Vocational OptionsVocational Options

Day Program or Activity CenterDay Program or Activity Center Rehabilitation Facility/Sheltered Rehabilitation Facility/Sheltered Workshop (indiv. Pays to go to Workshop (indiv. Pays to go to wkshp)wkshp)

Supplemental StaffingSupplemental Staffing TeleworkTelework Customized EmploymentCustomized Employment Supported EmploymentSupported Employment Competitive EmploymentCompetitive Employment Self-EmploymentSelf-Employment

Day Program or Activity Day Program or Activity CenterCenter

In the U.S. today, In the U.S. today, approximately 5000 approximately 5000 adult activity/day adult activity/day programs serve people programs serve people with mental, physical, with mental, physical, and emotional and emotional disabilitiesdisabilities

(Braddock, Rizzolo, & (Braddock, Rizzolo, & Hemp, 2004)Hemp, 2004)

Studies have Studies have repeatedly shown that repeatedly shown that people who are placed people who are placed into these centers do into these centers do not leave them and not leave them and never graduate to never graduate to workshops or into workshops or into competitive employmentcompetitive employment

Traditional Day Program or Traditional Day Program or Adult Activity Center Adult Activity Center

(Services)(Services) Adults with severe Adults with severe disabilitiesdisabilities

They learn skills They learn skills in a facility in a facility settingsetting

Theories of Theories of independent skills independent skills are taught (w/some are taught (w/some hands-on practice)hands-on practice)

Aimed at fixing Aimed at fixing someonesomeone’’s disabilitys disability

Traditional Day Programs Traditional Day Programs or Adult Activity Center or Adult Activity Center

(Reality)(Reality)

Generalizations across settings can be difficult for individuals w/disabilities to make

Funding drawbacks/issues Most agree that these programs should be shut down or phased out & funding transferred to providing support to people in more productive & dignified community pursuits

(DiLeo, Rogan, & Geary, 2000; Murphy, Rogan, Handley, Kincaid, & Royce-Davis, 2002; Wehman, Revell, & Brooke, 2003)

Sheltered WorkshopsSheltered Workshops

Segregated vocational Segregated vocational & non-vocational & non-vocational programsprograms

Employment componentEmployment component Activity Activity Centers/Classes (Daily Centers/Classes (Daily Living)Living)

Day Treatment Center Day Treatment Center (Working w/counselors)(Working w/counselors)

Generally differ in Generally differ in mission, services mission, services provided, & fundingprovided, & funding

Sheltered Workshop Sheltered Workshop (Positives)(Positives)

Gives individuals w/more severe Gives individuals w/more severe disabilities a place to godisabilities a place to go

Socialization purposesSocialization purposes May teach greater overall Life May teach greater overall Life ResponsibilitiesResponsibilities

Sheltered Workshops Sheltered Workshops (Negatives) (Negatives)

Fails to provide meaningful employment Fails to provide meaningful employment outcomesoutcomes

Low earnings – remain system dependentLow earnings – remain system dependent Isolates individuals from public sectorIsolates individuals from public sector Allows little to no advancementAllows little to no advancement Little to no future positive impact on Little to no future positive impact on individualindividual

(Wehman, 2006)(Wehman, 2006)

More Evidence Against…More Evidence Against…

The National Disability Rights Network (NDRN) The National Disability Rights Network (NDRN) released a report on sheltered and segregated work released a report on sheltered and segregated work environments for people with disabilities. The environments for people with disabilities. The report titled, Segregated and Exploited: The report titled, Segregated and Exploited: The Failure of the Disability Service System to Failure of the Disability Service System to Provide Quality Work identifies the barriers to Provide Quality Work identifies the barriers to employment that people with disabilities face and employment that people with disabilities face and dispels myths about their capability to be a fully dispels myths about their capability to be a fully employed, equally compensated, and integral member employed, equally compensated, and integral member of American workplaces and communities. of American workplaces and communities. 

Read the report at Read the report at http://www.responsetrack.net/lnk/ndrn/1cn7c/?175ES0D46DE

Kregel & Dean, 2000 Kregel & Dean, 2000 (Sheltered Workshop vs. (Sheltered Workshop vs.

Supported Employment StudySupported Employment Study 877 individuals w/intellectual 877 individuals w/intellectual

disabilities (different levels)disabilities (different levels) Compared aspects of those Compared aspects of those

individuals in sheltered workshop individuals in sheltered workshop to those in supported employmentto those in supported employment

FINDINGSFINDINGS::1. Folks in SE earned $1500-1. Folks in SE earned $1500-

$1600/year more than SW $1600/year more than SW individualsindividuals

Kregel & Dean, 2000 Study Kregel & Dean, 2000 Study FINDINGS (contFINDINGS (cont’’d.)d.)

2. Folks in SE earned 30%-40% more 2. Folks in SE earned 30%-40% more than folks in SW, over the course of than folks in SW, over the course of the studythe study

3. Mean cumulative earnings: SE = 3. Mean cumulative earnings: SE = $18,945/year; SW = $8,364/year$18,945/year; SW = $8,364/year

4. Mild = most $; Severe = Least $4. Mild = most $; Severe = Least $

* Larger differentiation amongst * Larger differentiation amongst SW (levels of functioning), as SW (levels of functioning), as opposed to SE (levels of opposed to SE (levels of functioning)functioning)

Competitive Employment Competitive Employment (individuals (individuals

w/disabilities)w/disabilities) Community-based Community-based employment (traditional employment (traditional settings)settings)

Assistance from others Assistance from others to help find and to help find and maintain employment maintain employment (usually not as (usually not as intensive as Supported intensive as Supported Employment)Employment)

Teachers, V.R. Teachers, V.R. Counselors, Employment Counselors, Employment Specialists may assistSpecialists may assist

Competitive Employment Competitive Employment (Positives)(Positives)

Individuals Individuals w/disabilities have a w/disabilities have a sense of being a sense of being a productive part of productive part of their societytheir society

Brings disability Brings disability awareness to awareness to workplacesworkplaces

May help to dispels May help to dispels disability-related disability-related mythsmyths

May create natural May create natural supports at worksupports at work

Cohesiveness of Cohesiveness of community/workplacecommunity/workplace

Competitive Employment Competitive Employment (Negatives)(Negatives)

Individuals assisting in Individuals assisting in finding and maintaining finding and maintaining employment may have employment may have large caseloads (too large caseloads (too little time &/or effort)little time &/or effort)

More intensive support More intensive support may be necessary per the may be necessary per the individualindividual

Natural supports may not Natural supports may not be in place (breakdown be in place (breakdown in potential structure)in potential structure)

General overall General overall acceptance of the acceptance of the individual at work is individual at work is not prevalentnot prevalent

Self-EmploymentSelf-Employment

Individuals w/ disabilities Individuals w/ disabilities going in to business for going in to business for themselvesthemselves

Possibility have someone Possibility have someone assisting them in getting assisting them in getting started started (structurally/financially/etc(structurally/financially/etc.).)

Possibility of having Possibility of having qualified individuals follow qualified individuals follow along with self-employment along with self-employment venture for a set time (V.R., venture for a set time (V.R., Employment Specialists, etc.)Employment Specialists, etc.)

V.R. in FL. currently pushing V.R. in FL. currently pushing for more funding and supports for more funding and supports in this area of employmentin this area of employment

Self-Employment Self-Employment (Positives)(Positives)

Able to avoid the need Able to avoid the need for acceptance by for acceptance by employers/workplaceemployers/workplace

Workplace challenges are Workplace challenges are limited/reduced limited/reduced (transportation, (transportation, accessibility, accessibility, accommodations, etc.)accommodations, etc.)

Accumulation of assets Accumulation of assets (profits)(profits)

Different types of Different types of employment compared to employment compared to traditional community traditional community settingssettings

(Wehman, 2006)(Wehman, 2006)

Self-Employment Self-Employment (Negatives)(Negatives)

The supports that are currently The supports that are currently in place may not be enoughin place may not be enough

Self-motivation may fade Self-motivation may fade (business goes south)(business goes south)

Social isolationSocial isolation Important life (social) skills Important life (social) skills opportunities may be missed due opportunities may be missed due to lack of chancesto lack of chances

(Wehman, 2006)(Wehman, 2006)

Supported Employment Supported Employment (SE)(SE)

A rehabilitation method that has A rehabilitation method that has created over 150,000 jobs for people created over 150,000 jobs for people with cognitive, physical, and with cognitive, physical, and psychiatric disabilities. The psychiatric disabilities. The critical elements of SE are critical elements of SE are performance of meaningful work for performance of meaningful work for pay, working in integrated pay, working in integrated community-based settings, and the community-based settings, and the use of ongoing supports tailored to use of ongoing supports tailored to the needs of the worker and the the needs of the worker and the business business

- - ((Federal Register, 1987Federal Register, 1987))

Brief History of Supported Brief History of Supported Employment Employment

– ( – (Wehman & Bricout, Wehman & Bricout, 20012001))

19601960’’ss: 1,000,000 individuals with : 1,000,000 individuals with disabilities in over 5,000 segregated disabilities in over 5,000 segregated settings across the U.S. – Applied settings across the U.S. – Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) emerging as Behavioral Analysis (ABA) emerging as important training technology.important training technology.

19701970’’ss: Placement of selected : Placement of selected individuals with MR into individuals with MR into research/demonstration model research/demonstration model university-based competitive settings. university-based competitive settings. ““Job CoachJob Coach”” ““NormalizationNormalization”” terms used. terms used.

SE Brief History SE Brief History (cont(cont’’d.)d.)

19801980’’ss: National Acceptance of SE : National Acceptance of SE Models. 3000 programs in U.S. Models. 3000 programs in U.S. 100,000 individuals w/disabilities 100,000 individuals w/disabilities participating in SE. Still close to participating in SE. Still close to 1,000,000 individuals in Segregated 1,000,000 individuals in Segregated Settings.Settings.

1990-20001990-2000: Consumer Empowerment & ADA : Consumer Empowerment & ADA emerge as primary disability emerge as primary disability philosophies. SE concepts begin to philosophies. SE concepts begin to grow larger internationally. grow larger internationally. Community businesses and natural Community businesses and natural supports gain a much greater emphasis supports gain a much greater emphasis as a whole.as a whole.

Where is Supported Where is Supported Employment Heading?Employment Heading?

Continuing to gain notoriety as a valid Continuing to gain notoriety as a valid employment option for individuals w/more employment option for individuals w/more severe disabilities (as opposed to severe disabilities (as opposed to sheltered environments)sheltered environments)

More funding sources available today to More funding sources available today to support this employment option as opposed support this employment option as opposed to the pastto the past

Due to SEDue to SE’’s increased popularity & s increased popularity & status, it continues to gain layers of status, it continues to gain layers of support for those individuals who are support for those individuals who are involved in these employment-related involved in these employment-related programsprograms

Supported Employment Work Supported Employment Work SupportsSupports

Agency-MediatedAgency-Mediated

Business-MediatedBusiness-Mediated

Government-MediatedGovernment-Mediated

Consumer/Family/Community-MediatedConsumer/Family/Community-Mediated

Agency-Mediated Agency-Mediated SupportsSupports

Able to coordinate supports Able to coordinate supports through various agencies, if through various agencies, if necessarynecessary

Job coach supportJob coach support Compensatory strategiesCompensatory strategies Assistive TechnologiesAssistive Technologies Specialized Agency ServicesSpecialized Agency Services

Business-Mediated Business-Mediated SupportsSupports

Workplace AccommodationsWorkplace Accommodations

Co-Worker & Employer SupportsCo-Worker & Employer Supports

Employer-Sponsored Programs & Employer-Sponsored Programs & PoliciesPolicies

Government-Mediated Government-Mediated SupportsSupports

Social Security InitiativesSocial Security Initiatives Tax Breaks for Businesses/Companies Tax Breaks for Businesses/Companies (Targeted Job Tax Credit)(Targeted Job Tax Credit)

Allowing individuals participating Allowing individuals participating the ability to retain the ability to retain Medicaid/Medicare Health EligibilityMedicaid/Medicare Health Eligibility

Americans w/Disabilities Act (ADA)Americans w/Disabilities Act (ADA)

Consumer/Family/Community Consumer/Family/Community Mediated SupportsMediated Supports

Family SupportsFamily Supports

- as facilitators- as facilitators

- as skill trainers- as skill trainers Consumer, Friend, & Peer SupportConsumer, Friend, & Peer Support

- as co-workers- as co-workers

- as social supports- as social supports

- as mentors- as mentors

Tenants of Supported Tenants of Supported Employment Employment

Assessment of individualAssessment of individual’’s preferencess preferences Assessment of individualAssessment of individual’’s skillss skills Community Business NeedsCommunity Business Needs Establishing employers willingness to work Establishing employers willingness to work w/ the SE program/individualw/ the SE program/individual

Placement of SE individualPlacement of SE individual Learning on-the-job skills (w/job coach)Learning on-the-job skills (w/job coach) Creating Natural SupportsCreating Natural Supports Maintaining follow-up servicesMaintaining follow-up services Fade supports to Independence of the Fade supports to Independence of the individualindividual

Job FindingJob Finding Also known as Also known as ““Job Job DevelopmentDevelopment””

The process of assisting The process of assisting others in locating/finding others in locating/finding jobsjobs

Individuals helping to Individuals helping to find jobs are usually find jobs are usually called, called, ““Employment Employment SpecialistsSpecialists”” (w/variations) (w/variations)

Individuals who help Individuals who help others learn on-the-job others learn on-the-job skills/tasks &/or how to skills/tasks &/or how to navigate the work navigate the work environment are generally environment are generally referred to as a referred to as a ““Job CoacJob Coachh””

Americans w/Disabilities Americans w/Disabilities Act (ADA)Act (ADA)

Title ITitle I: Makes it illegal for : Makes it illegal for employers to discriminate against employers to discriminate against applicants or workers who have a applicants or workers who have a ““knownknown”” or or ““documenteddocumented”” disability. disability.

- Does not require employers to hire - Does not require employers to hire individuals w/disabilities, just individuals w/disabilities, just allows these individuals an allows these individuals an opportunity to compete for jobs & be opportunity to compete for jobs & be provided reasonable accommodations provided reasonable accommodations for on-the-job success.for on-the-job success.

ADA (Continued)ADA (Continued)

- Only applies to individuals - Only applies to individuals who are qualified to perform who are qualified to perform the job in questionthe job in question’’s duties.s duties.

- ADA Title I is generally - ADA Title I is generally enforced by the Equal enforced by the Equal Employment Opportunity Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) &/or State Commission (EEOC) &/or State Human Rights Commissions.Human Rights Commissions.

Job Finding ProcessJob Finding Process (8 (8 Steps)Steps)

1.1. Target Candidates w/Range of Skills and Support Target Candidates w/Range of Skills and Support NeedsNeeds

2.2. Develop an Ideal Job Match Vision to Guide Job Develop an Ideal Job Match Vision to Guide Job DevelopmentDevelopment

3.3. Target Businesses that Might Match HypothesesTarget Businesses that Might Match Hypotheses4.4. Use Referrals to Access More Receptive Use Referrals to Access More Receptive

EmployersEmployers5.5. Meet w/Employer to Learn Their Need & Gauge Meet w/Employer to Learn Their Need & Gauge

Their InterestTheir Interest6.6. Observe & Interview Operations Staff to Observe & Interview Operations Staff to

Identify DutiesIdentify Duties7.7. Match Duties to CandidatesMatch Duties to Candidates8.8. Develop & Present Hiring Proposal - (Nietupski Develop & Present Hiring Proposal - (Nietupski

& Nietupski, 2001)& Nietupski, 2001)

1. Target Candidates w/a 1. Target Candidates w/a Range of Skills & Support Range of Skills & Support

NeedsNeeds Target more than one Target more than one potential candidatepotential candidate

Target higher and Target higher and lower functioning lower functioning individualsindividuals

Target individuals Target individuals who can perform one who can perform one jobjob’’s specific dutiess specific duties

Target individuals Target individuals who can share one who can share one jobjob’’s overall dutiess overall duties

2. Develop an Ideal Job 2. Develop an Ideal Job Match Vision to Guide Job Match Vision to Guide Job

DevelopmentDevelopment

Use Use ““Person-Centered Person-Centered Career PlanningCareer Planning””

- (Callahan & - (Callahan & Garner, 1997)Garner, 1997)

Include all who work Include all who work closely w/individual closely w/individual (parents, siblings, (parents, siblings, friends, staff, friends, staff, etc.)etc.)

Use Career-life Use Career-life Planning to help Planning to help construct a construct a lifestyle envisioned lifestyle envisioned by individualby individual

““PERSON-CENTERED PLANNINGPERSON-CENTERED PLANNING”” (Issues/Info. Generated)(Issues/Info. Generated)

Suitable Job TasksSuitable Job Tasks Desirable Social ClimateDesirable Social Climate Degree of Degree of

Sameness/Variety in Sameness/Variety in DutiesDuties

Extent of judgement Extent of judgement SkillsSkills

Optimal Work PaceOptimal Work Pace Desired Degree & Type of Desired Degree & Type of

Co-worker involvementCo-worker involvement Preferred Job LocationPreferred Job Location Optimal Training/Support Optimal Training/Support

StrategiesStrategies - (Everson, Reid, - (Everson, Reid,

Marrone, Huff, & Helm, Marrone, Huff, & Helm, 1997)1997)

3. Target Businesses that 3. Target Businesses that Might Match HypothesesMight Match Hypotheses

Get to know the local Get to know the local business marketbusiness market

Join local business-Join local business-related related groups/associationsgroups/associations

Establish local Establish local business-related business-related relationshipsrelationships

Visit with local Visit with local business business owners/companiesowners/companies

Get to know Get to know individual business individual business operations & needsoperations & needs

4. Use Referrals to Access 4. Use Referrals to Access More Receptive EmployersMore Receptive Employers

Satisfied Past Satisfied Past EmployersEmployers

Parents of Past Job Parents of Past Job SeekersSeekers

Past Job Seekers Past Job Seekers ThemselvesThemselves

Agency Contacts (Local Agency Contacts (Local Org. contacts)Org. contacts)

Friends, Family, Co-Friends, Family, Co-workersworkers

Social-related Social-related ContactsContacts

5. Meet w/Employer to 5. Meet w/Employer to Learn Their Need & Gauge Learn Their Need & Gauge

Their InterestTheir Interest View the Potential View the Potential Employer as a customerEmployer as a customer

Listen to Their Listen to Their Business/Company NeedsBusiness/Company Needs

Help Employers Trouble Help Employers Trouble Shoot Shoot

Make Positive Suggests Make Positive Suggests as to How You Can Help as to How You Can Help Their BusinessTheir Business

(Once Repoire is (Once Repoire is Established) Ask Established) Ask Employer if you can Employer if you can Observe Business Observe Business OperationsOperations

6. Observe & Interview 6. Observe & Interview Operations Staff to Operations Staff to Identify DutiesIdentify Duties

Meet w/Key Staff in Meet w/Key Staff in Each Area of InterestEach Area of Interest

Help Staff to Help Staff to Breakdown Job Tasks Breakdown Job Tasks (Task Analysis) if (Task Analysis) if necessarynecessary

Document Important Document Important Interview Information Interview Information for Later Reflection for Later Reflection &/or Possible &/or Possible Candidate Job Candidate Job Matching PurposesMatching Purposes

7. Match Duties to 7. Match Duties to CandidatesCandidates

Begin comparing duties Begin comparing duties to possible candidatesto possible candidates

Decide on whether one Decide on whether one or more candidates may or more candidates may be a good fit into job be a good fit into job dutiesduties

Decide on whether it Decide on whether it may be a straight may be a straight placement or job carveplacement or job carve

Make a proposal to the Make a proposal to the potential employerpotential employer

8. Develop & Present 8. Develop & Present Hiring ProposalHiring Proposal

Present a written Present a written Proposal – gives Proposal – gives businesses time to businesses time to react, reflect, and react, reflect, and decidedecide

- (Bissonnette, 1994; - (Bissonnette, 1994; Nietupski & Hamre- Nietupski & Hamre- Nieptupski, 2000) Nieptupski, 2000)

Present positive info. Present positive info. on individual(s) on individual(s) selected, desired selected, desired hours & wages, hours & wages, timelines of potential timelines of potential face to face mtg. & face to face mtg. & start potentialstart potential

If accepted by If accepted by potential employer, potential employer, set up a face to face set up a face to face mtg./interview between mtg./interview between them and individual them and individual candidatecandidate

Job CarvingJob Carving

Defined by determining Defined by determining the job seekerthe job seeker’’s s skills, interests, & skills, interests, & contributions, contributions, matching these to a matching these to a set of duties found in set of duties found in a local workplace a local workplace

– – (Griffin & Targett, (Griffin & Targett, 2006)2006)

Job Carving simply Job Carving simply means that the job is means that the job is being broken down into being broken down into key components. The key components. The key components are key components are then being reassigned then being reassigned to the designated to the designated employeesemployees

Why use Job Carving?Why use Job Carving?

Works best w/those imperfect job Works best w/those imperfect job descriptions &/or matchesdescriptions &/or matches

For employers who have diverse job duties For employers who have diverse job duties &/or sites&/or sites

For those worksites/businesses that have For those worksites/businesses that have increased their product or service demand increased their product or service demand quickly (or more quickly than expected) quickly (or more quickly than expected) ie. production co., agricultural sitesie. production co., agricultural sites

Job Carving StepsJob Carving Steps YOU CAN USE THE SAME YOU CAN USE THE SAME 8 STEPS8 STEPS THAT ARE THAT ARE USED FOR USED FOR ““JOB FINDINGJOB FINDING””

PlusPlus: - Teach & Refine Work Tasks: - Teach & Refine Work Tasks

- Build Natural Supports- Build Natural Supports

- Fade Job Coaching supports- Fade Job Coaching supports

- Maintain a Consultative Role- Maintain a Consultative Role

Job Carving= for more significantly Job Carving= for more significantly impaired compared to job development or impaired compared to job development or supported employment=competitively paid, supported employment=competitively paid, min. wage)min. wage)

3 Methods of Job 3 Methods of Job Carving:Carving:

Cut & PasteCut & Paste

FissionFission

FusionFusion

Cut & Paste MethodCut & Paste Method

Involves trading duties between an Involves trading duties between an existing position & a current existing position & a current employee, maximizing the talents of employee, maximizing the talents of both (Multiple positions trading)both (Multiple positions trading)

ADVANTAGES:ADVANTAGES: May work best when an opening May work best when an opening already exists & a filled position already exists & a filled position contains entry-level duties that contains entry-level duties that could be traded away for more could be traded away for more advanced duties from the vacant advanced duties from the vacant positionposition

Cut & Paste Cut & Paste Advantages Advantages (cont(cont’’d.)d.)

May better allow existing May better allow existing employees to maximize their employees to maximize their time spent on the jobtime spent on the job

May afford more freedom so that May afford more freedom so that employees may take on employees may take on unexpected itemsunexpected items

Fission MethodFission Method

Involves Involves dividing a single dividing a single position into two or more jobsposition into two or more jobs (Single position divided) (Single position divided) splitsplit

ADVANTAGES:ADVANTAGES: May work best when growth in a May work best when growth in a business makes it difficult for a business makes it difficult for a single employee to perform all single employee to perform all previously assigned dutiespreviously assigned duties

May allow for greater task May allow for greater task efficiency & effectivenessefficiency & effectiveness

Fission Method Fission Method AdvantagesAdvantages (cont(cont’’d.)d.)

May afford lighter workloads May afford lighter workloads for individuals involved in the for individuals involved in the work plan, thus creating more work plan, thus creating more productivity as a whole.productivity as a whole.

Fusion MethodFusion Method The re-assignment of similar The re-assignment of similar functions from several employees functions from several employees to a newly created position (1 to a newly created position (1 position helping multiple position helping multiple existing) existing) paste a job togetherpaste a job together

ADVANTAGESADVANTAGES:: May work best when the type & May work best when the type & amount of routine work, currently amount of routine work, currently distributed across employees, distributed across employees, could be more efficiently could be more efficiently performed by 1 or more supported performed by 1 or more supported employeesemployees

Fusion Method Fusion Method AdvantagesAdvantages (cont(cont’’d.)d.)

May allow for greater time May allow for greater time management for all employeesmanagement for all employees

May allow for greater overall May allow for greater overall business productivity (due to business productivity (due to time management-related issues)time management-related issues)

Overall Job Carving Overall Job Carving AdvantagesAdvantages

Job Seeker is not judged Job Seeker is not judged directly against other directly against other applicantsapplicants

May not be any (or many) May not be any (or many) comparisons to previous comparisons to previous job performance standards job performance standards &/or past employees&/or past employees

Due to this position Due to this position being a potentially new being a potentially new position, the position, the company/employer may be company/employer may be more cognizant of how the more cognizant of how the employee contributes employee contributes value to the organizationvalue to the organization

- (Hagner & DiLeo, 1996)- (Hagner & DiLeo, 1996)