as furniture, lamps, bookcases, filing cabinets and other similar items15

11 TCHOBANOGLOUS, G. et al.: Integrated solid waste management Engineering principles and management issues,



MC Graw-Hill, New York et al. 1993, p. 910 14 BILITEWSKI, B., HRDTLE, G., MAREK, K. .: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 21




X

Hazardous wastes and substances gefhrliche Abflle

Hazardous wastes are wastes that by their nature may pose a threat to human health or the environment, the handling and disposal of which is regulated by federal law. Hazardous wastes include radioactive substances, toxic chemical, biological wastes, flammable wastes and explosives.16

Waste Transportation Mlltransport

The term transportation refers to the physical act of transporting the collected waste to waste treatment facilities. These may be: recycling centres, incineration plants, chemical or physical treatment facilities or both, landfill or other facilities such as transfer stations.17

Kerbside collection Holsystem

Kerbside collection is defined as collection of waste from the source, i.e. from households, commercial and industrial premises.18 Drop-off system Bringsystem

This term refers to the collection of waste from certain special collection centres and sites. In drop-off systems, accumulated recyclables are taken by the consumer (waste producer) to a central location and placed into individually marked receptacles.19


MC Graw-Hill, New York et al. 1993, p. 908 17 BILITEWSKI, B., HRDTLE, G., MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 77

18 BILITEWSKI, B., HRDTLE, G., MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 99


KOGLER Introduction

1

1 INTRODUCTION

Waste collection lies at the hub of an integrated waste management system. The way that waste materials are collected (and subsequently sorted) determines which waste management options can subsequently be used. Moreover, the selected collection method will significantly influence the quality of recovered materials.20 Collection of unseparated and separated solid waste in urban areas is difficult and complex because the generation of residential and commercial industrial solid waste takes place in every home, every apartment building and every commercial and industrial facility as well as in the streets, parks and even vacant areas.21 Waste collection is also the contact point between the waste generators and the waste management system and this relationship needs to be carefully managed in order to have an effective system.22 The collection-transfer-transportation of waste is often underestimated in terms of its importance within waste management systems. It does, after all, account for 60 to 80% of the total cost of waste disposal and thus any improvement in its organization and implementation would result in considerable savings.23 This stresses the importance of new, innovative concepts in order to achieve cost savings in the collection and transportation of waste. Waste collection in high density areas like big cities has become a more and more challenging task for the local authorities.24 The following trends, effecting waste collection and transportation in urban areas can be observed:25

Increasing waste volumes every year

Source separation of several fractions, due to an increase in recycling

Increasing traffic volumes and congestion

Increasing traffic related emissions of pollutants and noise

20 WHITE, P., et al.: Integrated solid waste management A lifecycle inventory, Black Academic & Professional, Boston et

al. 1995, p. 87 21 TCHOBANOGLOUS, G. et al.: Integrated solid waste management Engineering principles and management issues,

MC Graw-Hill, New York et al. 1993, p. 193 22 WHITE, P., et al.: Integrated solid waste management A lifecycle inventory, Black Academic & Professional, Boston et

al. 1995, p. 87 f 23 BILITEWSKI, B., HRDTLE, G., MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 63

24 JDEMARK Ch.: A modern concept for waste collection in cities, in: 13th European Water, Wastewater and Solid Waste

Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005, VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 117 25 JDEMARK Ch.: A modern concept for waste collection in cities, in: 13th European Water, Wastewater and Solid Waste

Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005, VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 126

KOGLER Introduction

2

Higher hygienic standards and lower noise levels

Improved quality of life

Improved working conditions for the collectors and operators26

Although the importance of these trends vary in different countries, collection systems of tomorrow will have to meet these requirements so as to contribute to a better living environment in densely populated areas.27 The background of these trends and their effects on waste collection will be presented in the following paragraphs. Increasing waste volumes and source separation are trends directly influencing waste collection systems. Since according to VOGEL, the objectives of waste collection systems are waste removal with a minimum of resource use and environmental impact with adherence to hygienic and health standards.28 It is clearly visible that increasing waste volumes are challenging waste collection in a sense that the generated waste has to be collected through suitable collection schemes. Source separation is an accepted means of reducing residual waste. The implementation in the member states of the European Union legislation and the setting of targets strongly influenced waste collection activities.29 Increasing traffic volumes and congestion, increasing traffic related emissions of pollutants and noise, higher hygienic standards and lower noise levels and finally improved quality of life are issues strongly related to urbanisation processes.30 More details regarding these issues are provided in the following chapters.

26 JDEMARK Ch.: A modern concept for waste collection in cities, in: 13th European Water, Wastewater and Solid Waste

Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005, VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 120 27 JDEMARK Ch.: A modern concept for waste collection in cities, in: 13th European Water, Wastewater and Solid Waste

Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005, VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 126 28 VOGEL, G.: Abfallwirtschaft 3 Bereitstellung und Sammlung von Abfllen, in: Skriptenreihe des Institutes fr

Technologie und Warenwirtschaftslehre der Wirtschaftsuniversitt Wien, VOGEL, G. (Hrsg.), Wien 1994, p. 28 29 PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households In Europe and Australia, in: Waste Management World, July-

August 2004, p. 123 30 COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT: A Thematic

Strategy on the urban environment, Brussels Jan. 2006, p. 3 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/urban/pdf/com_2005_0718_en.pdf

KOGLER Introduction

3

1.1 Waste generation

Waste generation in the EU is estimated at more than 1.3 billion tonnes per year and is increasing at rates comparable to economic growth. For example, both GDP and municipal waste grew by 19% between 1995 and 2003. One consequence of this growth is that despite large increases in recycling, landfill - the environmentally most problematic way to get rid of waste - is only reducing slowly.31 The generation of construction and demolition waste and municipal waste are closely linked to economic activity.32 Increasing waste volumes are not solely observed in the European Union. The direct correlation of municipal waste generation, private consumption expenditure (PCE) and GDP is also true for OECD countries.33 For the period 1980 to 1995, figure 1 shows how the growth in municipal waste has closely followed increases in GDP and consumer spending (the absolute increase of all three factors has been around 40%). Total municipal waste production in 1995 was 485 million tonnes. On a per capita (relative) basis, the increase in municipal waste from 1980-1995 has been 25%, that is, from 410 kilograms per capita to 510 kilograms per capita.34

31 COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION: New waste strategy: Making Europe a recycling society,

Brussels Dec. 2005, p. 1 http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/05/1673&format=HTML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLanguage=en

32 EEA: Environment in the European Union at the turn of the century, Copenhagen 1999, p. 205

http://reports.eea.europa.eu/92-9157-202-0-sum/en/ 33 OECD: Strategic waste prevention, OECD reference manual, Paris Aug. 2000, p. 26

http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/2000doc.nsf/4f7adc214b91a685c12569fa005d0ee7/c12568d1006e03f7c125692e004f054a/$FILE/00081387.PDF

34 OECD: Strategic waste prevention, OECD reference manual, Paris Aug. 2000, p. 26

http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/2000doc.nsf/4f7adc214b91a685c12569fa005d0ee7/c12568d1006e03f7c125692e004f054a/$FILE/00081387.PDF

KOGLER Introduction

4

Fig. 1: Trend of municipal waste generation, GDP and private consumption expenditure (PCE) in OECD countries

Source: OECD: Strategic waste prevention, OECD reference manual, Paris Aug. 2000, p. 26 http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/2000doc.nsf/4f7adc214b91a685c12569fa005d0ee7/c12568d1006e03f7c125692e004f0 54a/$FILE/00081387.PDF

As indicated in figure 1, waste generation is still linked to economic activity, meaning that, as Europes economy grows, the waste problem will grow with it.35 The most important issue in this context is to de-link waste generation from economic growth.36 Figure 2 shows the developments of household waste volumes in selected European cities, stressing the importance of sufficient and sustainable waste management strategies and waste collection systems. Increased municipal waste generation affects collection systems in a sense that the waste generated has to be handled in an environmentally and economically sustainable manner.37 If more waste is generated, the interrelated elements of collection systems such as removal intervals, number of containers etc. have to be adapted accordingly.

35 EEA: http://themes.eea.eu.int/environmental_issues/waste/indicators, 25.10.2005

36 EEA: Environment in the European Union at the turn of the century, Copenhagen 1999, p. 205

http://reports.eea.europa.eu/92-9157-202-0-sum/en/ 37 WHITE, P. et al.: Integrated solid waste management A lifecycle inventory, Blackie Academic and Professional, Glasgow

1994, p. 324

KOGLER Introduction

5

Fig. 2: Household waste volumes in European cities

Source: VOGEL, G.: Dynamic comparison of key figures in waste management, Presentation at the Viennese Waste Management Conference, Vienna 2001, p. 3

The unsustainable trends in waste generation [] are causes for concern because the generation of waste can be a symptom of environmentally inefficient use of resources. Furthermore, waste management generates emissions to air, water and soil as well as noise and other nuisances which contribute to environmental problems and cause economic costs.38

1.2 Urbanisation

Additionally to the growing amounts of municipal waste within the European Union, urbanisation processes are a problem as well. More than two thirds of Western Europes population are living in congested urban areas with more than 300,000 inhabitants.39

38 COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION: Taking sustainable use of resources forward: A thematic strategy on the

prevention and recycling of waste, communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Brussels Dec. 2005, p. 3

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2005/com2005_0666en01.pdf 39 WRZ, W.: Integrierte Logistiksysteme fr die Stadtentsorgung, in: Mll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2531, Lieferung 6, Erich

Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1999, p. 3 f

KOGLER Introduction

6

Latest studies on urbanisation and environmental issues, published by the European Environmental Agency (EEA) predict an increase in urban population as we can see in figure 3.40 It is forecast that 80% of Europeans will be living in urban areas by 2020 and in seven countries the proportion will be 90% or more. The pressures of extensive urban development (urban sprawl) are closely coupled with issues of transport and consumption. Urban sprawl can also lead to economic segregation, seen in areas of inner-city dereliction and extensive peripheral estates, with sub-standard housing. Urban expansion can also place pressure on inner city and urban green areas, which may be vulnerable to fragmentation and conversion unless adequately protected by planning guidelines.41

Fig. 3: Urban population projections for 2020

Source: EEA: EEA-Signals 2004 A European Environment Agency update on selected issues, Copenhagen 2004, p. 7 http://reports.eea.europa.eu/signals-2004/en/ENSignals2004web.pdf

40 EEA: EEA-Signals 2004 A European Environment Agency update on selected issues, Copenhagen 2004 p. 7

http://reports.eea.europa.eu/signals-2004/en/ENSignals2004web.pdf 41 EEA: EEA-Signals 2004 A European Environment Agency update on selected issues, Copenhagen 2004, p. 7

http://reports.eea.europa.eu/signals-2004/en/ENSignals2004web.pdf

KOGLER Introduction

7

Most cities are confronted with a common core set of environmental problems such as poor air quality, high levels of traffic and congestion, high levels of ambient noise, poor-quality built environment, derelict land, greenhouse gas emissions, urban sprawl, generation of waste and waste-water.42 In order to improve these developments mentioned above and to achieve a sustainable urban development the European Union issued within the framework of the 6th Environment Programme the Thematic Strategy on Urban Development. The objectives and measures of the mentioned strategy will be presented in the next chapter.

1.3 Waste management in the European Union

In the last 30 years waste has been at the centre of EU environment policy []43 EU environment legislation has helped improve the way we dispose waste of and recycle specific waste streams, such as municipal waste, packaging, cars and electric and electronic equipment.44 The legal framework [] includes horizontal legislation on waste management, e.g. the Waste Framework Directive, the Hazardous Waste Directive, as well as the Waste Shipment Regulation. These are complemented by more detailed legislation concerning waste treatment and disposal operations, such as the Landfill and Incineration Directives and legislation to regulate the management of specific waste streams (waste oils, PCBs/PCTs and batteries). Recycling and recovery targets have been set for some key waste flows, i.e. packaging (Packaging Directive), end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) and waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE).45 Some Directives strongly influenced waste collection and transportation. E.g. the Packaging Directive, that aims to harmonize national measures concerning the management of packaging and packaging waste in order, on the one hand, to prevent any impact thereof on the environment of all Member States as well as of third countries or to reduce such impact, thus providing a high level of environmental

42 COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT:: A Thematic

Strategy on the urban environment, Brussels Jan. 2006, p. 3 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/urban/pdf/com_2005_0718_en.pdf

43 COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS: Taking sustainable use of resources forward: A thematic strategy on the prevention and recycling of waste, Brussels Dec. 2005, p. 3 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2005/com2005_0666en01.pdf

44 COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION: New waste strategy: Making Europe a recycling society, Dec. 2005, p. 1

http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/05/1673&format=HTML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLanguage=en



KOGLER Introduction

8

protection and, on the other hand, to ensure the functioning of the internal market and to avoid obstacles to trade and distortion and restriction of competition within the Community.46 The Member States must introduce systems for the return and/or collection of used packaging to attain the following targets no later than 31 December 2008:

60% as a minimum by weight of packaging waste will be recovered or incinerated at waste incineration plants with energy recovery

Between 55 and 80% by weight of packaging waste will be recycled

The following recycling targets for materials contained in packaging waste must be attained: 60% by weight for glass, 60% by weight for paper and board, 50% by weight for metals, 22.5% by weight for plastics and 15% by weight for wood.47

Besides directives and decrees, there are other important instruments of the European Union, dealing with environmental issues such as the so called Action Programs (as already mentioned in chapter 1.2). The latest one is the 6th Environment Action Programme48 which includes seven Thematic Strategies presented by the EU Commission. Among these are two of importance for waste collection.49

1) Thematic Strategy on Urban Development

2) Thematic Strategy on Prevention and Recycling of Waste

1) The Thematic Strategy on Urban Development The goal of the strategy is to improve the environmental performance and quality of urban areas and to secure a healthy living environment for Europes urban citizens, reinforcing the environmental contribution to sustainable urban development while taking into account the related economic and social issues.50

46 European Parliament and Council Directive 94/62/EC, on packaging and packaging waste, 20 December 1994, Article 1

47 SUMMARY WASTE PACKAGING DIRECTIVE: http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l21207.htm, 02.04.2006

48 The 6th Environment Action Programme, Decision No 1600/2002/EC by the European Parliament and the Council, July

2002, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/newprg/index.htm 49 JDEMARK Ch.: A modern concept for waste collection in cities, in: 13th European Water, Wastewater and Solid Waste

Symposium at IFAT Munich 2005, VKS Service GmbH (Ed.), p. 125 50 COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL,THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS: Towards a thematic strategy on the urban environment, Brussels Feb. 2004, p. 4 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2004/com2004_0060en01.pdf

KOGLER Introduction

9

In order to fulfil the mandate set out in the 6th Environmental Action Programme, the Thematic Strategy for the Urban Environment will focus on four cross-cutting themes which are essential to the long-term sustainability of towns and cities, which have clear connections to the economic and social pillars of sustainable development and where the most significant progress can be achieved.51 The four major themes are sustainable:52

Urban management

Urban transport

Construction

Urban design To what extent several collection systems are able to contribute to the objectives outlined by the strategy on urban development will be one of the scopes investigated in this underlying thesis.

51 COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL,THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS: Towards a thematic strategy on the urban environment, Brussels Feb. 2004, p. 6 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2004/com2004_0060en01.pdf 52 COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL,THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS: Towards a thematic strategy on the urban environment, Brussels Feb. 2004, p. 6 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2004/com2004_0060en01.pdf

KOGLER Introduction

10

2) The Thematic Strategy on Prevention and Recycling of Waste

This strategy sets objectives and outlines the means by which the EU can move towards improved waste management.53 The following measures are proposed by the strategy:

Focussing on waste policy on improving the way we use resources

Mandatory national waste prevention programmes, which take account of the variety of national, regional and local conditions, to be finalised three years after the entry into force of the directive

Improving the recycling market by setting environmental standards that specify under which conditions certain recycled wastes are no longer considered waste

Simplifying waste legislation by clarifying definitions, streamlining provisions and integrating the directives on hazardous waste and on waste oils [].54

The impact of this strategy on waste collection and transportation are clearly visible. These aims, mentioned above, can only be met by the members of the European Union through clearly defined legal guidelines, i.e. through issuing regulations and decrees. This on the other hand indirectly affects waste collection and transportation as well since changes in legislation such as the already mentioned Packaging Directive can strongly influence the organisation of waste collection and transportation.55 Concluding, as discussed in the latter chapters, there are current trends and problems directly influencing waste collection and transportation such as growing municipal waste volume, urbanisation processes and legislation at European and national level.

1.4 Scope and research questions

The aim of the underlying thesis is to depict traditional and alternative waste collection systems in industrialized countries56 and further to compare them by means of different criteria. Moreover the author wants to give a general overview of latest trends in



54 COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN UNION: New waste strategy: Making Europe a recycling society, Brussels Dec.

2005, p. 2 http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/05/1673&format=HTML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLanguage=en

55 lecture notes by the author from KERI, CH.: Abfallwirtschaft im internat. Kontext unter besonderer Bercksichtigung des

Managements gefhrlicher Abflle, Lehrveranstaltung WU-Wien im SS 2006 56 especially Western Europe

KOGLER Introduction

11

Municipal Solid Waste Collection (MSW) and transportation especially in urban areas. Special focus will be put on the Automated Waste Collection System (AWCS) developed by the Swedish company ENVAC. Other important facts to be investigated are how these different solutions and concepts are suitable for meeting current demands and trends in modern waste management and logistics. As well as how these alternative waste collection systems can be implemented in urbanisation processes. The following questions are of interest:

Are there new, innovative concepts in waste collection and transportation that are able to replace traditional collection systems?

Which waste collection system is more efficient according to costs, collection quota, worker safety etc.?

Can waste collection still be rationalized? And if, how?

To which extent are waste collection systems able to meet current trends57 in waste management?

In chapter one current trends affecting MSW collection in European countries particularly growing waste volumes and urbanisation processes and their impacts on waste collection are discussed. Moreover, waste management in the European Union is presented and the importance of waste collection and transportation activities is highlighted. Chapter two mainly deals with traditional collection systems and waste transportation. Important concepts are introduced and defined. Moreover, different collection vehicles and containers are presented and discussed. After a brief explanation of household collection and the differences between kerbside and drop-off systems, the different fractions collected are discussed. The last part of the chapter deals with latest developments in waste logistics and rationalisation possibilities. The third chapters scope is to present alternative waste collection systems. After the definition of alternative systems and concepts, market outlooks for this sector are provided. In the course of the chapter, especially deep collection and underground compactors are specifically presented and discussed. The scope of chapter four is to explain the Automated Waste Collection System (AWCS) developed and constructed by the Swedish company ENVAC. Furthermore, the author will provide full technical explanation of the system and discuss pros and cons. Moreover function, the emptying cycle and the possibility of the separated collection of recyclables are described. Finally, some case studies are presented in

57 regarding the trends presented on page 1

KOGLER Introduction

12

order to provide the reader with possible applications. The information presented in this chapter will be used in chapter five, where traditional and alternative waste collection systems are compared. As already mentioned above, chapter five deals with the comparison of the presented waste collection systems and concepts by means of different characteristics. These criteria will be divided into two main groups, presented below: a) Quantifiable criteria:

Noise

Costs

Traffic load

Safety for workers

b) Non quantifiable criteria:

Unpleasant odour

Hygiene Finally, in chapter six all the information and results will be discussed and analysed.

KOGLER 2. Traditional waste collection systems

13

2 TRADITIONAL WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEMS

2.1 Waste collection systems

Waste collection systems are part of a waste management strategy.58 There are different waste collection systems that are used in order to arrange transport and separated collection of waste efficiently. According to the existing literature dealing with waste collection and transportation there are different ways of distinguishing and categorising collection systems. One way of describing and categorising waste collection systems is the following approach by BILITEWSKI et al. Any kind of collection system is defined as a combination of technology and human labour such as:

Collection method

Container system

Vehicles

Personnel59

In a community different waste sources occur (industry, households and commercial establishments). It is impossible to collect all the different wastes generated with only one system. In order to meet local needs and requirements a variety of collection systems is used. It is of great importance to evaluate the communitys needs and then to select the appropriate combination of waste collection systems.60 The selection of an appropriate collection system depends on the following characteristics:

Waste composition

Existing collection system

Existing waste preparation and disposal system

Willingness of the population to cooperate and pay

Processing opportunities

58 SALHOFER, St.: Kommunale Entsorgungslogistik Planung, Gestaltung und Bewertung entsorgungslogistischer Systeme

fr kommunale Abflle, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2001, p. 103 59 BILITEWSKI, B., HRDTLE, G., MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 64



14

Marketing opportunities61

The following requirements have to be met by any collection system: 62

High quality of collected material

High collection quota

Convenience

Practical experience, as well as surveys, suggest that when people are comfortable with the collection system they are more motivated to participate, which in turn leads to better collection results.63 LECHNER identifies the following important prerequisites regarding waste collection systems: 64

Distance to the drop-off centres

The system has to be simple and thus easy to understand otherwise the participation will be low

The handling of the containers has to be easy

Avoidance of malodour and vermin

Design (colours, arrangement of containers) Finally, no matter which system is applied, the overall objectives are: safe removal, adherence to health standards, meeting public and private needs and efficiency.65 The next chapter will chronologically discuss the four major components of a collection system (as defined by BILITEWSKI et al.).


62 LECHNER, P.: Kommunale Abfallentsorgung, Facultas Verlags- und Buchhandels AG, Wien 2004, p. 302

63 PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households In Europe and Australia, in: Waste Management World, July-

August 2004, p. 112 64 LECHNER, P.: Kommunale Abfallentsorgung, Facultas Verlags- und Buchhandels AG, Wien 2004, p. 302



15

2.1.1 Collection methods

According to BILITEWSKI et al. there are five different types of collection methods:

Simple emptying

Exchange system

One-way system

Non-systematic collection

Special collection systems66 Each collection method has compatible or dedicated container systems and vehicles with appropriate loaders.67

2.1.1.1 Simple emptying

The simple emptying collection method is mainly used for waste from residential areas and small-scale commercial waste. In this case, there are certain different kinds of containers that are emptied mechanically into a specific collection vehicle. When the emptying process is over, the container is put back on its original position. This method can be used in both, kerbside and drop-off collection systems.68 The simple emptying method is by far the dominating collection method for MSW and waste from non producing companies.69

2.1.1.2 Exchange method

The exchange method is mostly used for high density waste such as construction debris and sludge, as well as for low-density waste from facilities that generate large quantities of waste.70 Examples are manufacturing plants, hotels, offices, institutions and so on. The difference to the simple emptying method is that the containers, used for waste collection, are not emptied into a collection truck. As the name implies, the containers are simply exchanged with empty ones. This method requires different kinds of vehicles, according to the containers used for collection. 71


67 BILITEWSKI, B., HRDTLE, G., MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 65 f


69 WRZ, W.: Verfahrenstechnik, Konzeptionen und Organisation der Entsorgungslogistik, in: Mll-Handbuch, Kennzahl

2070, Lieferung 3, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2005, p. 3 70 BILITEWSKI, B., HRDTLE, G., MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 65



16

These vehicles will be presented in chapter 2.1.3.

2.1.1.3 One-way method

The third collection method, the one-way method uses bags that are only in use for one collection cycle. These containers are mostly made of plastic or sometimes paper. The advantage of this method is that the bags do not have to be returned and cleaned by the collection staff. The disadvantages are for instance that the collection staff has to carry and lift (sometimes over stairs) the bags from the facilities to the collection vehicle, which means higher physical demands and moreover the volume is limited.72 Furthermore, it can not be in the interest of sustainable waste management to be seen to add to the waste arising. There is roughly a 3% increase in waste volume caused by the bag material alone.73 Under special circumstances, e.g. in hospitals, it is of great importance, due to hygiene, that certain kinds of waste are collected in one-way safety containers but long term use in residential areas is highly questionable.74

2.1.1.4 Non-systematic collection

The non-systematic collection method is used for collecting bulky waste of various shapes and sizes. In order for collection crews to easily load bulky waste onto their trucks, it must be set out by the kerb, either in containers or as is.75

2.1.1.5 Special collection

Special collection methods are according to BILITEWSKI et al. are vacuum extraction and hydraulic flushing methods. The method of vacuum extraction will be presented in detail in chapter 4. The hydraulic flushing method was introduced in the late 1960s in Switzerland and the United States. The idea behind this system is to flush kitchen waste (bio-waste) with tap water into the sewage system. The volume of wastewater is not significantly increased by garbage disposal, but a greater physical and biological demand is placed on the sewage treatment plant due to an increase in solid waste mass.76







17

This system has not gained wide acceptance in Europe. This may in part be due to the widespread knowledge that compost makes a good fertilizer and washing it down the drain is a waste of a resource.77 For this reason this concept will not be presented in detail.

2.1.2 Container systems

Containers play an important role within waste management and waste collection systems. They operate as receptacles for the waste generated and ensure efficient and mechanised waste collection.78 The decision to set up a particular container system influences linked elements in the process chain of waste management, for instance the design of lifting devices and trucks has to be planned accordingly.79 Containers are mostly used for the collection of residual waste and organic waste, for full service and normal kerbside collection respectively and for recyclables (paper, glass, metal, plastic) with normal kerbside and bring system collection.80 As indicated in figure 4, there are many different standardised containers in use which vary in size (from 120 to 1,100 litres) and shape.81

Fig. 4: Containers in different sizes (120l, 240l and 1,100l)

Source: Community of Harsewinkel: http://www2.harsewinkel.de, 29.03.2006




August 2004, p. 114 80 PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households In Europe and Australia, in: Waste Management World, July-

August 2004, p. 114 81 BACH, H.: Quantitative Abfallanalytik, in: Skriptenreihe des Institutes fr Technologie und Warenwirtschaftslehre der

Wirtschaftsuniversitt, Wien 2003, p. 21


18

In the 1970s plastic containers with capacities of 120, 240 and occasionally 360 litres were developed. These containers are mostly used in households with separate collection of waste and recyclables.82 The 1,100 litre containers are used in locations where large quantities of waste are generated, such as businesses, multi-family dwellings, markets etc. The container is usually made of sheet metal and equipped with four wheels, thus enabling better handling for the collection crew.83 As far as workers safety is concerned, it has to be noted that wheeled bins are preferred in collection systems. These bins are easier to handle for the collection crews and lead to fewer injuries. In order to secure safe packaging and transportation of household wastes it is preferable that bins are used instead of sacks.84 In conclusion, the following advantages and disadvantages for container collection of waste can be noted. Advantages:

High collection performance

Standardised system

Enhanced hygiene (i.e. no loose waste on the street, less dust)

Improved worker safety

Many types and sizes of containers available

Accepted basis for a collection fee system (clearly understandable for citizens)85

Disadvantages:

Investment in containers necessary

Investment in special purpose vehicles necessary

Container and special trucks need maintenance



84 ISWA-WGCTT: Position paper on questions to consider regarding the working conditions of waste collectors, when

planning collection schemes, not published, July 2005, p. 1 ISWA= International Waste Association, WGCTT= Working Group on Collection and Transportation Technologies 85 PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households In Europe and Australia, in: Waste Management World, July-

August 2004, p. 114


19

Workers need special training86

Another important issue in connection with container systems is the question of removal intervals. It is of great importance to coordinate and plan emptying cycles for different fractions within collection systems. More information on removal intervals will be provided in chapter 2.2. Strongly linked to containers are collection vehicles that will be discussed in the next chapter.

2.1.3 Vehicles

Vehicles have always played an essential part in waste management in the 20th century87. It is nearly impossible to imagine waste collection without collection vehicles. There is a large variety of different collection vehicles that are used in all kinds of waste collection activities, depending on the size of the city or region and the type of settlement.88 For cost-saving reasons, new collection truck technologies have been developed over the last few years.89 This chapter tries to give a concise overview of all kinds of collection vehicles used in waste management. In the following chapters waste trucks are subdivided into three groups:

Vehicles for simple emptying method

Container vehicles

Special vehicles

2.1.3.1 Vehicles for simple emptying method

2.1.3.1.1 Rear-loading trucks

Rear-loading trucks pick up containers with a pneumatic or hydraulic lift-and-tilt device from the rear and empty them into the vehicle (see figure 5). Since new


August 2004, p. 114 87 WRZ, W.: 100 Jahre Entwicklung der Sammlung und des Transportes kommunaler Abflle, in: Mll-Handbuch, Kennzahl

2101, Lieferung 1, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2004, p. 10 f 88 PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households In Europe and Australia, in: Waste Management World, July-

August 2004, p. 117 89 GENTER, CH.: Innovative waste management products European market survey, in: Technology review 147,

Helsinki 2003, p. 18


20

containers in different sizes have been developed in the last few years, various kinds of chutes have had to be installed on the vehicles.90 These vehicles are mainly used for collecting household waste, household-like commercial waste and bulky waste. Rear-loading trucks either have rotary drums or enclosed cargo compartments with various self-contained compactors.91

Fig. 5: Rear-loading truck

Source: PIEBER, M., IFAT Munich, April 2005

The rear-loading vehicle has been in use for many years and is still the most common collection vehicle in municipal solid waste collection in urban areas. Due to narrow streets and the limited space for the collection process, side and front loading vehicles can not work efficiently in urban areas.92 Advantages:

Suitable for narrow inner city areas

Not much operational space required

Loose material can also be collected93

90 BILITEWSKI, B., HRDTLE, G., MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 79 f


92 WRZ, W.: 100 Jahre Entwicklung der Sammlung und des Transportes kommunaler Abflle, in: Mll-Handbuch, Kennzahl

2101, Lieferung 1, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2004, p. 32 f 93 PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households In Europe and Australia, in: Waste Management World, July-

August 2004, p. 116


21

Disadvantages:

High labour costs because at least 2 (sometimes up to 5) workers are needed to collect and empty the waste containers (see chapter 2.1.4)94

Multiple collection runs due to the fact that rear-loading trucks only have one container or chamber that is fixed and can not be changed. This is time consuming and also more expensive95

Worker safety concerns (see chapter 5.2.4) since workers have to work on the street and workers have to manoeuvre the heavy waste containers96

2.1.3.1.2 Side-loading trucks

Over the last few years, new collection vehicles were developed and built in order to improve waste collection and transportation. One of the most promising vehicles is the so called side-loading truck that enables waste collection (emptying of bins) with no additional personnel. This works because the emptying process is operated from the side of the vehicle with adjustable lifting and shaking devices. The driver uses a joystick to steer the discharging arm, which can be adjusted up to 3 metres crossways and up to 1.5 meters along the vehicle. This enables the driver to empty containers that are lined up along a street.97 Figure 6 shows a side-loading truck in the middle of the emptying process. Side- loading trucks are mainly in use in suburban and rural areas where there is enough space for the truck to empty the bins and where the driver is not hampered by too many parked cars, which would make the collection process impossible.98 Latest technologies aim at a fully automated collection process where a camera system replaces the joystick steering. The system works with the help of code stickers that help to identify the position of the container. The drivers job is to stop the vehicle alongside the container. The arm grabs the container, empties it and puts it back automatically.99


August 2004, p. 116 95 GENTER, CH.: Innovative waste management products European market survey, in: Technology review 147,

Helsinki 2003, p. 18 96 PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households In Europe and Australia, in: Waste Management World, July-

August 2004, p. 116 97 WRZ, W.: Rationalisierung bei Sammlung und Transport von Abfllen, in: Mll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2530, Lieferung 6,

Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1999, p. 3 98 GENTER, CH.: Innovative waste management products European market survey, in: Technology review 147,

Helsinki 2003, p. 19 99 WRZ, W.: Rationalisierung bei Sammlung und Transport von Abfllen, in: Mll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2530, Lieferung 6,

Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1999, p. 5


22

Another interesting project in this context is a side loading truck with a sub-divided driving cab that will be discussed in chapter 3.2.1.1.

Fig. 6: Side-loading truck

Source: www.rollinsmachinery.ca, 28.10.2005

Pros and cons of side-loading trucks are presented in the next chapter since they are identical with those of front-loading trucks.

2.1.3.1.3 Front-loading trucks

Another new solution for the collection and transportation of waste is the so called front-loading truck that provides several advantages for the collection process. Figure 10 illustrates a front-loading truck that is lifting a special container. The collection process is less sophisticated and cheaper because no additional workforce are needed. The driver is the one that empties the container and then puts it back in its original place. Due to certain disadvantages (to be listed below) and according to major waste service companies, front-loading trucks are not used for municipal solid waste, only for industrial and specific commercial waste.100

100

GENTER, CH.: Innovative waste management products European market survey, in: Technology review 147, Helsinki 2003, p. 19


23

Fig. 7: Front-loading truck

Source: www.etg-entsorgung.de, 03.11. 2005

For both, front- and side-loading trucks, the following pros and cons can be noted. Advantages:

Only one driver necessary

No strenuous container handling

Full worker safety (worker does not leave the drivers cab)

Flexible through exchangeable containers (body-swap)101 Disadvantages:

Not applicable in narrow inner city street areas

Collaboration of citizens necessary

Container evacuation can be time-consuming (if more than one attempt to lift the container is needed)

Loose material can not be collected

Requires adequate operational space102

101

PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households In Europe and Australia, in: Waste Management World, July-August 2004, p. 116

102 PIEBER, M.: Waste collection from urban households In Europe and Australia, in: Waste Management World, July-August 2004, p. 116


24

In conclusion one can say that side- and front-loading trucks reduce costs compared to conventional rear-loading trucks because only one person is needed to empty the bins. But, on the other hand the investment costs for side- and front-loading trucks are much higher than those of a rear-loading truck, see table 1.103

Type of truck Investment cost

Side-loading truck 220,000 EUR

Front-loading truck 180,000 EUR

Rear-loading truck 140,000 EUR

Table 1: Average price levels for collection vehicles

Source: GENTER, CH.: Innovative waste management products European market survey, in: Technology review 147, Helsinki 2003, p. 19

Moreover, the use of side- and front-loading trucks is limited, because as already mentioned, there are problems especially in cities where parked cars block the collection process. That leads to the assumption that rear-loading trucks will not be completely replaced by side- and front-loading trucks.104 The current market share of side-loading trucks in Europe amounts to 12% in terms of vehicles. According to the study on Innovative waste management products, the market share of side-loading trucks will continue to grow over the next few years since many waste management/disposal contractors are substituting old rear-loading trucks with side-loading ones (existing market volume of 700 trucks per year). 105

2.1.3.1.4 Vacuum collection vehicles

With vacuum collection vehicles, waste is collected by suction from a plurality of tanks installed at the bottom of gravity chutes of a housing complex, or at the bottom of post type intakes installed on the ground.106 As illustrated in figure 12, waste is deposited through gravity chutes, installed in buildings or special waste inlets. The size of the storage tanks varies between 1 and 2m3. A docking station is provided at each inlet or along the waste pipeline joining a

103


104 GENTER, CH.: Innovative waste management products European market survey, in: Technology review 147, Helsinki 2003, p. 19


106 DATABASE ON JAPANESE ADVANCED ENVIRONMENTAL EQUIPMENT: http://www.gec.jp/JSIM_DATA/index.html, 21.03.2006


25

plurality of storage tanks. After setting the inside of each storage tank at a negative pressure, a secondary air valve is opened, so that the waste may be brought from the tanks to the tank side of the suction vehicle. After accomplishing the suction work, a suction operation from the next storage tank begins, with the outlet gate closed.107

Fig. 8: Schematic depiction of collection activity with vacuum collection vehicles

Source: http://www.aarhuskommune.dk/portal/borger/affald/midtbyaffald/loesninger/mobilsug, 21.03.2006

Advantages:

This system minimizes the workers labour burden and improves the work environment by preventing lumbago, etc.

The driver of the vacuum truck manages the entire emptying process by connecting to the docking point

Since waste from several places is collected at a docking station in one location, the waste collecting work can be performed from a road side, without the suction vehicle requiring access to the residence areas, so that a safe and comfortable environment may be maintained108

Disadvantages:

Higher investment costs compared to rear-loading trucks

Higher costs for installation of docking stations and tanks More information regarding the different fields of appliance and implementation in collection systems are provided in chapter 3.1.2.

107

DATABASE ON JAPANESE ADVANCED ENVIRONMENTAL EQUIPMENT: http://www.gec.jp/JSIM_DATA/index.html, 21.03.2006

108 DATABASE ON JAPANESE ADVANCED ENVIRONMENTAL EQUIPMENT: http://www.gec.jp/JSIM_DATA/index.html, 21.03.2006


26

2.1.3.1.5 Multi-chamber trucks

Multi-chamber trucks have been developed in order to enable simultaneous collection of different fractions. This offers cost reduction because of the reduced number of collection runs.109 The description multi-chamber truck derives from the horizontally or vertically divided chambers. This allows the collection of more than one fraction with one collection run and is especially interesting for municipal solid waste since the number of collection runs can be reduced and thus cost savings can be achieved. These trucks are operated as rear-loaders or side-loaders.110 An example of a multi-chamber truck with a hydraulic lift and tilt device is depicted in figure 9. This vehicle was constructed in cooperation between VOGEL and the Austrian company MUT Maschinen und Transportanlagen. It was patented111 in 1978 and especially designed for the simultaneous collection of bulk articles and waste. The underlying collection vehicle had been in use in Vienna for the collection of glass and stained glass and led to very satisfactory results in the collection process.112

Fig. 9: Multi-chamber truck

Source: VOGEL, Vienna 2003

109


110 WRZ, W.: Ein Blick zurck und einer in die Zukunft, in: Mll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2010, Lieferung 5, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2004, p. 9

111 BROSOWiTSCH, J. und VOGEL, G.: Patent AT 357106 B: Fahrzeug zum Transport von Massengtern, insbesondere Mll, Wien 1980

112 VOGEL, G.: Abfallwirtschaft 3 Bereitstellung und Sammlung von Abfllen, in: Skriptenreihe des Institutes fr Technologie und Warenwirtschaftslehre der Wirtschaftsuniversitt Wien, VOGEL, G. (Hrsg.), Wien 1994, p. 53


27

Advantages:113

Cost savings due to reduced collection costs resulting from reduced number of collection runs

Disadvantages: 114

Problems are caused if the vertically divided chambers are not equally filled with waste due to differences in the specific weight of the waste fractions

As a consequence, since the filling degree of the chambers can not be predicted precisely the truck has to stop the collection turn if one chamber is full even though there is still enough space within the other chamber

Due to the several disadvantages mentioned above, multi-chamber trucks do not have any future in the MSW collection business according to leading waste management service companies.115, 116

2.1.3.2 Container vehicles

Vehicles used for exchanging methods (swapping containers) or so called container vehicles can be catagorised by the way the container is loaded or unloaded:117

Hook and lift vehicles

Roll off vehicles

Lift off vehicles

Dump vehicles The loading and unloading of boxes, large containers and bins is accomplished by internal lift- and set-down systems, roll-off systems with hook receptors and slide-off systems with winches.118 Different kinds of container vehicles are presented in figure 10 below.

113




116 WRZ, W.: Ein Blick zurck und einer in die Zukunft, in: Mll-Handbuch, Kennzahl 2010, Lieferung 5, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2004, p. 5




28

Fig. 10: Container vehicles

Source: BILITEWSKI, B., HRDTLE, G., MAREK, K. .: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 84

The vehicles presented in this chapter are mainly for collection of construction and demolition wastes and commercial wastes. However, these vehicles are also used for long distance transport of waste from transfer stations to waste treatment facilities.119 Since the use of these vehicles for household collection is quite limited, they will not be discussed in detail.

2.1.3.3 Special vehicles and latest inventions

Vehicles within this section can be used for both collection methods. Collection vehicles with so called swap bodies are used mainly for exchanging containers, but there are also vehicles that can be used for simple emptying. There are plenty of combinations on the market; there are for example side-loading trucks and front-loading trucks that can change their build up. In recent years there have been several changes in the structures of waste collection and transportation. Since in most European countries the collection of recyclables in separate containers is obligatory, the collection systems and especially transportation had to be re-thought in order to arrange waste collection efficiently. This new situation led to the development of new collection vehicles such as the side-loader and the front- loader (see chapters 2.2.3.1.2 and 2.2.3.1.3).120

119

BILITEWSKI, B., HRDTLE, G., MAREK, K.: Waste Management, Springer, Berlin 1997, p. 84 120

WEHKING, K.H. et al.: Innovative Fahrzeugkonzepte fr die Entsorgungswirtschaft, in: Mll und Abfall, 36 (2004) 12, p. 602


29

This chapter will deal with the latest concepts in this area and discuss advantages and disadvantages of these new collection vehicles.

2.1.3.3.1 Vehicles with subdivided build-up

The idea behind this vehicle is the combined transportation of solid waste (e.g. residual waste) and individual goods (unit loads). This is possible through the separation of the build-up into two parts. As illustrated in figure 11, the build-up consists of two different, non interrelated parts for waste collection. The vehicle was specially designed for small and medium sized business enterprises, where two different collection vehicles often had to be used in order to arrange the collection of solid waste and individual goods.121

Fig. 11: Collection vehicle with subdivided build-up

Source: WEHKING, K.H. et al.: Innovative Fahrzeugkonzepte fr die Entsorgungswirtschaft, in: Mll und Abfall, 36 (2004) 12, p. 602

In the front space individual goods such as batteries, fluorescent tubes, Styrofoam etc., can be stored. The back space is more or less a simple body for waste such as residual waste. The loading of the piece good compartment works from the side with hydraulic platforms that can lift up to 1500 kilograms. This part of the vehicle consists of 8 storing positions that are not fixed in height and breadth, i.e. the interior space can, depending on the goods transported, be adapted individually.122

121


122 WEHKING, K.H. et al.: Innovative Fahrzeugkonzepte fr die Entsorgungswirtschaft, in: Mll und Abfall, 36 (2004) 12, p. 601


30

The following advantages can be achieved through this new collection vehicle:123

Combined transport of MSW and individual goods whereas with other vehicles there have to be two independent transport vehicles

Cost reduction through lower transportation and personnel costs

Less traffic and pollution through reduced number of collection runs Furthermore, there are also safety installations such as a safety railing that protects the loading personnel. The vehicle has a length of about 11 meters and has a maximum payload of approximately 9.5 tons. In September 2004 the first prototype of this special collection vehicle was finished. The first test runs were very satisfactory according to the developers and they hope that this recently designed collection vehicle will soon play an important role in combined waste collection.124

2.1.3.3.2 Vehicles with subdivided driving cab

Another new development in waste transportation and collection is the new concept which is depicted in figure 12. The idea behind this new side-loading truck is that the space, usually occupied for the second person inside the driving cab, is actually a waste of space. Exactly this gained space is used in order to install a loading area with a volume of 560 litres. The emptying process works like a normal side-loading truck with the difference that the emptying process is easier, more concise and thus results in better handling of the containers. Furthermore, the driver does not have to twist his upper body in order to empty the containers like in the case of conventional side-loading trucks.125

123





31

Fig. 12: Vehicle with subdivided driving cab

Source: WEHKING, K.H. et al.: Innovative Fahrzeugkonzepte fr die Entsorgungswirtschaft, in: Mll und Abfall, 36 (2004) 12, p. 602

Additionally, the vehicle is equipped with a hook lift that means that the underlying collection truck operates as a swap body truck combined with a hook lifter. This has certain advantages for the municipal collection of waste. So it is possible for the vehicle to drag its own swap-body. The collection truck can leave the empty swap-body somewhere in the collection area and fill its container. When the container is full it can drive back to the place where it dropped the empty container off, exchange it and continue the collection process. At the end of the collection run it transports both full containers to a collection centre or a final waste treatment facility. Thus, the two processes of waste collection and the transport are separated.126 All these enumerated additional features of this vehicle have certain advantages:127

Better working conditions for the driver

Less collection runs

Less traffic and pollution

Separation of transport and collection

This vehicle has not yet been produced, but negotiations are continuing with certain companies that are interested in this promising concept.128

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The innovative vehicle concepts discussed above are promising ways of improving collection of waste in certain ways. On the one hand the presented vehicles can reduce collection costs and avoid additional traffic. On the other hand, if applied by waste collection enterprises it can lead to new and more efficient ways and process chains in transportation and collection of waste.129 Although, these methods help to improve waste collection and transportation it should be noted that in the opinion of the author gas is combusted and traffic is produced in order to fulfil collection activities. Likewise vehicles of this type lead to a loss of jobs in the collection business.

2.1.4 Personnel

In order to operate collection systems efficiently it is necessary to have loading personnel that empty the waste bins, especia

Documents

Waste Management - UE