Vivir  la  Música:  Spanish  cultural  identity  examined  through  the  lens  of  Spanish  classical  piano  music    

   

   

Rachel  Summers  School  of  Music,  Theatre,  and  Dance  

University  of  North  Carolina  at  Greensboro    

Faculty  Mentor:  Dr.  Paul  Stewart  (Music)                    

April  14,  2015  An  Undergraduate  Thesis  submitted  to  the  Lloyd  International  Honors  College  in  candidacy  

for  Full  University  Honors.      

   

 

VIVIR  LA  MÚSICA      

Spanish  cultural  identity  examined  through  the  lens  of  Spanish  classical  piano  music  

   

RACHEL  SUMMERS  

Contents    

 I.  Introduction  and  Literature  Review   1      II.  A  Theory  of  “Musical  Relativity”   8      III.  Music  as  Storyteller   16      IV.  The  Spanish  Sound   20      V.  Case  Studies  and  Conclusion   26      Appendices   36      References   44    

1

Chapter1

IntroductionandLiteratureReview

Theentireconceptofmusicis,quitesimply,amystery.Manyhavetried,withvaryingdegreesofsuccess,todefinemusic,andexplainhowittouchesusthewayitdoes.Howisit,forexample,thatapieceofpianomusicwrittenbyamannamedClaudeDebussyisabletoconveythe“color,sunlight,andgaiety”(Raad1979,13)ofthecountryofSpain?OlgaKuehl(1976)suggeststhatSpanishmusichas“inherentqualities”thatmakeitboth“distinctiveandappealing”(17).VirginiaRaad(1979)ontheotherhand,saysthat“themusichasaverydecidedcharacterwhichappealstothesensitiveandsensualalike,toloversoftheromanticandtheexotic”(13).Eitherway,itseemsthatthemusicofSpainis“appealing”(awordbothKuehlandRaadseemfitting)toSpaniardsandextranjeros(foreigners)alike. Therearemanyexplanationsforwhythismaybe.ThemusicofSpaindrawsheavilyonauniquefolktraditionthatdevelopedasaresultofthemanydifferentculturalinfluencestowhichtheIberianpeninsulahasbeensubmitted.Becauseofthis,Spanishmusicisincrediblydiverse,andincludesmanyuniqueelementslikecastanets,and“scaleswithraisedsecondandsixthdegrees”(Hinson2006,3)thatareattractivetocomposersandlistenersalike.IpersonallybecameinterestedinSpanishmusicbecauseofthecompellingdancerhythmsandtheinterestinghistoriesofSpanishcomposers.DuringthebrieftimethatIspentinSpaininthesummerof2014,InoticedthatsomeoftheelementswetraditionallyassociatewithclassicalSpanishmusicareinfactapartoftheeverydaylifeofSpaniards.ThefolktraditionthatSpanishmusicdrawsonpointstowardsSpanishnationalism,whichmanifestsitselftodayinagreatprideforanythingSpanish,especiallytheirfútbolteams.Thepenchantfordanceisalsocommon;Spaniardscanbeseendancinginthestreets,intheclubs,orevenintraditionalflamencoshows.AnideologysurroundingSpainitselfisthatitis“alandofsmolderingpassionsanddelicatesensitivities”(Raad1979,13),andthesesentimentsareactuallyechoedinthemusic,withstrongcontrastbetweenpassionateandtendermoments.ManyscholarsofSpanishmusic,includingthegreatSpanishpianistAliciadeLarrocha,maintainthatatruerepresentationoftheSpanishspiritinSpanishmusicrequiresimagination,“astronginnersentimentandsensitivity”anda“feelingfortheSpanishflavor”(Kuehl1976,18).EricourtandErickson(1984)supportKuehl’sstatement,sayingthat“ifonlythenotesareplayed,nocommunicationisattained,andwithoutsomeideaofthemeaningbehindthenotationsofeachpieceintheperformer’smind,onlyemptyandblandinterpretationscanresult”(3). Justfromthesefewstatements,Iseeafewkeywordsthatpiquemyinterest–“feeling,”“communication,”“meaning,”“interpretations.”ThequestionImustaskis,howdoesmusicconveyfeeling,orachievecommunicationormeaning?Itisagenerallyunderstoodprinciple,especiallyamongmusicians,thatmusiccancommunicate,tellstories,andshowemotions.Few,however,outsideofethnomusicologistsandmusicaestheticians,haveattemptedtoexplainhoworwhy.Theanswermightcomeinlikeningmusictolanguage.Hereitisnecessarytobeginwiththebasics:whatislanguageandhowdoesitcommunicate?Forthis,weturntolinguistics. Thestudyoflanguageisbynomeansanewinterest,althoughthesupposed“fatherofmodernlinguistics,”NoamChomsky,onlybeganpublishinglinguistic‐basedworksinthe

2

1950sandisinfactstilllivingtoday.InadditiontoChomsky,linguistsofthelast150yearslikeFerdinanddeSaussure,CharlesSandersPeirce,andRomanJakobsonhavepavedthewayfortoday’sunderstandingofwhatlanguageisandhowitworks.Saussureclaimedlanguagehastwomajorcomponents,thelanguagesystemintheabstract,includinggrammaticalrulesandtheknowledgeofvocabulary(langue)andtheputtingintopracticeofthoserules(parole)(Ahearn2012).Chomskyproposedasimilardistinctionthathecalled“competence”and“performance”,respectively(Ahearn2012).Asstructuralists,bothChomskyandSaussurewereonlyconcernedwiththeabstractrulesofalanguage(competenceorlangue)asopposedtoitsactualperformance(parole)orculturalimplications.Saussure,Chomsky,andotherlinguistsarecriticizedbymodernanthropologistsfortheirinsistenceonthedecontextualizationoflanguage.Saussurealsodevelopedathree‐partconceptforthelinguisticsign:sign(asawholeandarbitrary),signified,andsignifier(linear)(Saussure1998).Theconceptneedsnotbeclarifiedfurtherhere,andismentionedonlytoshowthatearlylinguistswerealreadyconcernedwithsemioticsasanimportantelementoflanguagestudy. C.S.Peirceisconsideredtohaveproducedthemostcomprehensivetheoryofsemiotics;hisideasaboutlinguisticsignsarestillwidelyusedtoday.SimilartoSaussure’ssign,Peircedescribedsemiosis(meaningmakingthroughsigns)asaprocesswiththreecomponents:sign(somethingthatstandsforsomethingelse),object(whatthesignstandsfor),andinterpretant(“theeffectofthesemioticrelationshipbetweenthesignandtheobject”(Ahearn2012,26‐27)).Thesesemioticrelationshipsoccurasaresultofthreedifferentcategoriesofsigns.Aniconisasignthatisrelatedtoitsobjectbysimilarity,visualorauditory,likeaphotograph,diagram,orevenonomatopoeicwords.Anindexisasignthatpointstoitsobjectthroughsomecontextualizedconnection.Awell‐knownexampleofthisis“smokeindexesfire”;thepresenceofthesmoke“pointsto”afire,drawingonthepre‐establishedknowledgethatfiregivesoffsmoke(Ahearn2012).Asymbolisasignthatisconventionallyorhabituallyrelatedtoitsobject.Symbol’smeaningsarearbitrary,justlikewords;infact,almostallwordsaresymbolsinPeirce’ssemioticclassification. RomanJakobson,anotherfoundationallinguist,contributedideasaboutthemanyfunctionsoflanguage.LinguisticanthropologistshavetermedthecollectionofJakobson’sideasthetheoryofmultifunctionality.Jakobsonbelievedthat“languagemustbeinvestigatedinallthevarietyofitsfunctions”(Jakobson1960,353)andthusheproposedthattherearesixfunctionsofanyspeechevent.Followingarethefunctionsorganizedbywhatthemessageisprimarilyorientedtowards(seefigure1.1).Ifthemessageisdirectedtowardsthespeaker,(“Iamhungry”),thepredominantfunctionisexpressive.Ifthemessageisdirectedtowardsanaddressee,(“Willyougotothestore?”),thefunctionisconative.Ifthemessageisdirectedtowardsathirdpersonorageneralevent(“FranceisacountryinEurope”),thefunctionisreferential.Sometimesthemessageisorientedtowardsitself,drawingattentiontoitselfthroughsoundsorpatterns(“Monkeysee,monkeydo”or“IlikeIke”(Ahearn2012,19)),andinthesecasesthefunctionispoetic.Whenthemessageisdirectedtowardsthe“channelthatcarriesit”(Ahearn2012,19),thefunctionisphatic.Anexamplewouldbesomeonesaying“Check,1,2…”intoamicrophone,testingtheconnection.Thephaticfunctionalsoissaidto“maintain”or“solidify”asocialconnection;inthatway,speecheventsliketheubiquitous“Howareyou?”‐‐“Fine”aresaidtobephaticinthattheyconveynorealmessageotherthantheestablishmentofasocialconnection

3

(Ahearn2012,19‐20).Thefinalfunctionismetalinguistic,anditoccurswhenthemessageisaboutlanguageitself(“Howdoyouspellmetalinguistic?”).

Figure1.1Jakobson’sMulti‐Functionality.Source:Ahearn2012,18.

It’simportanttonoteherethatthesefunctions,basedonwhatthemessageisorientedtowards,wereadevelopmentofJakobson’searlierstudyonthesixfactorsthatconstitutea“speechevent”(Jakobson1960,353),atopicthatwillbediscussedfurther.Jakobson’stheoryaboutlanguagefunctions,ormultifunctionality,provesthatlanguageisnotjustforcommunicatingfactsorlabelingitems;language,throughitsmanyfunctions,hasthepowertoconveyemotion,reinforcesocialbonds,andtalkaboutideas(Ahearn20).Thisisincrediblyimportantaswemovetothestudyoflanguageandculture;Jakobsongavelinguisticanthropologiststhetoolstodiscusshowlanguageinfluencesculture,andperhaps,inversely,howcultureinfluenceslanguage. FranzBoas,widelyconsideredtobethefatherofanthropologyintheUnitedStates,inhisgreatquestforprovingthe“essentialequalityandhumanityofallpeople”(Ahearn2012,66),unknowinglybeganworkonthetheoryoflinguisticrelativity,afoundationaltheoryinthefieldoflinguisticanthropology(Boas1928).Hisviewsonhowlanguageinfluencesthoughtwerefurtheredandalteredbyhisstudent,EdwardSapir.Sapirstronglybelievedthat“weseeandhearandotherwiseexperienceverylargelyaswedobecausethelanguagehabitsofourcommunitypredisposecertainchoicesofinterpretation”(Sapir1949,162).Sapir’sstudentBenjaminLeeWhorfdevelopedthistheoryfurther,contributinghisthoughtson“therelationofhabitualthoughtandbehaviortolanguage”(Whorf1956)andgivingthesethoughtsaname:thetheoryoflinguisticrelativity.SocloselytiedarethefindingsofWhorf,Sapir,andBoasthatmanyhavebeeninspiredtogivethetheoryoflinguisticrelativitythemisnomerofthe“Sapir‐WhorfHypothesis”(Ahearn2012,69).ThenameimpliesthatSapirandWhorfwereco‐authorsonapublishedwork(whichtheyneverwere),andthattheirresearchmethodsincludedtestingahypothesis(whichtheydidnot).Nevertheless,thetheoryoflinguisticrelativityisastapleinthefieldoflinguisticanthropologyandculturalstudiesingeneral.Themodernanthropologist’sunderstandingofthetheoryoflinguisticrelativityisthatlanguage,thought,andcultureallinfluenceoneanother,inwhatWhorfwouldcalla“mutuallyinfluential”relationship(Ahearn2012)

4

(figure1.2).Thetheoryoflinguisticrelativityiscrucialtothispaper,andwillbedevelopedfurtherlater,aswediscusshowitrelatestomusic.1

Figure1.2LinguisticRelativity.Source:Ahearn2012,70.

RecallPeirce’ssemiotics,thestudyofmeaning‐makinginsignsandsymbols.Asusuallyoccurswithgreattheories,semioticshasbeenappropriatedforuseinavarietyofotherdisciplines,includingmusic.Muchlikehowscholarsareinterestedinhowlanguageobtainsandconveysmeaning,peoplethroughouttheageshavebeenfascinatedbyhowmusicachievesmeaning. Musicalsemioticsasanactualfieldofmusictookrootinthe1970s,althoughcomposers,musicians,andpeopleingeneralhavealwaysbeenconcernedwithfindingmeaninginmusic(Nettl2005).BrunoNettlbelievesthat“thedesiretoseeinmusicsomethingbeyonditselfhaslongbeenasignificantstrandofthoughtamongloversofWesternclassicalmusic”(Nettl2005,332).MusicalsemioticsislargelybasedontheworkofSaussureandPeirce,andrightlyso;however,comparedtothestructuralapproachofSaussureandPeirce,anethnomusicologicalapproachhelpsresearcherscontextualizetheirfindings.Nettl,alongwithmanyothersinthefield,pointstoLeonardMeyer’sEmotionandMeaninginMusic(1956)asoneofthefirstofitskindtocallattentiontothe“relationshipofstructureandmeaning”(Nettl2005,333)inmusicasawhole,andindividualmusicalstylesandgenres.Meyer(1956)stressedtheimportanceofcontextualizingmusicalstyleswithintheculturetowhichtheybelong.Atthesametime,hesuggestedthatthereisageneralcommunicativenatureofmusicthatisvalidcross‐culturally;thereby,musichastheabilitytobeunderstoodbyanyonefromanyculture.Jean‐JacqueNattiez,acontemporarymusicalsemiologist,believesmusicalsemioticsrepresents“anobligationtoestablishanewmusicologyonanewscientificfooting”(Lidov2005,86).Followingthis“obligation”tobescientific,Nattiezdevelopeda“taxonomytodeterminethegeneralrules”(Lidov2005,101)ofdifferentmusicalstyles.EeroTarasti,acontemporaryalongwithNattiez,hasalsopublishedmanyworksonmusicalsemiotics,includingATheoryofMusicalSemiotics(1994).Inhismostrecentwork,SemioticsofClassicalMusic(2012),hebranchesoutintothecreationofanewfield,“existentialsemiotics,”inwhichheusesa“philosophico‐semioticapproach”and“transcendentalanalysis”(Tarasti2012,xi).Allthistosay,thefield

1Forfurtherclarificationonanyconceptsoflinguisticsorlinguisticanthropologymentionedabove,LauraAhearn’sintroductiontolinguisticanthropology,LivingLanguage,ishighlyrecommendedasathoroughandaccurateresource.

5

ofmusicalsemiotics,thoughrecentlyestablished,isthrivingasmoreresearchersembracethisinterdisciplinaryapproachtomusicstudy. Inoppositiontoanybelieversofmusicalsemiotics,EduardHanslick’saesthetictellsquiteadifferentstoryaboutmusicalmeaning.Hanslick,amusicalpurist,famouslyarguedfortheautonomyofmusic,statingthatthebeauty,andthereforethemeaning,ofmusicisintheformandtheformonly(Hanslick1986).Hanslickwishedformusictobeviewedindependentlyofanysortofextra‐musicalworld,thesameextra‐musicalworldthatmanymusicologistsinsistexists.KendallWaltonexploresthepossibilityofthisextra‐musicalworld,suggestingthatmusicmighthavetheabilitytoestablishfictionalworldsinwhichlistenersandperformersalikearefreetoimagineanysortofstorytheymaywish(Walton1997).Waltonultimatelydismissestheidea,claimingthatmusicdoesnothavethesamepowerasliteratureorvisualarttocreatethese“workworlds”,althoughlistener’simaginationsarestillfreeto“runwild”andparticipateina“gameofmake‐believe”astheyengageinmusiclistening(Walton1997,82).FredEverettMaustakesasimilarviewasWalton,claimingthatalistenerfollowsmusic“bydrawingontheskillsthatallowunderstandingofcommonplacehumanactionineverydaylife”(Maus1997,199).Inotherwords,thelistenercreatesadramawhilehearingthemusic.WhereMausdiffersfromWaltonisthatheclaimsthattheactionisinfactinthemusic(Maus1997). Anyonewithinthelast60yearswhohastakenonthetaskofdecipheringmusicalmeaningcitesPeterKivyaseithertheresearcheronwhichtheybasetheirapproach,ortheresearcherwithwhichtheycompletelydisagree.HisbookTheCordedShell(1980)elevatedhimtothelevelofHanslickinthediscussionofmusicaesthetics,andlikeHanslick,hisviewscanbequitepolarizing.WhatisinterestingaboutKivyisthathewantstobelievethatmusicisexpressive,ashehaspersonalexperiencefeelingcertainemotionswhilelisteningtomusicalworks;however,heistrappedwithinwhathecallsamusicalparadox(Kivy1980).HedescribesthisparadoxinTheCordedShell:“Eitherdescriptionofmusiccanberespectable,“scientific”analysis,atthefamiliarcostoflosingallhumanisticconnections;oritlapsesintoitsfamiliaremotivestanceatthecostofbecoming…meaninglesssubjectivemaundering”(Kivy1980,9).Hepresentsatheoryofmusicalexpressioninwhichheproposesthattheproblemisthattoomanyanalyzemusicasthoughitcanexpress;toKivy,musicdoesnothavetheabilitytoexpress,howeveritmaycertainlybeexpressiveof…(Kivy1980). Whethermusichastheabilitytoexpressorbeexpressiveof,thequestionremains,whatisactuallybeingcommunicated?Itisfairlyobviousthatmusicisnotexplicitlycommunicativeinthesamemanneraslanguage;youcannotusemusictoputtogetherabusinessplanorasksomeonetogotothestore.Manybelievethatwhatmusicinfactcommunicatesisemotion.AlanP.Merriamarguesthatmusic“reflects”emotion,whileWaltonsuggeststhatmusic“supplies[us]withthepersonalauditoryexperiences”(Robinson1997,8)neededtocreateinstancesinwhichwefeelcertainemotions(Merriam1964).MalcolmBuddsupportsWalton’stheoryofmake‐believeandsuggeststhathumanscanpretendthat“apieceofmusicMisthevocalexpressionofemotionE”(Budd1985,132).Kivy(1980)onceagainhasanexplanation:hesuggeststhatemotionsareexpressedinreallifethroughhumanphysicalbehaviorandthereforetheseemotionscanbeimitatedinmusic.LeoTreitlertakesadifferentapproachandarguesthatanyexpressivequalitiesbelongtomusicliterally(Treitler1997).Hesupportsthisargumentbyclaimingthatthereis“noclearboundarybetweentheliteralandthemetaphorical”(Robinson1997,5)soin

6

thesameway,therecanbenowaytomakeacleardistinctionbetweenwhatisstrictlymusicalandtheextra‐musical.Inalessphilosophicalandmorehands‐onapproach,manyhavetriedtoanswerthisquestionbylookingatspecificexamplesofmusicandemotions.EmerySchubertandSandraGarridohavepublishedseveralstudiesattemptingtodiscoverwhetherlisteningtosadmusicactuallymakesonesadandifso,howthisisaccomplishedandwhypeoplecontinuelisteningtosadmusic(GarridoandSchubert2011;GarridoandSchubert2015).Similarstudieshavebeenconductedintoaconnectionbetweenlisteningtodeathmetalmusicandtheemergenceofviolentandaggressivebehavior(Campbell2001;Frandsen2011). Giventhisfoundationofresearchwithintheindividualfieldsoflinguistics,linguisticanthropology,musicalsemiotics,andmusicmeaning,itisperhapssurprisingtonotethattherehavebeenfewattemptsbyscholarstoengageininterdisciplinarystudiesconnectingthesefields.Thefieldsoflinguisticanthropologyandmusicology/ethnomusicologyarelinked,althoughmaybetenuouslyso.BrunoNettl(2005)mournsthelackofdirectionandclaritythatstudieswithinethnomusicologyandmusicalsemioticshaveshown.Heclaimsthatthesestudiesarealmostalwaysskewedtoofarinonedirection;eithersomeonefocusestoomuchonlinguisticconnectionstothemusicandforegoesanymusicalanalysisortheycasuallyintroducelinguisticsbutthencarryoninstrictlymusicalanalysis(Nettl2005).Evenworse,hesays,echoingStevenFeld,isifsomeonedoesmanagetoachieveabalanceoflinguisticsandmusicalanalysisbutrefusestoconsiderthemusicwithinitsappropriateculturalcontext(Nettl2005;Feld1974).2 Thefollowingresearchcontributestowardseffortstobridgetheinterdisciplinarygapbetweenlinguisticanthropologyandethnomusicology.ThetheorydevelopedfocusesonSpanishpianomusic.Unfortunately,Spanishpianomusic,andinfactmostSpanishculturalstudies,followintheshakyfootstepsofinterdisciplinarymusicresearch.HelenGrahamandJoLabanyi’santhologyonSpanishculturalstudiesechoesthesesentiments:“Spanishculturalstudiesareintheirinfancy.Despitetheexcellentworkbeingdoneinindividualareas,therehastodatebeenlittleattemptatinterdisciplinaryco‐ordination”(1995,v).Althoughthisparticularbookwaspublished20yearsago,theredoesnotappeartohavebeenmuchheadway.ThereasonsLabanyiandGrahamgiveforthisdearthofSpanishculturalstudiesarestillrelevanttoday:institutionalcompartmentalization(anareathathasseensomeimprovement,althoughnotnearlyenough),themarginalizationofSpainbytherestofEuropeandAmerica,theabsenceofSpanishexpertsinacademia,especiallyindepartmentslikethehumanities,andthelackofappropriatescholarlytextsthathavebeentranslatedfromSpanish(LabanyiandGraham1995). Iproposeacouplemorereasonsofmyown.Spainasacountryishistoricallyinward‐focused.Thisissomethingtheycanonlyinparttakeresponsibilityfor–geographicallySpainisaboutasisolatedasacountrycanbe,withthePyreneesmountainrangecreatinganorth‐easternborderbetweenSpainandFranceandlargebodiesofwateronthenorth,south,andwestsides.AlongwiththephysicalisolationistheprideandnationalismoftheSpanishpeople,neitherofwhicharenegativethings;however,theyhavecausedtheSpanishtoeffectivelyshutthemselvesofffromtherestofEuropeandtheworld.2Foramorecompleteoverviewofinterdisciplinaryresearchinlinguistics,anthropology,andethnomusicology,seeBrunoNettl’s“TheBasicUnitofAllCultureandCivilization:SignsandSymbols”inTheStudyofEthnomusicology(2005).

7

Additionally,thepermeatingideologicalmisunderstandingsaboutthedifferencebetweenSpanish(thepeople),Spanish(thelanguage),Hispanic,Latino,LatinAmerican,etc.havecompletelyobstructedanyclearviewontheSpanishpeopleandculture.MyhopeforthefollowingresearchisthatitwilllendvaliditytoSpanishculturalstudies,andwillcombatthemarginalizationofSpainandSpanishmusic. Beforedoingso,however,itisnecessarytoreturntolanguage.Wehavealreadyestablishedthattheanthropologist’sunderstandingofthetheoryoflinguisticrelativityisthatlanguage,thought,andcultureallinfluenceeachother.3ForthistobeapplicabletoastudyofSpanishpianomusic,wemustexaminehowthetheoryoflinguisticrelativityeveninvolvesmusic.

3Anyfurtherreferencetolinguisticrelativitywillrefertotheanthropologicalunderstanding(language,thought,andculture)asexplainedbyLauraAhearn(2012,69‐71).

8

Chapter2

ATheoryof“MusicalRelativity” Aspreviouslydiscussed,musicisbelievedtohavecertaincommunicativepropertiesandthereforehasbeencomparedwithlanguage.Letusassumeforamomentthatmusicisinfactverycomparabletolanguageandreplacelanguageinthetheoryoflinguisticrelativitywithmusic.Followingourothermodel,thiseditedtheory–letuscallitmusicalrelativity4–statesthatmusic,thought,andcultureallinfluenceeachother.Itisacertainlyathought‐provokingtheory;beforeexaminingitfully,wemustreturntomusicandlanguageandsearchforsimilaritiesbetweenthetwo. WebeganexamininglinguisticsearlierwithSaussureandChomsky.Theirsimilartheoriesoflanguageastwoparts,langue/paroleorcompetence/performance,canbequiteinterestingviewedinthelightofmusic.Asareminder,langueandcompetencerefertotheknowledgeoftheabstractrulesthatcomprisealanguage.Thiscompetenceisoftensubconscious–mostpeopledonotthinkthroughtheprocessofchoosingasubject,averbinthecorrecttensethatagreeswiththesubject,andadirectobjectwhentheyaretryingtoexpressthemselves.Theserulesaremostlylearnedintuitivelyaschildrenaresocializedintotheirlanguage5andthenreinforcedthroughgrammarlessonsinschool.Paroleandperformancearetheputtingintopractice(notalwaysperfectly)oftheserules–theactualactofspeaking.Ahearn(2012)comparescompetenceandperformancebyusingtheanalogyofknitting:“apersonmighthaveabstractknowledgeabouthowtoknitasweaterbutintheactualknittingofitmightdropastitchhereorthere…”(9).Inotherwords,performancemightnotshowlanguageinitsmostperfectsense,butitisofmorevaluetoanthropologistsbecausetheyareabletostudywordsintheiractualsocialcontext.Ifthereisoneconceptthatalmostalllinguisticanthropologistsagreeon,itisthatwordsareneverneutralandshouldalwaysbeobservedcontextually.MikhailBakhtin(1981)statesthisprinciplemoreeloquently:“Allwordshavethe‘taste’ofaprofession,agenre,atendency,aparty,aparticularwork,aparticularperson,ageneration,anagegroup,thedayandhour.Eachwordtastesofthecontextandcontextsinwhichithasliveditssociallychargedlife”(293). Considermusicasacombinationofcompetenceandperformance.Musichasasetofabstractrulesthatmayormaynotbelearnedintuitively,thenreinforcedinformalizededucation(thedreaded“theoryclass”).Theideaoflearningmusicintuitivelymaynotimmediatelyseemeligible,especiallyconsideringthatmanymusicians“learnmusic”throughformallessonsandclasses.Inreality,theprocessoflearningandbeingsocializedintomusicstartsmuchearlierinlife;observeababydancingalongtomusicorclapping4“Musicalrelativity”isatermofmyowncreation–itisnotmeanttobetakenasanactualscholarlytheory.ItismerelyatermthatIwillemployfortheeaseofnothavingtousethebulkydescription:“thetheoryoflinguisticrelativityasappliedtomusic.”5ThestudyoflanguageacquisitionandsocializationisafascinatingsubfieldoflinguisticanthropologypioneeredbyElinorOchsandBambiSchieffelin(1986)anddiscussedthoroughlyinChapter3ofLauraAhearn’sLivingLanguage(2012).ToborrowAhearn’s(2012)quicksummary:“thefieldoflanguageacquisitionandsocializationresearchshedshelpfullightonhowchildrenlearntheirfirstlanguages.”(64).

9

theirhands–theyare“learning”rhythm.Orthinkaboutsinging–manysingersneverhavetrainingyettheyhaveanintuitivesenseofpitchandgoodvocaltoneandareabletocreatemusic.Basedonthiscompetence,musicisthen“actedout”inreallifecontextsineventscalledperformances(anon‐coincidentaloverlapinterminology).Inatleastthismostbasicdefinitionoflanguage,musicseemstosharesomepreliminaryqualitieswithlanguage. Anotherimportantlinguistictheory,Jakobson’smultifunctionality,maybeappliedtomusic.Beforedoingso,itisimportanttonoteafewmorecrucialpointstoJakobson’stheory.Allsixofthefunctionsare“presentineachspeechevent”(Ahearn2012,18),althoughoneortwomaycertainlyriseabovetheothers.Jakobson(1960)presentshowthisisso,focusingonthe“constitutivefactorsinanyspeechevent”(353).Inanyspeechevent,heargues,theremustbean“addresser”thatsendsa“message”toan“addressee”(Jakobson1960,353).Themessagemusthave“context”(itmustrefertosomethingoutsideoftheaddresserandaddressee),itmusthavea“code”thatisabletobeunderstoodbytheaddresserandaddressee,andtheremustbe“contact”(“aphysicalchannelandpsychologicalconnectionbetweentheaddresserandaddressee”)(Jakobson1960,353).OnceJakobsonestablishedthesesixfactorsofaspeechevent,hewasabletodevelophistheoryfurtherintopresentingsixdifferentfunctionsoflanguage,basedonwhichofthesefactorsthemessageisorientedtowards.Thefunctions,asmentionedearlier,areexpressive(addresser‐oriented),conative(addressee‐oriented),referential(context‐oriented),poetic(message‐oriented),phatic(contact‐oriented),andmetalinguistic(code‐oriented).Theorientationisimportantbecauseitexplainshowcertainfunctionsrisetoprominenceinaconversation. Jakobson’stheory,pre‐developmentoffactor‐orientedfunction,findsahomeinmusicaswellaslanguage.Thereisanaddresser(theperformer,orsometimesthecomposer)whosendsamessage(theactualmusic)toanaddressee(theaudience).Thismessage(themusicitself)referstosituations,stories,andemotionsoutsideoftheaddresserandaddressee(acontroversialstatement).Themessagealsohasacode(asystemofmusicalmeaning)thatmanyargueisinfactuniversal(Meyer1956).Thecontactvariesgreatlybasedonthemusicalexperienceoccurring;itcouldbeatypicalperformer/audiencerelationship,itcouldbetheradiowavesthroughwhichsomeoneishearingasymphony,itcouldbeamicrophoneandspeakersystematarockconcert,etc..Shortofthecontroversyaboutmusicbeingreferential,itappearsthatthefirstlevelofJakobson’stheoriescansafelybyappliedtomusic. AttemptingtoapplythesecondlevelofJakobson’stheory(factor‐orientedfunctions)bringsupsomeoftheissuesthatcommonlyaccompanyattemptstosuperimposelinguistictheoriesontomusic.Musicisnotexplicitlycommunicativelikelanguagesoitcouldneverattemptto“say”“Iamcold”or“youlooknicetoday”oreven“howdoyouspellanFMajorchord?”.ThekeyistotakeJakobson’stheoryatitscore,stripitofitsassociationswithlanguage,andre‐applyittomusic.Considereachofthefunctionsandinsteadof“orientedtowards”,think“drawsattentionto.”HarrisBerger(1997)explainsthatineveryspeechevent,allfunctionsarepresentbuteachfunctioncomestothecenterofattention,almostinwaves.Heprovidestheexampleofanongoingphoneconversationwheresuddenlystaticcomesonthelineandbothparticipantsstartyelling“Hello?Canyouhearme?”(anexampleofthephaticfunction–focusingonthechannel)(Berger1997).

10

FollowingBerger’sexampleofexaminingasingleevent,letusconsiderahypotheticalpianorecital.Thepianiststartsthefirstpiecebybreathingsharply,raisingtheirhandshighabovethekeys,andbringingthewholearmdowntoproducethefirstbombasticchord.Inthisinstance,attentionisimmediatelydrawntowardsthepianist(theaddresser)andthereforetheexpressivefunctionisinplay6.Thepianistisplayingsoaggressivelythattheaudiencecanhearthethumpsofthepadsatthebottomofthepianokeys–attentionisbeingdrawntowardsthepiano(thechannel)andthefunctionisphatic.Thepieceiswellknownsothepianistdecidestophraseonesectiondifferentlytoplaywithaudienceexpectations.Hecanhearthemholdtheirbreathastheywaitforhimtoresolvethedominant–attentionhasshiftedtowardstheaudience(theaddressees)andthefunctionisconative.TheBsectionisquietandlyrical–thepianistphrasesthemelodyinacantabile(singing)styleandseveralaudiencemembersfeelliketheyareactuallyhearingahumanvoicesingingthebeautifulmelody.Inthiscase,thepianisthasreferredtosomethingoutsideoftheimmediatecontext–thehumanvoice–sothefunctionisreferential.Thepiecenowtransitionsintoafugalsection,withalotofinterweavinglines.Thepianistisconsideringeachindividuallineatthesametimeandsomeaudiencemembersfindthemselveslostwhentheytrytotraceasingleline.Inthissituation,theirattentionisonthemusicitself(asitisonthepage,nottheoverallauralexperience)andthereforethefunctionismetalinguistic(orperhaps“meta‐musical”ismoreappropriategiventhecontext).Finally,thepieceendswithabeautifulcoda,andtheaudienceandpianistalikeenjoythebeautifulsoundsbeingproduced.Themessageisatthecenterofattention–thepianistandaudiencehaveexperiencedthepoeticfunction. ManyoftheshiftsinfunctioninJakobson’smultifunctionalityasitappliestolanguageareobvious–whenaconversationmovesfrom“I’mhungry”to“doyouwanttogetsomethingtoeat?”itisclearlyashiftfromexpressivetoconative.Whenappliedtomusic,especiallylikeintheinstancedescribedabove,itappearstheseshiftsarealittlemoreambiguousandupforpersonalinterpretation.Themorepeopleinvolvedinaspeechevent,themorelikelythatmanyfunctionswillbeoccurringatonetime;onepersonmaybefocusedonthebeautyofthesounds(poetic)whilesomeoneelseisfocusedonthemovementsofthepianist(expressive).Applicationofmultifunctionalitytomusicisnotperfect;however,itreassuresusthatmusichassomeofthesamefunctionsaslanguageandthereforeisalmost,ifnotequally,asusefulininterpretingculturalsituations. Theideaofmusicbeingreferentialhasbeenmentionedseveraltimesnow.Thisraisestheimportantquestionofwhethermusicreallyhastheabilitytorefertoanythingaboveoroutsideofitself.Hanslickvehementlysaysno–hestatesthat“therepresentationofaspecificfeelingoremotionalstateisnotatallamongthecharacteristicpowersofmusic”(Hanslick1986,9).OtherslikeKivyaremoreinthemiddle–heconcedesthat“musicofacertainkindisseentobearesemblanceofhumanexpression”(Kivy1980,20)6WhenIsay“focus”or“attention”Iintentionallydonotspecifywhosefocusorattentionisbeinggiven.Inthisinstance,itcouldbethepianist,itcouldbetheaudience,itcouldbethecomposeroritcouldevenbethestagecrewthatispullingorgivingattention.Alloftheabovemembersareapartoftheeventandthereforeallcontributetotheshiftsinfunctions.Also,theseshiftsandpullsinattentionarenotalwaysintentional,andusuallynotconscious.Mostpeopleareunawarethattheseshiftsareevenhappening,andtheydon’tusuallymeanforthemtooccur.

11

whilestillinsistingthatmusicitselfcannot“express”butratherbe“expressiveof…”thesecertainbehaviors.Stillthereareothersthatfullybelieveinthereferentialpowersofmusic.NaomiCumming(2000)somuchbelievedinthisideathatshebuiltanentiresemiotictheoryaroundtheideaoftheviolinsoundinglikethehumanvoice,thereforecreatingaseparatepersonawithinthemusic.Aparalleldiscussioniswhethermusicisrepresentational,inthewaythatitisabletoresemblewhatitisaimingtoexpress.KendallWalton(1997)statesthat“tobeexpressiveistobearasignificantrelationtohumanemotionsorfeelingsorwhateveritisthatisexpressed”(58).Kivy(1984)believesthatanyclaimsuggestingthatmusicissolelyrepresentationalwouldberidiculous,andrathertriestoanswerthequestionofwhetherthereare“anyexamplesofmusic…thatcanproperlybecalled…representational”(1984,19).Inhisusualroundaboutway,Kivy(1984)defendsmusicas“inpart,butnotbyanymeanswholly,arepresentationalart”(197)inthatitisabletorepresentthingsintheworld,asprovenbyextensivemusicalandphilosophicalanalysis.Wewillreturntothisideaofmusicasreferential,expressive,andrepresentational,butfornowitisimportanttonotethatwhilethereismuchdebateonmusicasrepresentational,therearethosewhosupportitasavalidformofmusicalanalysis. Asbrieflymentionedearlier,musicalsemiotics,basedontheworkofC.S.PeirceandSaussure,isalreadyawell‐establishedfieldofstudy.Whatwasnotdiscussedishowtheirideasaboutsigns,specificallyPeirce’s,connectwithmusicinapracticalsense.DavidLidov(2005)pointstoNaomiCummingashavingconceivedthe“mostthoroughandcarefulofallthePeircianmusicalstudies…”(123)inherbookTheSonicSelf:MusicalSubjectivityandSignification(2000).RememberPeirce’stripartitesignismadeofasign,object,andinterpretant,orfirstness,secondness,andthirdnessassomechoosetocallit(Walker2002).Musicalsemioticianshaveexperiencedquiteabitoftroubletryingtoadaptthisconcepttomusic,asmusicismostlynon‐verbal.Thegreatesttroublecomesintryingtodecidewhatthe“object”is–thesign,orthemusicalsound,isobviouslypresent,andaninterpretant,thefeelingsandresponsesoftheaudience,isalsoeasilyidentified.Thisbringsusbacktothequestionofwhethermusicisreferential–formusicalsoundstohaveanobjecttheymustbeabletorepresentandrefer.Inthiscaseasimpleexplanationmightbebest:“Asignisjustaunitofmeaning:somethingthatbringstomindanidea,its“object,”throughtheoperationofaninterpretiveresponse,whichmaybemanifestedinafeeling,anaction(orreaction),orreferencetoaconventionalizedcode”(Cumming2000,68).Cummingseemstotakeforgrantedthatmusiccanberepresentationalandthatobjectsdonotactuallyhavetobeobjectsinthephysicalsense.Inotherwords,objectscanbememories,feelings,orsensationsasopposedtotrees,books,orhorses. Therelationshipbetweenthesignsandobjects,knownastheinterpretant,areofmostimportancetous.Thethreetypesofsemioticrelationshipsaresymbol(relatedbyconvention),index(relatedbycontext),andicon(relatedbysimilarity).Cumming(2000)presentsconvincingmusicalevidenceofallthreeofthese:“tonequalityortimbre”(Lidov2005,125)areiconicsigns(inthatthey“appear”aurallylikethehumanvoice);“gesturalimaging”createsindexicalsigns,and“tonalregularity”canbeperceivedasasymbol(Lidov2005).Cumming(2000)speaksextensivelytotheiconicsigninTheSonicSelf,usingtheviolinandcantabilestyleasanexampleofhowaninstrumentcansoundlikethehumanvoice.DeryckCooke(1959)haspresentedoneofthemostconvincingdefinitionsof“gesturalimagings”withinmusictodate.Hisclassificationofmotifs(or“terms”)within

12

musicalworksisbasedonacollectionofscale‐degreepatterns(like1‐3‐5or6‐2‐5)andtheirrelatedconnotationsinmajorandminormodes(Lidov2005).Lidov(2005)summarizesallofCooke’sbasictermsinahelpfulchart(seeAppendixB).FollowingCooke’smodelofmusicalterms,itcanbesuggestedthatthepresenceofanyofthesetermsinapieceofmusiccouldpointindexicallytotheiremotionalconnotations.Tonalregularityissymbolicbecauseofitsregularity–the“laws”ofmusicarearbitraryandwellestablished7.Inthesamewaythatsomesigns(likewords)gettheirmeaningfromanarbitrarysymbolicconnectiontoanestablishedmeaning,somemusichasmeaningjustfromitsconnectiontotheestablishedrulesofmusicmaking. Atthispointwehavecoveredalargenumberoflinguistictheoriesandhowmusiccanbeseentofitwithinthesetheoriesaswellaslanguage.Ofcourse,therearemanyothertheoriesandcomponentsoflanguagethatcannotbediscussedhere.Lidov(2005)speakstothemusicalconnectiontosomeoftheseotherlanguageelementslikeparalinguistics(intonationandgesticulation)andphonemes/morphemes.Otherideaslikesyntax,pragmatics,andliteracyandhowtheyrelatedtomusiccouldallbenefitfromfurtherstudy. Havingestablishedthatmusicsharesagoodmanycharacteristicswithlanguage,itissafetocontinueoninastudyof“musicalrelativity.”Aspreviouslymentioned,theincorrectunderstandingoflinguisticrelativityisthat“languagedeterminesthought”.Inotherwords,peopleareonlyabletothinkinthewaythattheirlanguageallowsthemtothink.Theupdatedunderstandingisthatlanguage,thought,andcultureallinfluenceeachother.Inthismodel,thereisacertainelementof“predisposition”inthatthelanguageonespeakscanpredisposeonetoseetheworldacertainway,butthereisno“determination,”whereone’slanguagedeterminesone’sthoughts.Numerousstudieshavebeenconductedonthelanguage‐thoughtrelationshipwithinlinguisticrelativity,especiallyconcerninghowlanguageinfluencesthoughtandcognitiveabilities.JohnLucy(1996)suggestedthattheseinfluencescouldbefoundbyexamining“language‐in‐general”,“linguisticstructures,”and“languageuse”(Ahearn2012,72).Theinclusionofculturecomeswhenlanguage,ininfluencingthought,alsoinfluencesbehaviorandthewaythatpeopleactwithinacertainsociety.Reflexively,culture,includinghistoryandtraditions,isincrediblyimportantinshapingthelanguage,thoughts,andbehaviorsofthepeoplethatlivewithinit.Thisiswhythethreearesaidtohavemutuallyinfluentialrelationships(Sapir1949). If,withinthetheoryofmusicalrelativity,music,culture,andthoughtdoinfluenceeachotherthenitappearstherearesixpossiblerelationshipsforustoexamine:theinfluenceofthoughtculture,culturethought,musicthought,thoughtmusic,musicculture,andculturemusic.Beforeexaminingtheserelationshipsitisnecessarytogiveaquickoverviewofpracticetheory,asitiscrucialforanunderstandingofmutuallyinfluentialrelationships.Ahearngivesasuccinctexplanationofpracticetheory:“structures(bothlinguisticandsocial)atthesametimeconstrainandgiverisetohumanactions,whichinturncreate,recreate,orreconfigurethosesamestructures”(2012,23).SherryOrtner(1989),aleadingfigureinpracticetheory,clarifiestherelationshipbetweenpracticeandstructure:“Practiceemergesfromstructure,itreproducesstructure,andithasthecapacitytotransformstructure”(12,emphasisadded).AnotherrespectedscholarinthefieldofpracticetheoryisPierreBourdieu(1977)whosenotionofthehabitus(asetof7HereIrefertotheWesternClassicalcanon.Musicfromoutsideofthistradition,eithergeographicallyorchronologically,doesnotalwaysfollowasetofprescribedrules.

13

predispositions)explains“howwearepredisposed(thoughnotrequired)tothinkandactincertainwaysbecauseofhowwehavebeensocialized”(Ahearn2012,24).“Usually”,Ahearn(2012)says,“onceweactuponthesepredispositions,weendupreproducingtheveryconditionsandsocialstructuresthatshapedourthoughtsandactionstobeginwith”(24).Aswebeginexaminingrelationshipsbetweenlanguage,thought,andmusic,wewillseehowpracticetheoryisatwork,shapingandreinforcingcultureandindividualthought. Perhapstherelationshipthatbestshowcasespracticetheoryisbetweenthoughtandculture.Individualthoughtinfluenceshumanbehavior;agroupofpeople’sbehaviorcombinedcreatesculture.However,peoplebehaveinspecificwaysthatallowthemtoremainacceptedmembersofaparticularculture(excludingcriminalsandsocialoutcasts).Inthisway,culturedeterminesthoughtandbehavior,thesamethoughtsandbehaviorsthatcreatedtheculturetobeginwith.Letustakeforexampleawell‐knowncomponentofAmericanculture–materialism.Itcouldbesaidtobeginwithanindividualthought,“Ineedmoreandbetterstuff”,whichthenleadstospecificbehavior,liketakingoutaloantobuya$50,000car.IfenoughpeopleinAmericaengageinthisparticularthoughtandbehavior,thenitbeginstobeknownasadefiningelementofAmericanculture.However,someonecouldbeinducedtothink“Ineedmoreandbetterstuff”becausetheirneighborsandfriendshaveexpensivecars,andtheyseeadvertisementstellingthemthatrealAmericanshaveexpensivecars.Inthisway,culturehasshapedsomeone’sthought;thesethoughtsleadtobehaviorswhichthenreinforcetheculturalvaluethatinducedthebehaviorinthefirstplace.Hereinliesthenever‐endingcycleofpracticetheory;itisaubiquitouscyclethatoccursinallareasoflife. Letusstepawayfromcultureforamomentandexaminehowthoughtandmusicmightinfluenceoneanother.Aspreviouslymentioned,themainfocusofmanyscholarsoflinguisticrelativityistherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthought,particularlyhowaspecificlanguagemightpredisposeonetothinkinacertainway.ScholarslikeJohnLucy(1996)haveexaminedhowdifferentareaswithinlanguagemightinfluencethought.Studyoflanguage‐in‐general,theconceptof“howhavinganylanguageatallmightinfluencethinking”(Ahearn2012,72),essentiallycompareshumanstonon‐humanmammalstoshowhowhumanshavethecognitiveabilitiesnecessarytospeakandunderstandlanguage.Inthesameway,music‐in‐generalcouldbestudiedtoshowhowknowingmusicandparticipatinginmusicaleventscancontributetocognitivedevelopment.Infact,thisisapopularfieldofstudy,especiallywithineducation,asartseducatorsarepassionateaboutprovingtoadministrationsandschoolboardswhyaneducationintheartsisimportantforthedevelopmentofstudents’minds(Bowman2004;McTamaney2005). Studyoflinguisticstructuresfocusesonhowdifferentlanguageelementslike“grammaticalstructures”or“semanticdomains”(Ahearn2012,80)caninfluencethought.Researchinthisarearangesfromdifferentviewsofcolorwithinspecificlanguages(BerlinandKay1969)totheimplicationsoftheabsenceof“formalhonorificforms”(Ahearn2012,81)inthegrammarofcontemporaryEnglish.Musichassomeparallelsofgrammaticalcategoriesinitsstructureandformalapplication.Itdoesnotappearthatmuchresearchhasbeendoneintheareaofexamininghowmusicalstructurescoulddirectlyinfluencethought;therefore,anyconnectionImightproposehereistenuousandsubjecttofurtherinvestigation.Allmusicalstructuresplaywiththeelementsofsoundandrhythm.WalterSpalding(1920)describesthegrammarofmusicassomethingthat“hasbeenworkedoutthroughcenturiesoffreeexperimentation”(3).MarioBaroni(1983)suggestsfivemusical

14

categoriesnecessarytodevelopasystemofmusicalgrammartoexaminewrittenmusic:pitch,note‐length,metricalposition,degree,andtonality(187).Iftheconceptofmusicperformanceisbeingstudied,Baroni(1983)alsosuggeststhattimbreanddynamicscouldbeexaminedaswell.Differentmusicalschoolsofthought(usuallydistinguishedbynationalityorchronology)havealldevelopeddifferentconceptsofmusicalgrammarcombiningthefivementionedelementsabove.Withineachoftheseschools,thecomposers,performers,andconsumersofmusicareexpectedto“followtherules”–inthiswaytheirthoughtsandcompositionalprocessesareconfinedtowhatthegrammarof“theirmusic”allowsthem8.Thisconceptoftheinfluenceofmusicalgrammaronthoughtisbynomeanscomplete.Researchersarestillattemptingtodevelopcomprehensivegrammaticalsystemsofmusicalanalysissothefieldisnotreadytoexaminehowthesegrammaticalcategoriesmightinfluencethought.Ontheotherhand,theinfluenceofthoughtonmusicseemsprettysimpleincomparison;musiccomesfromthehumanmind,whetheritisimprovisedorcomposed.Ihavehearditsaidthatmusicfloatsaroundintheairjustwaitingtobediscovered,orthatmusiccamefromapieceofdivineinspiration;evenifso,musicistransmittedandsubmittedtothetemporalrealmthroughthechannelofthehumanbrain. Thestudyoflanguageuse,or“habitualpatternsofuse”(Ahearn2012,92),isenlighteningasithighlightscertainideologiesindifferentcultures.AninterestingexampleisSusanHarding’s(1987)timespentresearchingtherhetoricaldevicesusedbyfundamentalBaptistsintheirattempttoconvertunbelievers.Shediscoveredthatafterspendinglongperiodsoftimewiththehighlyreligious,shefoundherselfhavingthoughtsthatseemedliketheycamerightoutofthemouthofafundamentalBaptistpreacher,eventhoughsheherselfwasnotabelieverinthereligion(Ahearn2012,94).Harding(1987)saysaboutherexperience:“Itwasmyvoice,butnotmylanguage.IhadbeeninvadedbythefundamentalBaptisttongueIhadbeeninvestigating”(169).Hertimespenthearingaparticularhabitualpatternoflanguageinfluencedthewayshethoughtuntilshewasabletodistanceherselffromthatcommunityandtheirrhetoric.Musichasthesamepowertocreateideologieswithinpeople;peoplehavecertainhabitualpatternsofmusicuse(listeningorcreating)withintheirspecificcommunities.Anexamplewouldbetheapparentpreferenceforhip‐hoporrapmusicinlow‐incomeminoritycommunities.Numerousstudieshavebeenconductedintohowhip‐hoporrapmusiccouldinfluencethewaythattypicalconsumersofthesegenresthinkaboutthemselvesandtheworld(Berry1990;Johnson1994). Thefinalrelationshipinatheoryofmusicalrelativity,musicandculture,isofprimaryconcernforethnomusicologists.Manyethnomusicologistsarepreoccupiedwithsimplythestudyofmusic(usuallynon‐Westernmusic)withinitsparticularcontextbutwithintheirmethodswemayfindwaysinwhichmusicandcultureinfluenceeachother(Middleton2003).Likewesawwithlanguageandthought,practicetheory,oracyclicalpatternofinfluence,willbeprevalentintherelationshipofmusicandculture.

8Ofcoursethereareexceptions,likeDebussy,whowasinspiredtoexploremusicallanguagesoutsideofEuropeafterheheardaJavanesegamelanorchestraattheInternationalExpositioninParisin1889(Schmitz1950).

15

MattSakakeeny(2011)findspracticetheory(hecallsita“circulatorysystem”)atworkintheNewOrleansJazzscene,specificallythebrassbandparade,orjazzfuneral.Sakakeenycharacterizedhisworkassuch:

Idrawattentiontohowthishistoryofhumanandculturalcirculationhasforeverbeenshaped,orpurified,bynarratorswhoconnectthedotsbetweenpeople,places,andmusic,suchaswhenthe“discovery”ofthebirthplaceofjazzsetinmotionaseriesofeventsthatultimatelyredefinedacity’smusicalidentity.People,places,andmusicareentangledwiththeirrepresentationsinmediaindiscourseandtogethertheyconstituteacirculatorysystem.(2011,293)

Sakakeeny(2011)beginshisstudybyshowinghowbrassbandparadesevolvedfromwildlypopularslavedancesinCongoSquare,dancesthat“inscribedmusicasasitefortheproductionofracialdifference”(298)andultimately“cametofigureprominentlyinthegradualredefinitionofNewOrleansMusicassynonymouswithAfricanAmericanmusic”(304).HetracestheinfluenceoftheseAfricanslavedancesonthedevelopmentoftheNewOrleansjazzfuneral,discoveringthatthebrassbandbegantobeseenas“anauthenticformoflocalblackculture”(Sakakeeny2011,314).Eventually,Sakakeeny(2011),byfocusingon“associationsbetweenmusic,race,andplace”(291),specificallyjazz,African‐Americans,andNewOrleans,wasabletoshowhowthecultureofNewOrleanscontributedtothebirthofthejazzfuneralwhileatthesametimeshowinghowthejazzfuneralandbrassparadesreshapedforeverculturalperceptionsofNewOrleans.Thisisjustoneconcreteexampleofthecircularrelationshipbetweenmusicandculture.Aspreviouslymentioned,ethnomusicologistsarecontinuouslyattemptingtofindnewelementsofthisrelationshipandthereisnodoubtthatstudiessimilartoSakakeeny’swillbeforthcoming.

16

Chapter3

MusicasStoryteller Itisprettywellestablishedamongresearchersofculturalstudiesthatcultureisdiscursive,thatis,itarisesasaresultofdiscourse,orlanguage.Wehavealreadydiscussedhowmusic,initssimilaritiestolanguage,canbeconsideredadiscourseandthereforecommunicateswithculture(Nattiez1990).However,musicisnotonlycapableofcommunicatingwithculture;itcanalsocommunicateaboutcultureandevengiverisetoculture.Theanswertohowitmightdosoisinthenarrative.BrunoNettl(2005)pointstotheideaofmusicalnarratives:

Thenotionofmusicasnarrative,withmotifsandmelodiessymbolizingspecificeventsinastory,isamajorfeatureofWesternmusicalthought.ThefactthatliteraryandmusicalworksareperceivedtohavesimilarstructuralcharacteristicsisindicativeofsomeaspectsoftherolethattheartsplayinWesternculture.(333)

Variousauthorshaveattemptedtoexplainhowthismaybeso.Techniquesrangefromthespecific(theidentificationofspecificstorytellingelementswithinmusic)totheverybroad(examinationofhownarrativesinteractwithculture,ofwhichmusicisapart). JeanJacquesNattiez,acontemporarymusicologist,whohasalsoproducedworkinmusicalsemiotics,speaksextensivelyaboutthepossibilityasmusicasanarrative.Nattiez(1990)comestotheconclusionthatmusiconitsownisnotanarrative;however,heconcedesthat“withthespecificmeansofmusicandwithoutnecessarilytryingto'relatesomething',thecomposercanaimtopresenttous,inmusic,anattitude”andthatmusiccan“imitatethesemblanceofanarrationwithoutoureverknowingthecontentofthediscourse”(257).TheareasinwhichNattiez(1990)willagreethatmusiccouldbenarrativearethemostambiguous;heisinsistentthatmusicdoesnotexplicitlytellstories(shortofthecomposersincludingprogramming)butratherconveysmoodsthattellstories(ofsufferingandredemption,forexample).Healsopointsouttheimportanceoftheroleofthelistener;astoryornarrativecanonlybepresentinmusicifthelistenerisactivelyparticipatingincreatingastoryoutofthemusictheyhear.Inhiswords,“thenarrative,strictlyspeaking,isnotinthemusic,butintheplotimaginedandconstructedbythelistenersfromfunctionalobjects”(Nattiez1990,249).SoaccordingtoNattiez,andIwouldhavetoagree,ifanaudienceissittingpassively,listeningonlytothephysicalsoundsofthemusic,therewillbenonarrativepresentnorstorytold. Nattiezproveswellenoughthatmusicinandofitselfdoesnottellastoryunlessalistenerisactivelylookingforanarrativewithinthesounds.If,however,someoneisdesirousofcreatingastoryinmusic,wherewouldtheystart?Doesthestoryarisefromthegeneralmood,ascreatedbytonality,pulse,dynamics,texture,melody,rhythm,articulation,etc.,orfromspecificquotationsoflinguistic‐likemusicalphrases? Supportersofthetheorythatmusicalnarrativesaretheportrayalofgeneralattitudesormoodsareoftencompatiblewithmusicologistswhofocusonmusicandemotions(Merriam1964;Budd1985;Walton1997).Theyareallgenerallyconcernedwiththepsychologyofmusic–theeffectmusichasonpeople’smoods,andhowmusicmightinciteonetoexperiencecertainemotionsorsensations.Itistruethat“mostpeopleengage

17

withmusicbecausetheyfinditinsomewaymeaningful,rewarding,orexciting”(Clarke2003,113).Researchersofmusicalnarrativesandmusicalmeaningareconcernedwithwhyandhowpeoplefindmeaning,reward,orexcitementwithinmusic. Oneinterestinganswertothequestionofhowpeoplefindmeaninginmusicisthroughmusicalempathy.Musicempathyisadifficultconcepttostudyormeasure,asitvariesbasedonindividualdifferences;thelevelofempathyonepersonexperiencesisvastlydifferentfromtheempathythatanotherpersoniscapableof.BalteşandMiu(2014),whileacknowledgingtheselimitations,pointtomusicempathyasoneofthetwomajorwayspeopleperceiveemotioninmusic(theother,intheirformula,isvisualimagery).Theideabehindmusicempathyisthatanactivelistenerisabletorecognizeandmirrortheemotionsoftheperformerorartist(GarridoandSchubert2011).Inthismodel,itisnecessaryforboththeperformerandlistenertobeintentionallyengagedintheprocessofdisplayingand/ordiscerningemotion,meaning,andstoryinthemusic.Saythataperformerdesirestoconveyaspecificemotion–accordingtotheideaofmusicempathy,anactivelyengagedaudiencewouldbeabletoperceiveandthenmirrortheemotiontheperformerisexperiencing.Walton(1999)cautionsagainstbelievingtoofirmlyinmusicempathy.Hearguesthat“listenersmayprojecttheirownpsychologicalstatesasarousedempatheticallybythemusic,ontothemusicitself”(GarridoandSchubert2011,282).Thisisinoppositiontotheideaofarealconnectionbetweenaudienceandperformerallowingforasimilaremotiontobefeltacrosstheperformancespace. Fornow,letusassumethatthebasicideasbehindmusicempathyaretrue;thefoundationofanactivelyengagedaudienceandperformerallowforachannelinwhichemotionscanbesharedandexperienced.Ifempathycreatesthischannel,itisnaturaltoassumethatnotonlyemotionsmightflowfromperformertoaudience;infact,Iarguethatstoriesareabletotravelthroughthischannelaswell.Sothequestionnowis,whatstoriesismusicreallycapableoftelling? Themostgeneraltypeofstorytoldisawell‐knownarchetypeormyth.ChristopherBooker(2004)highlightssevenbasicarchetypesthatallstoriesarederivativeof:overcomingthemonster,ragstoriches,thequest,voyageandreturn,comedy,tragedy,andrebirth.Itwouldcertainlybeastretchtoimaginethatapieceofinstrumentalmusiccouldtellastoryofsomeoneovercomingamonster;however,thelastthreearchetypesespecially(comedy,tragedy,andrebirth)aremoreaccessibletomusicinthattheyleavethemostroomforambiguity,aqualityNattiez(1990)wouldinsistisnecessary.Nattiezinfacthighlightsacombinationtragedy/rebirtharchetypeaspresentedbyAnthonyNewcomb(1984)inhisanalysisofseveralSchumannandBeethovensymphonies:astoryof“suffering,followedbyhealingorredemption”(Nattiez1990,248).ClaudeLévi‐Strauss(1978)doesnotspeakdirectlytostoryarchetypesbutdoesmakeaconnectionbetweenmusicandmyth9,claimingtheyhavesimilarstructures.Heevengoessofarastocallamusicalwork“amythcodedinsoundsinsteadofwords”(Lévi‐Strauss1981,659). Othersarguethatmorespecifickindsofstoriescanbetold.FredMaus(1997)analyzestheopeningofBeethoven’sQuartetOp.95andwithinthefirst17barsfindsa“successionofdramaticactions:anabrupt,inconclusiveoutburst;asecondoutburstin9HereIspeakofmythusingthedefinitionofaculture’straditionalstoriesasdefinedbyLévi‐Strauss(1978)andJosephCampbell(ThePowerofMyth,PBS,1988),amongothers,notthealternatedefinitionofafalsebelieforuntruestory.

18

response,abruptandcoarseinitsattempttocompensateforthefirst;aresponsetothefirsttwoactions,calmerandmorecareful”(118).Helabelsalloftheseeventsasactions,withmotivations,reasons,andresponses,muchlikeaconversationorspeechevent.Thereisacertainlevelofambiguitypresent;wedonotknowwhothe“agent”is,orwhoisresponsiblefortheseactionsandimaginaryconversations.Maus(1997)generallycharacterizesthese17barsasonesingleevent:an“outburst”(124).Hegoesontocomparethesemeasurestoastageplay,ananalysisthatisnotnecessarytorecordhere,excepttosaythathedoesnotconclusivelysaywhetherthisBeethovenpassagehasaplot;however,hedoesbelievethatthepassageis“connectedtoeverydaylifebyaction,belief,desire,mood,andsoon”(Maus1997,129). Stillothersarelessinterestedinwhatstoryisbeingtold,andfocusinsteadonwhatspecificmusicalelementscouldcontributetoanysortofnarrativeorstory.Theideaofamusical‘gesture’isofspecialinteresttomanyinthisregard,althoughitneedsclarificationasitisawordthatisoftenthrownaroundwithdisregardtomeaningorcontext.EdwardCone(1974)callsmusic“alanguageofgesture:ofdirectactions,ofpauses,ofstartingsandstoppings,ofrisesandfalls,oftensenessandslackness,ofaccentuations”(164).Thesegesturesarecreatedbygroupsoftwoormorenotes(melodicgroupings,notharmonic),andtherelationshipbetweenthem,muchlikeCooke’s(1959)musicaltermsbasedonspecificscaledegrees.TheserelationshipscouldbeasspecificasCooke’sorcouldbemoregeneral,suchasRobertHall’s(1953)studyonthe“imitationofintonation”(Nattiez1990,252)inEnglishaspresentinthemusicofEdwardElgar.Hall(1953)specificallyhighlighteda“fallingpitch,fromrelativelyhightorelativelylow”andcompareditto“theendofadeclarativesentenceinbothBritishandAmericanEnglish”or“aquestionbeginningwithaninterrogativeword,e.g.Whereareyougoing?”(6). Gestureisnottheonlymusicalelementthatcouldcontributetoamusicalnarrative.Conealsosuggeststhatcertaininstrumentswithinaquartetorevenalargergrouplikeasymphony,withtheirspecificvoices,couldbeconsidered“virtualagents”orcharacters(Cone1974).Walton(1997)alsospeaksofthepossibilityofmusicalelements,likeadiminishedseventhchord(e.g.theopeningofBeethoven’sOp.59,no.3),beingspecificcharacters.Waltonalsospeakstosetting,ortheideathatmusiccouldcreateafictionalworldinwhichastorymighttakeplace.Nattiez(1990)pointstoamusicalconversationtakingplacewithinafugue,consideringthatfuguesusetermsofanalysissuchas“‘subject’,‘answer’,‘exposition’,‘discussion’,and‘summary’”(251). Whetherthestorytoldisarchetypalorspecific,narrativeoremotional,thefactremainsthatstoriesarealargepartofanyculture.Whatremainsistoconnectstories,musicalornonmusical,tocultureandexaminehowtheyplayapartinshapingandcommunicatingculture. MabelPowers(1948),ascholaroftheIroquoisandstorytellingpracticesofNativeAmericans,assertsthat“storytellinghasitsrootsinthenaturaldesiretosharewithotherswhatonehasheardandenjoyed”(308).Shealsoconnectsstoriesfurthertoidentity,sayingthat“toblowthebreathoflifeintoastory,thestorytellermustliveit,absorbitintoonesverybeing”(Powers1948,309).Inthisway,astoryisverymuchconnectedtoindividualidentity.However,storiesultimatelytranscendtheindividual,becomingwhatCarolFeldman(2001)callsgroupnarratives.Thesegroupnarrativesarethenresponsibleforforminganationalorgroupidentity.Feldman(2001)explainsthisprocess:“allnationalnarrativesaretypicalofgroup‐definingstoriesinthat(a)theyarehighlypatterned,(b)

19

thattheyalsoaffecttheformofpersonalautobiography,and,(c)thattheygoundergroundascognitionwheretheyserveasmentalequipmentfortheinterpretationofevents”(129).Thesegroupnarrativesareusedtoexaminerelationshipsbetweenpeopleinspecificgroupsorcommunities;however,(andherewereturntopracticetheory),theyalso“createtheinterpretivecommunitywithwhommeaningsaretobeshared”by“supplyingacommoninterpretiveframeworkfortheexperienceofgroupmembers”(Feldman2001,133).Thiscommunityorgroupidentityisreallyjustcultureitself,beingshapedbythenarrativesittells.Feldmanisnottheonlypersonwiththisdefinitionofculture:GrahamandLabanyi(1995)definecultureas“thestoriespeopletelleachotheraboutwhatandwheretheyare”(5).Inthisway,musicasastorytellerisusefulincommunicatingtraditions,valuesandcultureamongpeople.ThisconceptismanifestedinSpanishculture,asSpanishpianomusicshapesandreinforcesSpanishculturalidentity.

20

Chapter4

TheSpanishSound PeoplehaveverydifferentideasaboutthehistoryandcultureofSpain.IfoneweretotakearandomsamplingofpeopleandaskthemwhattheyknewaboutSpanishculture,therewouldlikelybeawiderangeofanswersrelatedtothelanguage,popularculturaleventslikebullfightingorflamencodancing,andcuisine(unfortunately,manybelievethatanormalmealforaSpaniardistacos).ThishighlightstheideologyaboutSpanishspeakingcountriesthatwasmentionedearlier;peopledonotattributeanyuniquenesstoSpainandassumeahomogenizedidentitywithinSpanishspeakers.TherealityisthatSpainandthe“NewWorld”areincrediblydifferent;evenwithinSpain,differentmicro‐culturesandidentitieshavedevelopedasgeographicallyisolatedregionshaveevolvedindependentofinfluencefromotherSpanishcommunities. TheIberianPeninsulahasbeencalled“ameetingplaceofmanycultures”(Chase1959,13).Duetoitsstrategicgeographicalposition,Spainhasalwaysbeenofinterestformanypeoplegroups,forpurposesoftrade,politics,orreligion.Assuch,nolessthan7differentcountriesorpeopleshaveinhabitedSpainduringitslonghistoryandcontributedtothedevelopmentofthemodernSpanishcultureandlanguage,themostinfluentialbeingtheRomansandtheMoors(Barton2004).WiththeRomanconquestinthethirdcenturyBCcamethegreatestinfluenceonthelanguage,astheybroughtLatinwhichevolvedthroughtimeintomodernSpanishandallotherRomancelanguages.AsLatinmatured,itsawthearrivaloftheVisigoths,whotookSpainfromtheRomansonlytobeoustedbyMusliminvaders.BoththeVisigothsandtheMoorishArabslefttheirmarkontheSpanishlanguage,includingalargesetofvocabulary(Hardman‐de‐Bautista1983).Thechainofconqueringpeoplegroupsendedin1492withthefinalvictoryoftheChristianReconquista(Re‐conquest)overtheMuslims.TheCatholicMonarchsFerdinandandIsabellabegantheprocessofhomogenizingSpain,politically,religiously,andlinguistically.However,tothisday,theIberianPeninsulahasremainedculturallyandevenlinguisticallydiverse,withthetrioofChristian,Moorish,andJewishinfluencereceivingaspecialplaceinSpanishculture.FerdinandandIsabellaalsosupportedtheexpansionoftheirnewfoundSpanishnationalidentitytotheNewWorld,wheretheSpanishcolonizers’interactionswiththenativepeoplesestablishedaconduitofreciprocalinfluencebetweenSpainandtheNewWorld,changingEuropeanandworldhistoryforever. ThehistoryofSpainhasnotonlycontributedtodiversityintheSpanishlanguage,ithasaffectedtheSpanishmusicallanguageaswell.VirginiaRaad(1979)highlightsthisdirectconnection,sayingthat“becausesomanyculturesmingledintheIberianPeninsula,Spanishfolkmusicisconsideredsomeoftherichestintheworld”(13).MauriceHinson(2006)echoesRaad:“thefolkmusicofSpainisunusuallyrichanddiverse,inpartbecauseofthelinguisticandculturaldiversityofthecountryitself”(3).TheSpanishfolkidiomisamajorplayerinanydiscussionofSpanishclassicalmusic,asalmostallSpanishmusictakesinspirationfromfolktunesanddancerhythms. Spanishfolkmusicisgenerallythoughttohavedevelopedasaresultofathree‐foldinfluence:“theByzantinechantusedbytheearlychurchinSpain,”“thestrainsintroducedbytheMosleminvasionandoccupation,”and“thesoundsofthebandsofgypsies,themajorityofwhomsettledinAndalucía”(Kuehl1976,17).Kuehl(1976)alsoinsiststhatthe

21

Hebraicinfluencecannotbeignored,astheJewishsynagoguechantgreatlyinfluencedtheAndalusiancantejondo(deepsong).PriortotheriseofSpanishnationalisminthemid‐19thcentury,theuseoffolktunesinclassicalmusicwasnotalwaysaresultofconsciouseffortonthepartofcomposers.OnceinfluentialteachersandmusicologistslikeFelipePedrellbegantofocusonpreservingSpain’snationaltraditions,otherpianistslikeIsaacAlbéniz,ManueldeFalla,andEnriqueGranadosfollowedsuit,bringingtheSpanishfolkidiomtotheattentionoftherestoftheworldandattractingnon‐SpanishcomposerslikeClaudeDebussy,GeorgesBizet,andMauriceRavel.Theseforeigncomposerswereespeciallydrawntotheextra‐rhythmicfeelofthemusic,themysterioustonality,andtheemotivepossibilitiesofthegypsysong(cantejondo),allofwhicharoseasaresultoftheabovementionedculturalinfluences. DanceisimportanttotheSpaniards.Eveniftheyareonlyspectatorsandnotparticipators,itfulfillstheirdesireforcommunityandprovidesthemanoutlettodisplaytheirmostpassionateemotions.TherhythmoftraditionalSpanishdance(ritmodedanza)hasbeencalled“thepulseof[Spanish]life”(WingraveandHarrold1972,41).Themainelementofdancethathastransferredtoclassicalcompositions,especiallyonthepiano,isinfacttherhythmicvitality.Sometimesthistranslatestoapiecebeingupbeatandlively,withadrivingtempoandsyncopatedrhythms.DanielEricourtandRobertErickson(1984)believethatdancerhythmsare“inherentinmostSpanishmusic”(10).Usually,however,acomposerismakingexplicituseofoneofSpain’shundredsoftraditionaldanceformsandrhythms(LaMeri1948). ThetraditionaldancesofSpainhavemainlydevelopedasaresultofanoraltradition(passedfromteachertostudentorfamilytocommunity)andassucharenotalwaysincrediblydistinctfromoneanother(Ruyter2003).LaMeri(1948)alsopointsoutthatthe“folk”ofAndalusiaare“artists;whatonedancesinthestreetanotherseesandimmediatelybetters,andbeforeamonthisgonethedancemayhavecompletelychangeditssteps”(74).Nevertheless,therearemanydancesthatarewellestablishedandeasilydistinguished,likethemalagueña,habanera,seguidilla,andfandango,amongothers.ThesedancesaregenerallyconsideredpartoftheregionaldancesofAndalusia,thesouthernregionofSpain(Matteo2003).Anotherfamousfamilyofdancesfallsundertheumbrellatermflamenco,whichincludesthebailejondo(tragicordeepdance)andbailechico(smallorlightdance),amongothers(Matteo2003).Inattemptingtoadaptthesedancesforperformanceonclassicalpiano,composershavehadtoconsiderthetraditionalmusicalaccompanimentofguitarandrhythmicinstrumentsaswellastheactualstepsandrhythmofthedancers:itislikelythatthephysical“choreography”ofthedanceprecededanysortofsetmusicalaccompanimentorrhythmicnotation.EricourtandErickson(1984)giveanexampleofhowthemovementsofthedancersaffectrhythmicflowandmusicalaccompaniment,lookingspecificallyatthetango:

Amaincharacteristicofthisdanceistheslightpauseintherhythmwiththeweightononefoot,anticipatorytothenextmovement.Thus,carefulattentionshouldbegiventothemanyritardando…theyindicatethesepauses“inspace”(onefootelevated)asitwere,bythedancers.Ofcoursethedancersproceedalmostimmediatelyaftereachhold,andthemusicshouldgivethisfeelofcontinuousflowofthedance.(30)

22

Oftentimesthestepsthemselvesarenotasimportantastheyaremadetoseemintheaboveexample(thetango);however,keepingasteadyrhythmand“anadherencetoallthenaturalaccents”(Kuehl1976,18)remainscrucialtoanysuccessfulperformanceofanySpanishmusicusingdanceforms. Therhythmicvitalityarisesnotonlyasaresultofemulatingthevisualaspectsofdance,buttheaudibleaswell.Spanishdanceisusuallynotaquiet,civilizedaffair.Thesoundsthatthehumanbodymakesinthesedances(likefoottappingorclapping)arepresentinadaptationsoffolkdancesforinstrumentalperformance.Zapateadoisatermwithtwoapplications:itisusedtodescribeanysoundthatthefeetmakewhiledancingandisalsothenameofaspecifictypeofvirtuosicflamencodancedbyasolomale,withalotoffast,fancyfootwork(LaMeri1948;Matteo2003,267).Inadaptationsofflamencostyleforthepiano,anylight,rapidplayingwithsharpaccentscouldberepresentativeofthezapateado.Palmasrefertohandclaps,whichhavetheroleof“keepingtherhythmandaccentingcertainbeats”inflamencodances(Matteo2003,141).Apianistcouldsuggestpalmasbyhighlightingcertainstrongaccentedbeatsaswellasstrictlyadheringtotherhythmandpulseofthedance.Alsointhesoundsofdancearetheyellsandcallsofthedancers,musicians,andcrowdofspectators.Thesecallsareimportantincreatinganoverallexperienceaswellasbuildingenthusiasmandareechoedinclassicalperformancemusicbyburstsofsound,dynamically,harmonically,orrhythmically. TheauralexperienceofSpanishdanceisnotcreatedsolelybythedancers;almostallfolkdancesareaccompaniedbyguitar,rhythmicinstrumentslikecastanets,andsometimessinging.WingraveandHarrold(1972)pointoutthatthecontributionoftheguitarisnotjustaccompaniment:“intheperformanceofdances,theguitaristanddancerhaveasenseofunity…when[theguitaristis]playingforthedancer,hefollowseachstepandmood”(41).Inthisway,theguitarbecomesapartofthedanceitself.Italsocontributestothehistoricaldiversityinthedevelopmentofthesedances;theguitar(orprecursorsoftheguitar,liketheluteorvihuela)wassupposedlybroughttoSpainbytheMoorishArabs,butunlikeothercontributionsoftheMoors,itdidnotjustremaininthesouthernregion,butspreadalloverthecountry(Schmitz1950).InthedifferentregionalstylesofSpanishdance,theguitarisplayeddifferently;however,theflamencoguitarstyleisquitedistinctive;inflamenco,theguitariseitherstrummedorplucked.Thestrummed(rasgueado)styleusuallyaccompaniesadancethathasasinger,whiletheplucked(punteado)styleismorevirtuosic,andmightbeusedforaduoofguitaranddancer(Manuel2003).Theguitarisincrediblypopularasaninstrumenttobeimitatedbycomposersofkeyboardmusic,includingScarlatti,deFallaandDebussy,amongothers(Hinson2006).Therasgueadostyleinpianomusicisachievedwithrapidlyrolledchords,whilethepunteadostyleiscreatedasaresultoffast,repeatingnotes,oftenwithaninternalpedaltone(Powell1980). Thecastanetsareanotherinstrumentusuallyassociatedwithdance,especiallyflamenco,althoughtheyarebelievedtohavecomefromtheGreeksandnottheMoors(LaMeri1948).WingraveandHarrold(1972)pointoutthat“thecastanetsmaylookeasytoplayandtomostpeoplemeanjusttheclickingoftwobitsofwoodtogether”(45)buttheyactuallyrequireagreatamountofskillandfinesse.Castanetsaretypicallyplayedbythedancersthemselvesorbyothermembersofthedancegroupwhoaresittingoutofthatspecificdance.Whenclickedtogethercorrectly,theyproduceasharp,clippedsoundthat,likepalmas,servetoaddaccentstobeats.Castanetplayingcanbesuggestedinpiano

23

compositionswith“sharpstaccatorhythm”(EricourtandErickson1984,22). Besidethedancerandguitaristthereissometimesanothercharacterinvolvedinthecreationofflamencoexperiences.ThesingerhasplayedanimportantroleinshapingdanceallacrossSpain,notjustflamenco,andassuch,thestylesofsongarejustasvariedasthedanceforms.Perhapsoneofthemostwell‐knowninstancesofSpanishdancesong,especiallyinternationally,isthecantejondo(deepsong).Cantejondoisthesongofthegitanos(gypsies)ofAndalusia,andsoundslikethepassionate,sometimeswild,criesofapersonwhohasknowntruesorrow.Thissorrowfulsoundisnotincidental;cantejondohasrootsintheArab,Hebraic,andgypsytraditionsandthereforespeakstothelossandsufferingthatthesepeopleshaveexperiencedintheirnativeslandsaswellasintheireffortstomakeahomeinasometimeshostileSpain.Theoveralleffectofcantejondo,therefore,isoneof“mysteryandmelancholicsadness”(Kuehl1976,17)whichperhapscontradictsthevisionmanyhaveofSpainasalandofsunshineand“perpetualgaiety”(Chase1959,226). Themysteryandsorrowofthecantejondoareproducedbyspecificmusicaldevices,somedirectlyevolvedfromByzantineandHebraicsynagoguechants.Thisissomewhatironicasthecantejondoisconsideredasongofthegypsies,whotraditionallyareconsideredtheoppositeof“thesacred”.Cantejondoandtheseancientchantsshareseveralcommonelements:intervalssmallerthansemitones,vocalportamento,melodicembellishments,andrepeatedinsistenceonasinglenote(Chase1959,224).ThefirsttwoelementsoftheabovelistareincrediblydifficulttoreproduceinWesternmusicalnotationorperformance,especiallyonthepiano,aswedonothavetheabilitytonotateorreproduceonthepianoanyintervalsmallerthanasemitone(Kuehl1976).Vocalportamentopresentssimilarchallengesforpianists;itisatechniqueofslidinginbetweennotes“throughaseriesofinfinitesimalgradations”(Chase1959,224)andthereforealsomakesuseofuntranslatableintervals.However,composershavebeenabletoovercomebothoftheseobstaclesbycomposingmelodies,usingonlythestandardWesternsemitones,thatsuggestthegeneralmoodofcantejondousingtempo,dynamics,andharmony10.Thereisalsoapopularideathataquicklyplayedgracenoteahalfstepaboveorbelowthedesiredmelodicnotecouldsuggestadissonancesostrongitappearssmallerthanasemitone.Moreaccessibleformodernnotationistheideaofmelodicembellishmentsandinsistenceonasinglerepeatednote.Thetwoinfactgohandinhand,asmanymelodicembellishmentsareappoggiaturasthatcenteraroundoneortwocorepitchesthatarerepeatedwith“characteristicinsistence”(Raad1979,14).Theseembellishmentscouldalsobemelismata(invocalchant,whenonewordisstretchedoverseveralmovingnotes),suggestedonthepianobywritingamovinglineoverasuspendedharmony. Althoughthecantejondoisquitefreeandthewordsandrhythmsareusuallyimprovisatory,thereareafewgeneral“rules”oftonalitythatinformthesingerand10Itisimportanttonotethatitisalmostneverthegoalofanycomposertocopyexactlywhathasbeendonebefore.Inthisregard,anytreatmentofthecantejondooranyotherfolkordanceidiombyaclassicalcomposerisalmostalwayswiththeintentionofadaptation,asopposedtodirectquotation.ManueldeFallawasinsistentthathiscompositionswerenot“anexactcopy”ofanyfolkmusic;hedesiredto“capturetheessenceofthemusicthrough‘creativerealism’”(Kuehl1976,17‐18).

24

thereforethecomposer.ThetonalityofthecantejondoandinfactmostotherAndalusiansongs,comesfromtheArabicinfluence,andisoftencategorizedasthePhrygianmode.The“characternote”ofthePhrygianmodeisaloweredsecond,ahalfstepabovethetonic,anintervalthatcreatesalotoftensionanduncertainty.Hinson(2006)claimsthatthePhrygianmode“usherstheperformerandlistenerintoaworldofcolorandmystery”(5).SometimesthePhrygianmodeispassedoverinfavorofotheruniquesounds,likeanaugmentedsecond(consideredaverydissonantintervalinmostWesternclassicalmusic)oraraisedsixthscaledegree(Hinson2006).Songsthataremorereminiscentofthefolktraditionwillfrequentlyfollowapentatonicbaseandonlyusefivenotes(Hinson2006).Intheseinstances,emotionandtheSpanishflavorareshownwithinflection,melismata,andappoggiaturasinsteadofawiderangeofnotes. AnotherimportantelementofSpanishmusicismanifestedmoreclearlyinmusicalstructurethaninspecificcompositionaltechniques.IntheWesternclassicalcanon,anABAstructure,orternaryform(arepeatedoutersectionwithacontrastinginnersection)isverypopular,goingbacktotheBaroqueperiod.NotallSpanishmusicisinternaryform;however,itisverycommonfortheretobeatleasttwoverycontrastingsections,evenwithindancepieces.Kuehl(1976)callsthiscontrastlaDanza(thedance)andlaCopla(thesong),suggestingthatalmostallSpanishcompositionsforpianofallunderoneorbothofthesetwocategories(18).EricourtandErickson(1984)alsohighlightthesedifferentstylesinSpanishpianomusic,callingthem“solysombra”(sunandshade),whichrepresentthe“violentcontrastswithintheSpanishlife”(22).TherearemanydifferentaspectsoftheSpanishidentitythatmightbecontrasting.Thelevelofregionaldifferenceshasalreadybeennoted;forexample,thehedonismandgaietyoftheAndalusiansisstronglycontrastedbythe“sentimentalandsomber”characteroftheCastilians(thosewholiveinthecenteroftheIberianPeninsula)(EricourtandErickson1984,35).Kuehl(1976)likensgeographicaldifferencestomusicalcontrast:“asthetopographyofthecountrydisplaysdistinctcontrasts,fromitsaridsouthernregion,toitsfertilemountainousnortherncoastanditsbustlingseaportcities,thepeopleofSpainreflecttheirowncontrastingmoodsthroughtheircolorfulmusic”(17).Theseregionaldifferencescanalsohaveaneffectonthemusicbywayofthecomposer’sownregionalidentity;notallcomposerswerefromAndalusiaastheirtonalpreferencesmightsuggest.Infact,mostofthe“greats”likeIsaacAlbéniz,PadreAntonioSoler,andEnriqueGranadoswerefromoneofSpain’ssixteenotherautonomousregionslikeCatalonia,Castile‐León,orValencia. ThereisalsoacontrastbetweenthesecularandthesacredinSpanishlives.TheChristianChurchhasastrongheritageinSpain,andCatholicismisincrediblyimportant,especiallytothoseconcernedwithtraditionandhistory.However,thisiscontradictedbytheSpanishlovefordance,stronglyassociatedwiththegypsies.EricourtandErickson(1984)statethat“lifeinSpainisalwaysadeepandintimatemixtureofitsreligiousandearthyaspects”(15).Thecontrastheremaybebetweentwodifferentgroupsofpeople–thesomberreligiousandthosewhoprefertoseektheirownpleasure–orwithinthesameperson–someonewhovaluesboththesacredandthesecularintheirdailylives.Thiscontrastcanbeshowninthemusic;anexampleisIsaacAlbéniz’sCórdoba,wheretheAsectionissolemn,chordal,andhymn‐like,andtheBsectionisanupbeat,swirlingdance(EricourtandErickson1984,15‐21). SometimestheChristianchurchisnotmusicallycontrastedwiththenon‐religious,butratherwiththeMoorishArabs.ThelongwarbetweenMuslimsandChristiansinSpain

25

lastedforcenturiesoftheSpanishhistory;whilethewarisnolongeroccurringtoday,thetensionbetweenMoorishandChristianidentityisstillamajorplayer,especiallywithinthearts.ComposersoftentrytohighlightthedifferencebetweenMoorishandChristianheritage,perhapstakinginspirationfromarchitecturalsitesliketheCathedralofSeville,whereagiantCatholicChurchandminaret(laGiralda)combineaspartofthesamehistoricalsite.Anexampleinpianomusic,EnlaAlhambrafromRecuerdosdeViaje(alsobyAlbéniz(1985)),takesitscuefromanotherMoorish/Christianhistoricalsite.TheAlhambraisapalaceandfortresscomplexlocatedinGranada;itwastheMoorishroyalpalaceuntil1492whenGranada,asthefinalIslamicstateina‘reconquered’Spain,wastakenbytheCatholicMonarchs.EnlaAlhambra,writteninternary(ABA)form,showsthecontrastbetweentheChristianandMoorishheritageinthepalace.TheAsection,withitsArabictonality,rollingchords(rasgueadoguitarstyle),andmelisma‐likeornamentationsuggeststheMoorishinfluence,andonecanalmostimaginewanderingthroughtheAlhambra,theso‐called“paradiseonearth”,withitsArabarchways,brightlycoloredmosaics,andramblinghallways.TheBsection,usingalmoststrictlydiatonicharmoniesandsteadyeighthnoterhythms,representsmoreoftheCatholicpurityandevokesvisionsofthepristinelymanicuredgardensandreflectingpools. “TherichnessanddiversityofSpanishlifearecharacterizedinthepianomusic[ofSpain]…”(EricourtandErickson1984,3).Thisstatementseemslikeageneralization,butexaminingmanifestationsofelementslikefolkanddancetraditions,ArabicandMoorishtonality,andcontrastingidentitiesinSpanishpianomusiccangiveusacluetowardsdecipheringtheSpanishidentity.

26

Chapter5

CaseStudiesandConclusion Sofaralloftheconceptsmentionedhavebeengeneralized,thepeoplestereotyped,andthetheoriessummarized.Generalizationsandsummaries,evenonanationallevel,aresomewhatappropriate;theSpanishidentity,asmentioned,ischaracterizedlargelybynationalism,atraitthatalmosttheentirecountryshares11.ButrememberFeldman’s(2001)ideasaboutgroupnarrativescontributingto,andbeingshapedby,anationalorgroupidentity.Feldman(2001)clarifiesthisgroupidentitynarrativeas“notjustareportofwhatpeopledo,butalsoofhowtheydoit,andwithwhatrelationshipsamongthem”(131).Feldmanbrieflyhintsattheconceptthatthesegroupnarrativescanpointtowardsmoreindividualstories,lookingnotjustatactions,butmotivations,andinterpersonalrelationships.Wehaveexaminedanumberofwaysinwhichmusicislikelanguage,establishedhowmusic,thought,andcultureallinfluenceeachother,suggestedhowmusicmighttellstories,andreviewedthesalientcharacteristicsoftheSpanishmusicalidiom.NowitseemsthatallthatremainsistobuildonthefoundationoftheseideasandexamineafewoftheseindividualstoriesthathavebeentoldthroughthepianomusicofSpain,ruminatingonwhatthosestoriesmeanforthenationalSpanishidentity. Theinterpersonalrelationshipsbetweenfriends,familymembersandromanticpartnersinSpainareoftencharacterizedbyawideextentofemotions,rangingfrom“passionatesoftness”to“extremebrutality”(Schmitz1950,166).ThefullrangeofSpanishpassionisdisplayedinSpanishmusic,perhapsbestinthepiecestellingstoriesofromance.Imaginethefollowingscenario:

AflirtationisgoingonbetweenthebullfighterPaquiroandthebeautifulRosario.Heinviteshertoattend…apopularball.TheinvitationisoverheardbyRosario’ssuitor,thecaptainFernando,whoobligesRosariotoswearthatshewillnotattendthedancewithouthim….[Later,at]theball,FernandoandPaquirocomeintoconflict;theyagreetofightaduel…[Later]inRosario’sgarden…thenightingalesingsasRosarioandFernandoindulgeinanimpassionedlovescene.IntheduelwithPaquiro,Fernandoismortallywounded.Rosario,grief‐stricken,fallsprostrateoverthedeadbodyofherlover.(Chase1959,162)

Itseemslikeastorytoodramatictobetrue.ItistheplotofEnriqueGranados’soperaGoyescas;thisisnottoodifficulttobelieve,seeingashowoperaisagenreinfamousformelodramaticplotlines.WhatsetsGoyescasapartisthatbeforeitwasanopera,itwasapianosuite,writtenbyGranadosintheyears1912to1914(Chase1959).12Thus,thedramaofGoyescasprecedestheaboveprescribedplotlineandtheemotionally‐chargedlibrettobyFernandoPeriquet,withmusicaldialoguelike“¡Ah!nohaycantarsinamor.¡Ah!11Thereare,ofcourse,individualswhodonottakepartinthisnationalpride.Additionally,regionsliketheBasqueCountryandCataloniahaveshownadesiretoseparatethemselvesfromSpainlinguistically,culturally,andevenpolitically.12BeforeGoyescaswaseversettomusic,itbeganasGranados’sintenseadmirationforthepaintingsofFranciscoGoya,hencethenameGoyescas.

27

ruiseñor:estucantarhimnodeamor”(Ah!thereisnosongwithoutlove.Ah!nightingale,itisyoursunghymnoflove)(Granados1915). ThestoryofGoyescascouldbeinterpretedsimplythroughthetitlesofthemovementsinthepianosuite.ThesubtitleofGoyescas,LosMajosEnamorados(TheMajos13inLove),alreadygivesacluetowardstheromanticstorytocome.Thesixmovementsareasfollows:LosRequiebros(Flirtations),ColoquioenlaReja(ConversationattheWindow),ElFandangodeCandil(FandangobyLamplight),QuejasólaMajayelRuiseñor(Complaints,ortheMaja14andtheNightingale),ElAmorylaMuerte(LoveandDeath),andSerenatadelEspectro(TheSpecter’sSerenade)(Powell1980,84‐85).Thesetitlesaredescriptiveenoughthattheycouldtellastory,albeitagenericone,buttheyaremeanttobesupplementaryindescriptiontothemusicitself.Perhapsthemostpassionate(andmostwell‐known)ofthesetisnumberfour,QuejasólaMajayelRuiseñor.The“songofthemaja”(Figure5.1),saidtobe“oneofthemostbeautifulpassagesinallofSpanishliterature”(Powell1980,87),evokesthepassionatecriesofayoungwomaninlove.

Figure5.1QuejasólaMajayelRuiseñor,m20‐24.Source:Granados2007,67.

InthesortofintentionalperformanceexperiencethatNattiez(1990)proposes,itwouldnotbedifficultfortheperformerandaudiencealiketointerpretsadnessandsufferinginlisteningtotheaboveexcerpt.However,ifmusicologistslikeTreitler(1997)andCooke(1959)arecorrect,andmeaningisactuallyinthemusicasitisonthepage,itishelpfulforustoconsiderjustthemusicalnotation,withoutaddingthecomplexitiesthata

13Thereisnodirecttranslationofmajoormaja–thewordsareusedtodescribethebohemianandflamboyantlywell‐dressedyoungmenandwomenofMadridinthelate18thandearly19thcentury.ItissuggestedthatthebestdefinitionofamajaormajoisinGoya’spaintings.14Traditionallytranslatedas“maiden”.

28

liveperformanceintroduces,toseehowtheymighttellthisstoryofpassion. Amethodready‐madeforexaminingnotesonapageisCooke’s(1959)conceptofmusicalterms.Considermeasures20and21(figure5.1).Inthekeyoffsharpminor,themelodicline{F#,F#,F#,G#,A,C#,B,C#,B,A,G#}translatestoscaledegreesof{1,1,1,2,3,5,4,5,4,3,2}.LookingatLidov’s(2005)chart(AppendixB),weseethat{1,2,3,5}inminorisrepresentativeof“sorrow,protest,complaint”.Thedescendingline{5,4,5,4,3,2}ischaracterizedasa“yieldingtogrief”andtheinternallineof{8,7,7,6}is“passivesuffering”.Interestinglyenough,manyofthesemelodiclinesthatCooke(1959)associateswithsadnessarecommonlyfoundinthecharacteristicAndalusian/Arabictonality.MarkLarrad(2007)pointsoutthistonalityspecificallyinthedescendingline:“intheterraceddescentoftheembellishedvocalline,onecandiscernthecharacteristicmelismataofAndalusiansong,withitsintenselyArabassociations,(aneffectintensifiedbythePhrygianharmony)”(under“WorksandMusicalLanguage”).Throughoutthepieceareotherdescendingchromaticlines,whichLidovrelatestofeeling“sufferingandweary”.Themovementof{5,6,5}inthebelowmeasures(figure5.2)representsa“burstofanguish”.

Figure5.2QuejasólaMajayelRuiseñor,m13‐15.Source:Granados2007,66.

Incontrast,thenightingale’ssong,thefinalsectionofthepiece,sitsona{5,6,5}progressioninFsharpMajor(figure5.3),whichrepresents“joy”.

Figure5.3QuejasólaMajayelRuiseñor,m68‐70.Source:Granados2007,71.

Thecombinationofallofthesemotifs,translatedthroughCooke’sterms,tellsastoryofgrief,suffering,andanguish,thatendswithahintofjoy.Theproblemwith

29

acceptingthisanalysis,andCooke’smethodofanalysisingeneral,isthatitignoresanyconceptinvolvedwith“musicalgrammar”besidesscaledegreeandtonality.AccordingtoBaroni(1983),pitch,note‐length,metricalposition,timbre,anddynamics(inadditiontoscaledegreeandtonality)allplayaroleincreatingmeaningandshowingemotion.Forexample,themotive{5,6,5}inminorthatweexaminedabove(saidtocharacterize“aburstofanguish”)couldbemarkedpianoandnotatedaswholenotesinanlargotempo.Whilethisnewphrasemightstillpresentasufferingandanguishedemotionalstate,itcertainlywouldnotbecharacterizedasa“burst”ofanguish.However,inLaMajayelRuiseñor,thedynamicandmetricmarkingsofGranadosareforthemostpartcomplementarytoCooke’smethodofanalysis;theemotionalconnotationsdiscoveredusingCooke’smethodareactuallyverysimilartothestorysuggestedbythetitleandthelibrettoofGoyescas. AmoregeneralanalysisofLaMajayelRuiseñor(AppendixC)wouldlookatthetonality(alreadyestablishedastheArabictonalitycharacteristicofAndalusianmusic),theimplicationofSpanishfolktunes,andtheimitationofthevoicesofawomanandanightingale.LaMajayelRuiseñorisactually“oneofonlyafewGranadosworkstoincorporateagenuinefolksong”(Larrad2007,under“WorksandMusicalLanguage”).Accordingtolegend,GranadosheardthisfolktunebeingsungbyayoungshepherdgirlasherodethroughtheValenciancountryside(aromanticbutunlikelystory).WiththedecisiontoincludeafolktuneinLaMajayelRuiseñor,GranadosdoeshisparttopromoteSpanishnationalism,asencouragedbyhisteacher,FelipePedrell.

Iftheperformingpianistsuccessfullyplaysinacantabilestyle,themelodyofLaMajayelRuiseñorcanbeheardasanimitationoftheactualvoicesofthemajaandthenightingale(itis,afterall,theirsong).ThisideaissupportedbyHall(1953)andCumming(2000),bothofwhompointtoimitationasagenuinetechniqueforcreatingmusicalmeaning.InCumming’s(2000)casespecifically,shereferstocantabilestylebeinganimitationofthehumanvoice,andhowitisabletocreate“characters”withininstrumentalmusic;inLaMajayelRuiseñor,theimitationsimplyreinforcesacharacteralreadysetbeforeus(lamaja)asopposedtocreatingoneoutofthinair.Thisimitationalsorecallstheideaofmusicbeingreferentialandhowmusichasthepowertorefertoobjects(likeahumanornightingalevoice)outsideofitselfthroughtheuseofspecifictechniqueslikemimicry. ThecombinedeffortsofspecificmusicalanalysisusingCooke’smethodsofscaledegreecharacterizationsandthegeneralideassurroundingtonality,folktradition,andrepresentationalimitationcanpointtowardsamorecompletepictureofGoyescasanditssignificanceaspartoftheSpanishclassicalrepertoire.Tosummarizetheseideasquitesuccinctly,“thiscompositiondescribes,inademonstrativeLatinmanner,averypoignantlovestory”(EricourtandErickson1984,37).ThisstoryoflovewasnotdisconnectedfromGranadosandhisownemotions;Chase(1959)callsQuejas,óLaMajayelRuiseñor“oneofGranados’smostpersonalandpoeticutterances”(164).PerhapsGranadoshadhisownlove,hiswifeAmparo,inmindasheattemptedtoconveythetruepassionofaSpanishlover’sspirit;heevenwroteaAmparo(toAmparo)asthededicationforLaMajayel

30

Ruiseñor15.FollowingGranados’sexample,manySpaniardsloveinthepassionatestyleofRosario(theheroineofGoyescas),evenintragedy.ThelegendofGoyescasisthree‐fold:itisanenduringstoryofpersistent,passionatelove,itpresentsandimmortalizesthebeautifulfolk‐inspiredtunetranscribedinLaMajayelRuiseñor,and,alongwithIberia,itmarksthebreakthroughoftheSpanishidiomontothesceneofEuropeanRomanticpianomusic. OftenmentionedinthesameconversationasGoyescas,IberiaisconsideredIsaacAlbéniz’s“unquestionablemasterpiece”(Powell1980,76).Powell(1980)describesIberiaas“oneofthegreatestcontributionstoSpanishpianoliterature”(75),inadditiontobeing“oneofthemostimpressiveandtechnicallydifficultworksinallpianoliterature”(90,emphasisadded).Iberiaisinfact“offormidabletechnicaldifficulty”(Chase1959,155)andwasperhapstheworkthatledthegreatSpanishpianistAliciadeLarrochatomakeastatementabouthowitwasnecessarytolearnBachandMozartbeforeplayingSpanishmusic,justsoonecoulddevelopthetechnicalskillsnecessaryforexecutingthesubtletiesinherentinSpanishliterature(Kuehl1976).ThetwelvemovementsofIberia,or“impressions”astheyaresubtitled,are“picturesquedescriptionsofSpanishscenesandlandscapes,mostlycenteredonAndalusia(Powell1980,77).Inthisway,allofthemovementsofIberiacombinetotellastoryofnationalpride,apridebasedonthebeautyoftheSpanishnationallandscape. NationalismwasthegenuineintentionofAlbénizinwritingIberia;inhisstudieswithFelipePedrell,hecametoa“realizationofthewonderfulvaluesinherentinSpanishmusic”(Chase1959,153).Albéniz’sfavoriteregionandsourceofmusicalinspirationwasAndalusia;helovedtheAlhambra,deemingit“theplaceinSpainwherehefeltthemostathome”(Chase1959,151);heevenwentsofarastosay“IamaMoor”(Chase1959,150),inspiteofthefactthathewasCatalonianbybirth.ThisAndalusianprideisreflectedinthemovementsofIberia;whileitismeanttobean“imaginativesynthesisofSpain”(Chase1959,155),oftheelevenmovementswithdescriptivetitles(excludingmovementone,simplyentitled“Evocación”(Evocation)),onlyone,Lavapiés16,evokesaplaceortraditionoutsideofAndalusia. IberiaprovidesoneaperfectopportunitytoexaminethemanifestationofSpanishfolktraditioninnationalistmusic.Allofthetwelvemovements“employcharacteristicdancerhythms”(Powell1980,77),includingthefandango(initsmanypermutationslikethefandanguillo,rondeña,andmalagueña),bulerías,jota,pasodoble,andseguidillas,amongmanyothers.Thesedancerhythmsareoftenalternatedwithcoplas(“lyricalvocalrefrains”(Powell1980,77)),givingusanexampleofwhatKuehl(1976)meantby“laDanza”and“laCopla”,orthecontrastsinSpanishlifeasshownthroughmusicalstructure.WhileAlbéniz’sliberaluseofdissonancehasledmanyamusicologisttolabelhimanimpressionist,ithasbeenshownthattheseprogressive,dissonantsounds(“parallelmotion,secundal,quarter,andadded‐tonesonorities,andbichords”(Powell1980,82))areinfactapartoftheAndalusianfolktradition.AlbénizalsoshowshispreferenceforAndalusianharmonieswith

15Granados’sdedicationtohiswifewasincrediblypassionate,evenindeath.TheybothperishedwhentheshiptheyweretravelingonwastorpedoedbyaGermansubmarine;GranadosleaptoutofalifeboattotrytosaveAmparo,whomhesawflailinginthewater,andtheybothdrowned(Larrad2007).16Lavapiés(directlytranslatedto“washfeet”)istheoldJewishquarterofMadrid.

31

theevocationofthecantejondoandsaeta17inmovementslikeElAlbaicín,CorpusChristienSevilla,andJerez.Othermovements,likeTriana,emulatetheguitarandcastanets,contributingfurthertothedancefeeloftheentireseriesofmovements. WithIberia,Albéniz“capturedandimmortalizedthesoundsandrhythmsofhisnativecountry”(Barulichn.d.,in“SufferingfromBright’sdisease”).Becausehenamedthelastelevenindividualmovementsafterspecificcitiesorregionalstyles,hegaveSpaniardsfromthosespecificlocationsthechancetoidentifywithamusicthattellstheirspecificregionalstory.ThisisespeciallytrueforthepeopleinthesouthofSpain;wehavealreadyestablishedthatAlbénizhadan“affinitywiththeexoticandcolorfulatmosphereofAndalusia”(Chase1959,150).AlbénizdrewonthenationaliststyleofhisteacherFelipePedrell,butwithagreaterdegreeofsophistication;“WherePedrellusedfolkmusicinhisworksasabasisforanationalstyle,Albénizpreferredtosuggest,ratherthanquote,rhythmsandmelodicelementstoevoketheSpanishlandscape”(Barulichn.d.,in“Throughouthisvirtuosocareer”).Albéniz’sdelicatetreatmentoffolkmaterialinhisquestforRomanticnationalismdrewtheattentionofothercomposerslikeDebussy,who

“wasalwaysconsistentonthepointthatafolkornationalmusicshouldnotbeusedforitsthemesbutratherinthemannerofAlbéniz:‘Withoutusingactualpopulartuneshe[Albéniz]isthekindofpersonwhohastheminhisblood.Theyhavebecomesonaturalapartofhismusicthatonebarelydistinguishesademarcationline’”(LesureandHowartn.d.,under“ModelsandInfluences”)

PerhapsitwasAlbéniz,orperhapsitwasDebussy’srevelatoryexperiencehearingcantejondoatthe1889‐1990ExpositionUniverselleinParis,thatledDebussytoturntoSpainformusicalinspiration(Chase1959).Debussyiscreditedwithbeing“thefirst[among“pseudo‐Spanish”musicians]toappreciatethefullpossibilitiesofSpanish…popularmusicandtoraiseitsinherentvaluestothecategoryofthehighestart”(Chase1959,299).EvenifDebussywasthefirstormostsuccessful,hewascertainlynotthelastnortheonlynon‐SpanishcomposertoappreciatetheSpanishidiom,notableexamplesofothersuccessesbeingGeorgesBizet(Carmen)andMauriceRavel(Boléro).18 OfDebussy’sprolificoutputofworksforsolopiano,sixindividualpiecesareconsideredtobewrittenintheSpanishstyle(Raad1979).WhilesomeconsiderthepreludeLasérénadeinterrompuetobeDebussy’s“mostsuccessfulevocationofSpain”(Raad1979,14),asimilarclaimcouldbemadeofLaSoiréedansGrenade(AnEveninginGranada),fromEstampes.ManueldeFallaisfrequentlyquotedassayingofLaSoiréedansGrenade:“HereitisAndalusiaitselfthatwesee;truthwithoutauthenticity,sincethereisnotabardirectlyborrowedfromSpanishfolkmusicandyetthewholepieceinitssmallestdetailisredolentofSpain”(Tiersot1889,71).Debussy,inasimilarmethodtoAlbéniz’s17Saetasaresimilartocantejondoinfeelingandtonality,butnotincontent.Saetaisareligioussong,traditionallysungattheCorpusChristifestival,andotherreligiousprocessionals,inSeville(Powell1980).18IthasbeensuggestedthattheFrenchhaveexperiencedthebestoverallsuccessincapturingtherealessenceofSpanishmusic,outsideoftheSpaniardsthemselves.ThisisnorealsurpriseconsideringtheexploratorynatureoftheFrench(especiallytheimpressionists)andtheproximityofFranceandSpain(Chase1959).

32

collectionofSpanishdetailsforIberia,combinedseveraldifferentcomponentsoftheSpanishmusicalidiominLaSoiréedansGrenade. Thepiecebeginswithanhabanerarhythm,andismarked“MouvementdeHabanera”(“inthemovementofthehabanera”)(figure5.4),establishingtheSpanishflavorfromtheverybeginning(ifthetitleofthepiecewasnotenoughofaclue).

Figure5.4LaSoiréedansGrenade,m1‐4.Source:Debussy2006,10.

Afterashorthabaneraintroduction,acantejondoentersinthelefthandinbar7,soundingremarkablysimilartothe“wailingchant”(Raad1979,14)ofanoldgypsywoman(figure5.5).Thisspecificcantejondois“intheHispano‐Arabicmode,Asbu’ayn…whichisfoundinthemusicoftheMoorsandtheirancestorsinSouthernSpainandNorthAfrica(Raad1979,14).Thevocalnatureofthecantejondoissuggestedthroughtheuseof“melismas,portamentos,andaugmentedseconds”(Raad1979,13).

Figure5.5LaSoiréedansGrenade,m5‐14.Source:Debussy2006,10.

33

Quickly,thecantejondoisinterruptedbyaninterludethatisobviouslymeanttobeanimitationoftheguitar.Debussyisknownforhissuccessfulexploitationofthesoundsoftheguitar(partofthereasonwhyLasérénadeinterrompueissowellreceived),andheisevensaidtohavebeen“preoccupiedwiththepossibilitiesoftransposingtheguitartouchtothepiano”(Raad1979,14).Theblockeddominantseventhchordsmovinginparallelmotionareindicativeoftherasgueadostyleofplaying(seefigure5.6).

Figure5.6LaSoiréedansGrenade,m17‐18.Source:Debussy2006,10.

TheoverallstructureofLaSoiréedansGrenade,an“interspersedsonganddancewithguitar‐likeinterludes”(Raad1979,14),seemstosuggestthatDebussywasawareofthecontrastspresentinSpanishidentityandhowtheyaremanifestedinthemusic.Debussywasattractedtothesecontrasts:itisstatedthatwhathe“particularlylikedinAlbénizwerethe‘brusqueawakenings’and‘nervousstarts’,asifemanatingfromaguitar”(LesureandHowatn.d.,under“ModelsandInfluences”)19.Thehabaneradancerhythm,cantejondo,guitarinterludes,andcontrastingstylescombinetocreateadizzying(butpleasant)musicalexperience“evocativeofthekaleidoscopicnocturnallifeofGranada”(Schmitz1950,86).DebussyseeminglycomprehendedagreatdealaboutthepassionatespiritandvariedtemperamentoftheSpanish,evenwithouthavingevervisitedthecountry.LasoiréedansGrenadetellsatwopartstory:themysteryandappealofSpaintoforeigners,andtheenduranceandpopularityoftheSpanishmusicalidiom,despitethemarginalizationofSpain. Somenon‐SpaniardshavewrittenintheSpanishstyle,notbecauseofthegreatmysteriousappealofSpain,oreventhepopularityoftheSpanishidiom.Spain’sgreatsurgeofcolonization,beginningin1492,forcedSpanishculture,andthereforemusic,ontothenativedwellersofthe“NewWorld”.Cubawas“discovered”onColumbus’sveryfirstjourneyin1492and,alongwithPuertoRico,wasSpain’slongestlastingcolony,withtheSpanishnotofficiallywithdrawinguntil1898(Barton2004).Fourhundredyearsisalongtimeforacountrytobesubjectedtothepoliticsandcultureofanothercountry;obviously,thepeopleandcultureofCubawereforeverchanged.

19DebussyalsomarkedthebeginningofoneofhisotherSpanishinspiredpieces,Lapuertadelvino,withtheinstructions,“avecdebrusquesoppositionsd’extrêmeviolenceetdepassionnéedouceur”(“withsuddencontrastsofextremeviolenceandpassionatesweetness”)(Debussy2005).

34

Asmentionedearlier,Spanishimperialismcreatedaso‐called“conduitofreciprocalinfluence”betweenthemothercountry(Spain)andthecolonies.GrahamandLabanyi(1995)callthisa“converseidentificationprocess”,madepossiblebythefactthatcountrieslike“CubaandPuertoRicowereconstitutionallydefinedasprovincesofSpain”(21).Therehavebeennumerousstudiesconductedonwhatflowedthroughthisconduit,includingfood,disease,naturalresources,etc.MusiccertainlywentbackandforthbetweenSpaintheempire,and“Spain”thecolonies,beingtransformedalongtheway.Take,forinstance,themalagueña.Themalagueñaasadanceformoriginated,orratherevolvedfromfandango,inMálaga,Spain.Withimperialism,itspreadacrossSpainanditscoloniesandwasreshapedintodifferentregionalstyles;Mexico,amongothers,hasitsownregionalmalagueña.Butperhapsoneofthemostwell‐knownexamplesofmalagueñaisErnestoLecuona’spieceforpiano,aptlynamedMalagueña,fromSuiteAndalucía.LecuonawasaCuban,bornin1896,twoyearsbeforeSpainwithdrewfromCuba.Hewaslargelyinvolvedwithpopularmusic;hehadatravelingdancebandthatachievedmodestpopularityintheUnitedStatesandEuropecalled“Lecuona’sCubanBoys”(Vegan.d.).Healsoenjoyedgreatsuccesswithhissalonpianopieces,Malagueñabeingbyfarthemostpopular. ThereisnotmuchofanarrativeinherentinMalagueña,atleastnotsuchaswehaveseeninsomeoftheotherpiecesexamined.ThemusicaltechniquesarecertainlySpanish:Arabicinspiredtonality,parallelblockedchordsandrapidarpeggios(suggestingrasgueadoguitar),andusingadanceform.However,whatismoretellingaboutMalagueñaistheoverallconceptandthestoryofcompositionofthepiece.TheideathataCuban,wholived(albeitbriefly)underSpanishcolonization,wroteapieceinaSpanishdanceformthathadbeentransformedthroughtheveryprocessofcolonization,confirmstheculturalchangingpowerandpotentialofmixingforeignerswithindigenouspeople.Thispointsusbackto“musicalrelativity”:cultureshapesmusic,whichthenreshapesculture. Lookingatallofthesecasestudies–Goyescas,Iberia,LaSoiréedansGrenade,andMalagueña–itisapparenthowdifficultitistoidentifyasingle,homogenizedidentitywithinSpanishpianomusic,andwithinSpanishcultureingeneral.ThehistoryandpoliticsofSpainhaveledtoaSpanishidentitywithaneclecticmixofculturalinfluences.ThemusicofSpaindisplaysmanyofthesamediversecharacteristics,echoingwhatisseenintheSpanishidentity.SimonFrithandHowardHorne(1987)explorethenatureoftherelationshipofmusicandidentity(lookingspecificallyatpopmusic),sayingthat“themajorreasonpeopleenjoymusicisbecauseitoffersanswerstokeyidentityquestions”(Vila2014,22),like“wheredoIfitinsociety?”.FrithandHorne(1987)alsoacknowledgeacertain“constructivist”,ormutuallyinfluential,relationshipbetweenmusicandidentity:“Poptastesdonotjustderivefromoursociallyconstructedidentities;theyalsohelptoshapethem…musichasbeenanimportantwayinwhichwehavelearnedtounderstandourselvesashistorical,ethnic,class‐bound,genderedsubjects”(149).ThestrongconnectionbetweenmusicandculturalidentitythatwehaveseenpresentinSpainsupportsFrithandHorne’sobservations. Itisimpossible,shortofconductingsomesortofethnographicresearch,tomakeanysortofjudgmentonhowindividualSpaniardsfeelaboutthemusicoftheircountry.Itis,infact,myhopethatsoon,moreethnographicalstudieswillbeconductedwiththeSpanishmusicalidentityinmind,andtheworldofacademiawillhavesomeupdatedresearchonSpanishmusicandculture.Theuseofethnographictechniqueswillalsocontributetobridgingtheinterdisciplinarygapbetweenanthropologyandmusic.

35

Ethnomusicology,ofcourse,looksatmusicinitsculturalcontexts,butethnomusicologicalstudiesrarelyfocusonWesternclassicalmusic(ofwhichSpanishrepertoireistechnicallyapart).Thetechniquesusedinthisresearchcombinemusic,anthropology,andlinguisticstudies.Itismysincerehopethatthissortofinterdisciplinaryapproachtomusicresearchwillbeappliedinthefuture,consideringotherculturesandcountriesbesidestheSpanish.Ofparticularinterestistheproposedtheoryof“musicalrelativity”aspresentedearlier–itwouldbefascinatingtoseethetheorychallenged,developed,andfurtheredbyotherresearchers. Fromamusicologicalperspective,thereisstillmuchfurthertogowiththisresearch.Inthequesttoshowhoweventhesmallestaspectofmusiccanimpactcultureandidentity,morein‐depthmusicalanalysisofSpanishrepertoire(includingthepiecesanalyzedabove)isnecessary.Inaddition,thereexistsmuchmoreSpanishpianomusicofgreatvalueoutsideoftheworksofGranadosandAlbéniz;ManueldeFallaandJoaquinTurinaaretwohighlyesteemedSpanishcomposerswhoseworkswouldcontributegreatlytothisresearch.Similarly,therearemanyothercomposersbesidesDebussyandLecuonawhohavebeenquitesuccessfulinevokingtheSpanishidiom,liketheAmericancomposerLouisMoreauGottschalk,withhisSouvenirsd'Andalousie,Op.22.InterestingparallelscouldbedrawnbetweenSpanishmusicandidentityifoneweretoextensivelyexaminethelivesofthecomposerslikeGranadosorAlbéniz,andperhapsseehowdeeplythesecomposerswereaffectedbytheircultureandtheirmusic.Itisquitepossiblethatsometimesthe“story”ofapieceofmusicissimplythecomposer’sstory,ofwhichwemaybeunawareunlessitislabeled,oracomprehensiveanalysisofthepieceandcomposerisconducted. Althoughthisresearchasawholeraisesmanyquestions,andrightlyso,otherquestionshavebeenanswered,like“howdoesSpanishmusicinteractwiththeSpanishculture?”,“whatmakesmusicsoundSpanish?”,andmaybeevenpartoftheverycomplexquestion,“whatdoesitmeantobeSpanish?”.TobeSpanishmeanstolivethemusic–vivirlamúsica–asaSpaniardgoesaboutreinforcingculturaltraditionsintheireverydaylives,contributingtoanever‐evolvingfeelingofSpanishidentity.

36

AppendixA

MapofSpain,withcitiesimportanttothepoliticalandmusicaldevelopmentofSpainmarked(somenotesmine)(EricourtandErickson1984,insidefrontcover).

37

AppendixBLidov’s(2005)chartofCooke’smusicalterms(9).

38

AppendixC

FullscoreofGranados,QuejasólaMajayelRuiseñor(Granados2007,66‐71).

39

40

41

42

43

44

ReferencesAhearn,LauraM.2012.Livinglanguage:Anintroductiontolinguisticanthropology. Singapore:Wiley‐Blackwell.Albéniz,Isaac.1985.Recuerdosdeviaje:AKalmusclassicaledition.LosAngeles:Alfred Music.———.2002.Iberia:Firstbook.Ed.NorbertGertsch.München:G.HenleVerlag.Bakhtin,MikhailM..1981.Discourseinthenovel.InDialogicimagination:Fouressays.Ed. MichaelHolquist.Trans.CarylEmersonandMichaelHolquist,259‐422.Austin,TX: UniversityofTexasPress.Balteş,FeliciaR.andAndreiC.Miu.2014.Emotionsduringlivemusicperformance:Links withindividualdifferencesinempathy,visualimagery,andmood. Psychomusicology:Music,MindAndBrain24,no.1:58‐65.Baroni,Mario.1983.Theconceptofmusicalgrammar.Trans.SimonMaguireandWilliam Drabkin.MusicAnalysis2,no.2(July):175‐208.Barton,Simon.2004.AhistoryofSpain.NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan.Barulich,Frances.n.d.Albéniz,Isaac.GroveMusicOnline.OxfordMusicOnline.Oxford UniversityPress,accessedAugust24,2014, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/00421.Berger,HarrisM..1997.Thepracticeofperception:Multi‐functionalityandtimeinthe musicalexperiencesofaheavymetaldrummer.Ethnomusicology41,no.3 (Autumn):464‐488.Berlin,BrentandPaulKay.1969.Basiccolorterms:Theiruniversalityandevolution. Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Berry,VeniseT.1990.Rapmusic,selfconceptandlowincomeblackadolescents.Popular MusicAndSociety14,no.3:89‐107.Boas,Franz.1928.Anthropologyandmodernlife.NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,Inc.Booker,Christopher.2004.Thesevenbasicplots:Whywetellstories.London:Continuum InternationalPublishingGroupLtd..Bourdieu,Pierre.1977.Outlineofatheoryofpractice.Trans.RichardNice.Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress.

45

Bowman,WayneD.2004.Cognitionandthebody:Perspectivesfrommusiceducation.In Knowingbodies,movingminds:Towardsembodiedteachingandlearning.Ed.Liora Bresler,29‐50.London:KluwerAcademic.Budd,Malcolm.1985.Musicandtheemotions:Thephilosophicaltheories.London: Routledge&KeganPaul.Campbell,WilliamJ.2001.Musicviolence:Associatingteenageexposuretoheavymetal musicwithviolentideationandbehavior.Master’sdiss.,CentralMissouriState University.Chase,Gilbert.1959.ThemusicofSpain.NewYork:Dover.Clarke,EricF..2003.Musicandpsychology.InTheculturalstudyofmusic:Anintroduction. Ed.MartinClayton,TrevorHerbert,andRichardMiddleton,113‐123.NewYork: Taylor&FrancisBooks,Inc.Cone,EdwardT..1974.Thecomposer’svoice.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Cooke,Deryck.1959.Thelanguageofmusic.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Cumming,Naomi.2000.Thesonicself:Musicalsubjectivityandsignification.Bloomington: IndianaUniversityPress.Debussy,Claude.2005.Lapuertadelvino(extraitdesPréludes,2elivre).Ed.RoyHowat andClaudeHelffer.Paris:Durand;Milwaukee,WI:HalLeonardCorp..———.2006.Estampes.Ed.RoyHowat.Paris:Durand;Milwaukee.WI:HalLeonardCorp..Ericourt,DanielandRobertP.Erickson,eds.1984.MasterclassesinSpanishpianomusic. ChapelHill,NC:HinshawMusic.Feld,Steven.1974.Linguisticmodelsinethnomusicology.Ethnomusicology18: 197–217.Feldman,CarolFleisher.2001.Narrativesofnationalidentityasgroupnarratives:Patterns ofinterpretivecognition.InNarrativeandidentity:Studiesinautobiography,self,and culture.Ed.JensBrockmeierandDonalCarbaugh,129‐144.Philadephia,PA:John BenjaminsPublishingCompany.Frandsen,Daniel.2011.Twostepspastinsanity:Theexpressionofaggressionindeath metalmusic.InCanIplaywithmadness:Metal,dissonance,madness,andalienation. Ed.ColinA.McKinnon,NiallScottandKristenSollee,35‐40.Freeland,Oxfordshire: Inter‐DisciplinaryPress.Frith,SimonandHowardHorne.1987.Artintopop.London:Methuen.

46

Garrido,SandraandEmerySchubert.2011.Individualdifferencesintheenjoymentof negativeemotioninmusic:Aliteraturereviewandexperiment.MusicPerception28, no.3:279‐295.———.2015.Moodymelodies:Dotheycheerusup?Astudyoftheeffectofsadmusicon mood.PsychologyofMusic43,no.2:244‐261.Graham,HelenandJoLabanyi,eds.1995.Spanishculturalstudies:Thestrugglefor modernity.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Granados,Enrique.1915.LaMajayelRuiseñor:fromtheoperaGoyescas.Librettoby FernandoPeriquet,Englishtrans.byJamesWeldonJohnson.NewYork:G.Schirmer, Inc..Granados,Enrique.2007.EnriqueGranadosendix‐neufmorceauxpourpiano.Ed.Gérald Hugon.Paris:ÉditionsSalabert.Hall,RobertH..1953.ElgarandtheintonationofBritishEnglish.TheGramophone,31:6‐7.Hanslick,Eduard.1986.Onthemusicallybeautiful:Acontributiontowardstherevisionofthe aestheticsofmusic.Trans.anded.GeoffreyPayzant.Indianapolis:HackettPublishing Co.Harding,Susan.1987.ConvictedbytheHolySpirit:TherhetoricoffundamentalBaptist conversion.AmericanEthnologist14,no.1:167‐181.Hardman‐de‐Bautista,M.J..1983.AthousandandoneyearsoftheSpanishlanguage.The QuarterlyJournaloftheLibraryofCongress40,no.4(fall):342‐355.Hinson,Maurice,ed.2006.MastersofSpanishpianomusic.VanNuys,CA:AlfredMusic.Jakobson,Roman.1960.Closingstatement:Linguisticsandpoetics.InStyleinlanguage.Ed. ThomasA.Sebeok,350‐385.Cambridge:MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.Johnson,YvonnePigler.1994.Preferredgeneralmusicclassroomactivitiesamonglow‐ income,urban‐minoritymiddleschoolstudents.PhDdiss.,OhioStateUniversity.Kivy,Peter.1980.Thecordedshell:Reflectionsonmusicalexpression.Princeton,NJ: PrincetonUniversityPress.———.1984.Soundandsemblance:Reflectionsonmusicalrepresentation.Princeton,NJ: PrincetonUniversityPress.Kuehl,OlgaLlano.1976.ThepianomusicofSpain:Itsflavorandinterpretation.Clavíer, October.

47

LaMeri.1948.Spanishdancing.NewYork:A.S.Barnes&Company.Larrad,Mark.2007.Granados,Enrique.GroveMusicOnline.OxfordMusicOnline.Oxford UniversityPress,accessedAugust24,2014, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/11603.Lecuona,Ernesto.1928.Malagueña:fromtheSpanishsuite"Andalucia".NewYork: EdwardB.MarksMusicCompany.Lesure,FrançoisandRoyHowat.n.d.Debussy,Claude.GroveMusicOnline.OxfordMusic Online.OxfordUniversityPress,accessedAugust24,2014, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/07353.Lévi‐Strauss,Claude.1978.Mythandmeaning.NewYork:SchokenBooks.———.1981.Thenakedman.Trans.JohnandDoreenWeightman.NewYork:Harper& Row.Lidov,David.2005.Islanguageamusic?:Writingsonmusicalformandsignification. Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversityPress.Lucy,John.1996.Thescopeoflinguisticrelativity:Ananalysisandreviewofempirical research.InRethinkinglinguisticrelativity.Ed.JohnJ.GumperzandStephen Levinson,37‐69.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Manuel,Peter.2003.Flamencoguitar:History,style,status.InTheCambridgecompanionto theguitar.Ed.VictorCoelho,13‐32.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Matteo.2003.ThelanguageofSpanishdance:Adictionaryandreferencemanual.2nded. Hightstown,NJ:PrincetonBookCompany.Maus,FredEverett.1997.Musicasdrama.InMusic&meaning.Ed.JeneferRobinson,105‐ 130.Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress.McTamaney,Catherine.2005.Whymusic?MontessoriLife:APublicationoftheAmerican MontessoriSociety17,no.3:16‐21.Merriam,Alan.1964.Theanthropologyofmusic.Evanston,Ill:NorthwesternUniversity Press.Meyer,LeonardB.1956.Emotionandmeaninginmusic.Chicago:UniversityofChicago Press.

48

Middleton,Richard.2003.PrefacetoTheculturalstudyofmusic:Anintroduction.Ed.Martin Clayton,TrevorHerbert,andRichardMiddleton,1‐18.NewYork:Taylor&Francis Books,Inc.Moreno‐Fernández,Francisco.2007.SocialremarksonthehistoryofSpanish.International JournaloftheSociologyofLanguage184:7‐20.Nattiez,JeanJacques.1990.Canonespeakofnarrativityinmusic?Trans.KatharineEllis. JournaloftheRoyalMusicalAssociation115,no.2:240‐257.Nettl,Bruno.2005.Thebasicunitofallcultureandcivilization:signsandsymbols.InThe studyofethnomusicology:Thirty‐oneIssuesandConcepts.Rev.ed,331‐350.Chicago: UniversityofIllinoisPress.Newcomb,Anthony.1984.Oncemore“betweenabsoluteandprogrammusic”:Schumann’s secondsymphony.19th‐CenturyMusic7,no.3(April3):233‐250.Ochs,ElinorandBambiSchieffelin.1986.Languagesocialization.Annualreviewof anthropology15:163‐191.Ortner,Sherry.1989.Highreligion:AculturalandpoliticalhistoryofSherpaBuddhism. Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.Powell,LintonE.1980.AhistoryofSpanishpianomusic.Bloomington:IndianaUniversity Press.Raad,Virginia.1979.DebussyandthemagicofSpain.Clavíer,March.Robinson,Jenefer.1997.Introduction:Newwaysofthinkingaboutmusicalmeaning.In Music&meaning,1‐20.Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress.Ruyter,NancyLee.2003.ForewordtoThelanguageofSpanishdance:Adictionaryand referencemanual,byMatteo.2nded.Hightstown,NJ:PrincetonBookCompany.Sakakeeny,Matt.2011.NewOrleansmusicasacirculatorysystem.BlackMusicResearch Journal31,no.2(Fall):291‐325.Sapir,Edward.1949.Selectedwritingsinlanguage,cultureandpersonality.Ed.David GoodmanMandelbaum.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Saussure,Ferdinandde.1998.Natureofthelinguisticsign.InThecriticaltradition:Classic textsandcontemporarytrends.Ed.DavidH.Richter,832‐835.Boston:Bedford/St. Martin’sPress.Schmitz,E.Robert.1950.ThepianoworksofClaudeDebussy.NewYork:Dover.

49

Spalding,WalterR.1920.Music:Anartandalanguage.7thed.Boston:ArthurP.SchmidtCo.Tarasti,Eero.2012.Semioticsofclassicalmusic:HowMozart,Brahms,andWagnertalktous. Vol10.OfSemiotics,communicationandcognition.Ed.PaulCobleyandKaleviKull. Boston:deGruyter.Teirsot,Julien.1889.Musiquespittoresques,promenadesmusicalesal’Expositionde1889. Paris:Fischbacher.Treitler,Leo.1997.Languageandtheinterpretationofmusic.InMusic&meaning.Ed. JeneferRobinson,23‐56.Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress.Vega,Aureliodela.n.d.Lecuona,Ernesto.GroveMusicOnline.OxfordMusicOnline.Oxford UniversityPress,accessedAugust24,2014, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/16235.Vila,Pablo.2014.MusicandyouthcultureinLatinAmerica:Identityconstructionprocesses fromNewYorktoBuenosAires.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Walker,Margaret.2002.ReviewofThesonicself:Musicalsubjectivityandsignification,by NaomiCumming.DiscourseinMusic,4,no.1(Fall). http://library.music.utoronto.ca/discourses‐in‐music/v4n1a5.html(accessed March25,2015).Walton,Kendall.1997.Listeningwithimagination:Ismusicrepresentational?InMusic& meaning.Ed.JeneferRobinson,57‐82.Ithaca,NY:CornellUniversityPress.———.1999.Projectivism,empathyandmusicaltension.PhilosophicalTopics26,407– 439.Whorf,BenjaminLee.1956.Therelationofhabitualthoughtandbehaviortolanguage.In Language,thought,andreality.Ed.JohnB.Carroll,134‐159.Cambridge: MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.Wingrave,HelenandRobertHarrold.1972.Spanishdancing:Ahandbookonsteps,style, castanetsanddancing.Kent,England:PlannedActionLtd.