Virtual Teams Digital Media Structure and its Impact on ... · The work-life-balance of virtual teams is one of the main factors why people choose to engage in teleworking, also known

Virtual Teams Digital Media Structure

and its Impact on Workplace Isolation:

Development of a Framework

Master Thesis Exposé

David dos Santos Quental Mendes

European Master of Business Studies

Virtual Teams Digital Media Structure and its Impact on Workplace Isolation: Development of a Framework.

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Abstract TITLE : Virtual Teams Digital Media Structure and its Impact on Workplace Isolation: Development of a Framework KEYWORDS : Virtual Team, Digital Media Structure, Workplace Isolation BACKGROUND Workplace Isolation is a major concern for Virtual Teams. Media theories and empirical testing of virtual team communication propose that team performance, cohesiveness and trust, among others, are hindered by the medium’s shortcomings in comparison to face to face communication. Due to these shortcomings, isolation from the workplace in virtual teams is stronger than in conventional teams. Factors such as the length of study and computer mediated communication mediums utilized for testing deliver differing results. The results of these empirical tests are not always consistent with theory, leading to further development of theory or alternative theories. PURPOSE : The purpose of this thesis is to develop a framework that establishes a standard which enables consistency when testing the impact of communication mediums on isolation in virtual teams. Through the development of this framework, links between specific capabilities of mediums and their impact on workplace isolation variables are suggested. Following the testing of these suggested correlations, this framework will allow managers to objectively choose a combination of communication mediums that bridges the gap between computer mediated communication and face to face interaction. METHODOLOGY : A transparent, reproducible and evidence informed exploratory literature review as per Tranfield, Denyer and Smart (2003) . Through the use of a list of keywords and search strings an initial aggregation of articles is made; Articles are then chosen for further analysis based on their abstract and conclusion. The process is repeated iteratively as previously unconsidered relevant theory emerges from the literature.

David S.Q. Mendes, 2017

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2. Table of Contents 1. Abstract 2

2. Table of Contents 3 2.1. Table of Tables 4 2.2. Table of Figures 4 2.3. Table of Abbreviations 4

3. Introduction 5

4. Methodology 7

5. Media Theories 9 5.1. Social Presence 9 5.2. Media Richness theory 10 5.3. Media Synchronicity Theory 11

6. Workplace Isolation 14 6.1. Workplace Isolation Construct 14 6.2. Identity Communication 16 6.3. Virtual Team Building 16 6.4. Trust 18

7. Overview of Chapters 19

8. Plan of Work 20

9. References 21

10. Appendix 22 10.1. Appendix A: Search Strings Table 22 10.2. Appendix B: Future reading Table 23



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2.1. Table of Tables

Table 1: Plan of Work 20

Table 2: Literature review search strings 22

Table 3: Future Reading Table 23

2.2. Table of Figures

Figure 1: Workplace Isolation & Digital Media Structure Framework 6

Figure 2: Media Theories Diagram; Adapted from (A. Dennis et al., 2008) 13

Figure 3: Workplace Isolation Construct; Adapted from (Marshall et al., 2007) 15

2.3. Table of Abbreviations

CMC - Computer Mediated Communication

F2F - Face to face

VT - Virtual Team



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3. Introduction Teleworking and virtual teams (VTs) have been a growing trend for over nearly three

decades (Martino & Wirth, 1990) , and it is predicted that the majority of the workforce will engage in virtual working at a higher or lower degree in the future. VTs, defined as teams that work across physical, cultural and time-zone barriers, and whose main form of contact is through computer mediated communication (CMC) (Gibbs, Sivunen, & Boyraz, 2017) , are a focal point of several studies. The work-life-balance of virtual teams is one of the main factors why people choose to engage in teleworking, also known as virtual working (Baral & Bhargava, 2010) .

One of the main detractors of virtual working is workplace isolation (Golden, Veiga, & Dino, 2008) . Virtual workers have pointed to isolation from the company’s network and its opportunities as one of the major sources of concern as to why they have not yet adopted telework or do not engage as much as they otherwise would in it (Cooper & Kurland, 2002) . Worker isolation is also a main concern for managers and companies, as isolation has been proven to be negatively correlated with performance, organizational commitment and job satisfaction (Marshall, Michaels, & Mulki, 2007) . There have been several attempts at theorizing and empirically testing the roots of worker isolation, virtual team performance, virtual team commitment and trust in virtual teams among others (Furumo & Pearson, 2006) . One of the most recurring conclusions is that the medium of communication, CMC, is not apt at aiding employees develop and maintain their networks at a satisfiable level (Cooper & Kurland, 2002; Furumo & Pearson, 2006; Marshall et al., 2007) .

Social Presence (Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976) and Media Richness theory (Daft &

Lengel, 1986) are often referred to as the reasons why virtual teams do not report higher job satisfaction levels (Cooper & Kurland, 2002; Furumo & Pearson, 2006; Marshall et al., 2007) ; However, there are several inconsistencies in the literature: In the short and long term, virtual teams performance is as good as face-to-face (F2F) teams (Furumo & Pearson, 2006) , however if VTs do not develop the appropriate levels of trust and cooperation, they do not reach the long term and they are outperformed in the middle term (Furumo & Pearson, 2006) . There is also evidence in the literature that VTs take longer at performing tasks than F2F teams, however can make better decisions. The efficiency difference disappears as VTs get to know each other more and develop shared mental models, therefore requiring less contact and time than previously in other to reach conclusions (Morgan, 2004; Schmidtke & Cummings, 2017) .

Further inconsistencies exist in the literature, including in the methodology of experiments. As there is no standardized framework as to what types of CMC a virtual team should use, empirical testing of performance in VTs compared to F2F teams is inconsistent in the CMC medium’s used (Gibbs et al., 2017) . It is still unclear what would be the best digital infrastructure for virtual teams. This paper aims to help develop towards understanding what the











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best digital structure may be and how it impacts workplace isolation (Marshall et al., 2007; Watson-Manheim & Bélanger, 2007) . Most studies compare a medium to face-to-face, however this is not representative of reality as in a typical office at least three medium’s are employed: Face-to-face, telephone and email. A combination of mediums outperforms a single medium, as no single medium is consistently the best for all communication tasks (A. Dennis, Fuller, & Valacich, 2008) .

Through an analysis of media theories (Frank Biocca, Harms, & Burgoon, 2003; Daft & Lengel, 1986; A. Dennis et al., 2008; Short et al., 1976) , and workplace isolation (Cooper & Kurland, 2002; Golden et al., 2008; Marshall et al., 2007) , this paper aims to establish what components of CMC are most relevant to each factor in workplace isolation, and develop a framework of an optimal structure of digital media for virtual teams and a standard by which future empirical tests can be ran and evaluated.

Figure 1: Workplace Isolation & Digital Media Structure Framework






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4. Methodology As in accordance to (Tranfield, Denyer, & Smart, 2003) the development of this

framework through a literature review aims to be transparent, reproducible and evidence

informed. In an attempt to preserve knowledge, previous literature reviews were taken into

account, as well as conferences, published and unpublished papers, books and internet

websites. A synthesis of raw data is not performed, as raw data is generally not available in

management papers (Tranfield et al., 2003) . As the internal validity of management studies is

not as comparable to those in convergent fields of study, due to looser standards on what

constitutes a valid study, the internal validity is assessed by a journal’s ranking. Methodological

limitations are taken into consideration as to the possible boundaries of each study’s

generalizability and applicability.

For the development of this framework several bodies of literature were required as it

attempts to establish a link between a team’s virtuality, its use of media channels, and their

perception of workplace isolation. Literature from virtual teams, media, communication, identity

communication and workplace isolation was explored to build a grounded theory; Literature from

organizational behaviour, team behaviour, trust and satisfaction with supervisors was then

iteratively added to further supplement the theoretical framework development. This is common

in management literary research, as the process tends to be explorative due to its broad

cross-disciplinary influences (Tranfield et al., 2003) .

There were two rounds of search strings development and selection of studies.

Keywords and search strings were chosen from the literature and added to a table of search

strings (Appendix A), continuously through the first exploratory reading. This process was

chosen in order to allow natural growth of the scope of disciplines in the developing of the

framework as suggest by Transfield et al (2003). The first round of generated search strings

aimed at capturing four concepts: Virtuality as a continuum, media as a means of

communication in virtual teams, identity communication in teams and isolation in the workplace.

A second round of keyword generation was then performed in order to capture concepts from

organizational behaviour, virtual team behaviour, trust and satisfaction with supervisors.


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Google Scholar and the Kassel university eLibrary which includes access to business

premier, econlit, NEXIS, WISO and PsycARTICLES among others, were used to retrieve an

initial list of citations of possibly relevant papers. From the first round of keywords, following an

analysis of the papers’ abstracts and conclusions eighty five (85) studies were kept for further

analysis. Perceived relevance to the development of the framework was used as the dismissal

criteria. From the bibliographies of these studies, twenty one (21) more papers were added to

this paper’s research library. The list of total studies chosen from the first round can be found in

Appendix B.

Research was performed on a Toshiba Chromebook 2, which influenced the choice of software

for research. Studies were initially read, highlighted and commented in Kami, and organized in

folders in Google Drive, while being cited through paperpile. Due to Kami’s lack of library

functions, a switch of software was necessarily for organizational matters. Mendeley web app

was the second choice of software, due to its better library functions; Mendeley however had

poor OCR and therefore highlighting on Mendeley Web App was not as seamless and trouble

free as in Kami. Due to using the free version of paperpile and the trial expiring, Paperpile’s

library functions were no longer available, and the online article search did not always find the

required citations. F1000 was the final choice of software, for library, citation management and

reading purposes.



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5. Media Theories

5.1. Social Presence

Social Presence was initially proposed by Short et al. in (1976) . A literature review on

Social Presence was done by Biocca et al. (2003) , highlighting differences and limitations in the

literature and framework developed since Short et al. (1976) . Social presence in a medium has

been defined in several different ways, such as the “sense of being with another”, “sense of

another through a medium”, “having access to another intelligence” (F Biocca, 1997) , the ability

to project oneself through a medium’s limitations (Savicki & Kelley, 2000) , or the salience of a

medium (Short et al., 1976) , among others. Social Presence theory aims to measure how a

technological medium influences one’s perception of and behaviour towards the other.

According to Biocca et al. (2003) , there are two main schools of thought for Social

Presence - those who consider social presence as a factor existing within and without

computer mediated communication (CMC) as a continuum, and those who consider social

presence as an inherent factor of media (Short et al., 1976) . As initially proposed, “Social

Presence” presupposed that through a medium an actor would be more or less salient, and

that the amount of salience would be limited by the capabilities of the medium. Social

Presence therefore meant to measure the amount of salience a medium would allow one to

project, through looking at its social and emotional capabilities (Short et al., 1976) . Mediums

were measured on a scale of unsociable-sociable, insensitive-sensitive, cold-warm, and

impersonal-personal (Short et al., 1976) .

Social Presence as a quality of the medium did not hold up in empirical testing, Yoo

and Alavi (2001) disproved the theory; Teams with higher cohesiveness reported higher

social presence than less cohesive groups, therefore showing that social presence is not

only bound by the medium’s capabilities. This brings validity to the school of thought that

presence itself exists as a continuum. Involvement, Intimacy, Immediacy, mutuality,

interactivity (Heeter, 1992) and behaviours such as “. . .eye contact, non-verbal mirroring,



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turn taking, etc.” (Frank Biocca et al., 2003) impact presence, whether mediated or

otherwise (Burgoon, Newton, Walther, & Baesler, 1988) . Behavioural variables are often

used to measure presence, as for such behaviours to occur one must feel the other is

present (Heeter, 1992) . Biocca et al. (2003) also suggested that the “theory of mind”,

meaning how one understands the minds of others, may play an impact on social presence,

as one is able to recognize a mind when communicating through a medium;

One of the limitations on the empirical testing and theory development of social presence

was that when conceptualizing how to measure a medium the questions assumed

technology specific components, therefore not being transferable to other mediums: “How

well could you see each other”, “The other person could hear me” .

5.2. Media Richness theory

Media Richness theory (Daft & Lengel, 1986) (MRT), builds on previous media theories to

theorize that in order for good communication and information processing to occur, there are

several factors, unlike in previous media theories, where quantity of information was considered

to be the main factor. As per Daft and Lengel (1986) , while an increase in information reduces

uncertainty, defined as a lack of information, it does not reduce equivocality. Equivocality arises

from the inability to process the information in a structured way, due to it being open to

interpretation. As there is a need for several stakeholders to converge on the meaning of

information, Media Richness Theory suggests (Daft & Lengel, 1986) that a richer medium is

more suitable to reducing equivocality, compared to a less rich medium. On the continuum of

media richness, on the less rich end are “Rules & Regulations” and on the more rich end are

“group meetings”. According to MRT, less rich media is suitable for tasks of uncertainty, while

rich media is suitable for tasks of equivocality. Rich mediums communicate rich information,

which is defined as “ . . . the ability of information to change understanding within a time interval. ”

MRT identifies four characteristics of a medium’s capacity to communicate rich information: (1)

Immediacy of feedback, (2) number of queues, (3) personalization, (4) language variety.










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5.3. Media Synchronicity Theory

Media Synchronicity Theory (MST), originally proposed in a conference proceeding in 1999 (A.

R. Dennis & Valacich, 1999) , and further developed in 2008 (A. Dennis et al., 2008) . According

to MST, the choice of media should not vary from task to task, but rather according to the tasks’

communication needs. By conceptualizing communication tasks, meaning that each work task

requires different communication tasks, they argue that it is according to these communication

tasks that different types of media vary in effectiveness. Communication tasks are divided into

two subcategories: convergence, tasks where the communicators attempt to reach shared

understanding of a subject matter, and conveyance where communicators aim to transmit

information in a clear and understandable manner to one or several receivers. Each of these

tasks requires information transmission and information processing albeit in different quantities.

MST identifies five physical media capabilities, which impact transmission and processing, and

which are testable and not derived from social characteristics, as was the case with Social

Presence Theory.

The 5 capabilities in MST are: “ symbol sets, parallelism, transmission velocity, rehearsability,

and reprocessability ” (A. Dennis et al., 2008) :

● Symbol Sets:

The ways in which one can communicate through the medium, eg facial expressions,

voice tone, images, typing, body language. Some mediums allow for the usage of

multiple symbol sets (eg whatsapp: image, video, text, voice, files). The time required to

encode and decode symbol sets varies. More natural symbol sets such as speech and

gestures (Kock, 2004) are faster to encode than less natural symbol sets; Faster speed

of encoding and decoding of symbol sets increases focus and has a positive impact on

the medium’s capability for synchronicity.

Some symbol sets are more suitable to certain information requirements than others (eg

sending an excel spreadsheet versus verbally communicating numerical data); The

usage of appropriate symbol sets increases medium’s capability for synchronicity.








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● Parallelism:

The ability to maintain several channels of communication simultaneously; The

telephone only allows a limited amount of senders at a specific time, while in online chat

rooms all users are able to communicate simultaneously without having to wait “ for the

channel to clear ” (A. Dennis et al., 2008, p. 585) . Parallelism also considers multi-party

communication (telephone one-to-one versus chatroom one-to-all) and multithreaded

communication (different threads in a message board or different conversations in a

chatroom); Parallelism decreases focus due to multiple conversation threads, and

therefore the medium’s capability for synchronicity.

● Transmission Velocity:

“ the speed at which a medium can deliver a message to intended recipients ” (A. Dennis

et al., 2008, p. 584) ; More recent media, such as Instant messengers, deliver and

receive messages instantaneously, allowing for faster replies, resembling conversation.

This leads to higher focus and coordination, which supports synchronicity capabilities.

● Rehearsability:

“ Rehearsability is the extent to which the media enables the sender to rehearse or fine

tune a message during encoding, before sending ” (A. Dennis et al., 2008, p. 587) .

Rehearsability allows the sender to better craft the message, increasing clarity and

understandability leading to easier decoding. Higher rehearsability can lead to longer

encoding times, therefore reducing shared focus and lowering the medium’s capability

for synchronicity.

● Reprocessability:

Reprocessability is the extent to which a message can be re-evaluated during decoding.

Face-to-Face communication has low reprocessability as you are unable to replay what

was communicated, however in environments such as bulletin boards, one can re-read

the message several times or read previously sent messages to facilitate understanding.

Reprocessability however may reduce shared focus as communicators can take longer

to respond when reprocessability is high and therefore it has a negative impact on a

medium’s synchronous capacities.


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MST argues that there is no best media for a given situation despite their synchronous or

asynchronous capabilities. Mediums that have high transmission capabilities typically have low

reprocessing capabilities, and a combination of mediums outperforms the use of one single

media. The example given is that of when explaining an idea, verbally, while simultaneously

using a whiteboard to write on; By combining the mediums they become more effective.

Figure 2: Media Theories Diagram; Adapted from (A. Dennis et al., 2008)




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6. Workplace Isolation

6.1. Workplace Isolation Construct

Marshall et al. (2007) defined the workplace isolation construct. Marshall et al. (2007) argue that

workplace isolation differs from loneliness and social isolation and that it stems from perceptions

of availability of colleagues and supervisors. Isolation in virtual teams is a major, much studied,

issue (e.g. (Cooper & Kurland, 2002) (2002) ) and is one of the biggest concerns from the

employee perspective. Despite this, when tested under the workplace isolation construct,

physical distance and physical presence, were not significantly correlated to isolation (Marshall

et al., 2007) , suggesting that the level of virtuality (Schmidtke & Cummings, 2017) is not a major

factor.

As per Marshall et al. (2007) Feelings of isolation are a concern to managers because these

have a negative impact on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job involvement and

turnover intentions. Perceptions of isolation are related to a lack of support by the company and

colleagues such as opportunities for informal spontaneous social and emotional interactions,

intimacy (Mann et al., 2000), not feeling like part of the team, lack of recognition and

opportunities for career advancement (Cooper & Kurland, 2002) , lack of visibility, mentoring

neglect and a lack of career support.

(Marshall et al., 2007) (2007) developed two different subscales, “Company” and “Colleagues”.

The two are highly correlated (0.72 ; p < 0.01) however measured different psychometrically

valid concepts. When tested against Wittenberg and Reis’ (1986) scales of social and emotional

loneliness, both Company & Colleagues scales had a negligible correlation (0.12 and 0.20

respectively) to emotional loneliness and moderate correlation to social loneliness (0.38 and

0.44 respectively) (Marshall et al., 2007) . As stated in (Marshall et al., 2007, p. 211) :

The Colleagues subscale focuses on co-workers’ social support and measures

employee perceptions relating to having co-workers for working through

problems, discussing issues, and developing friendships. The Company subscale

focuses on workplace-based support and measures employee perceptions

















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relating to integration within the company/network, being informed about

company events and being involved in same, knowledge/recognition of employee

accomplishments, and connection to the company or departmental network.

Satisfaction with communication plays a major part in workplace isolation, and the choice in

media is suggested to be a major factor in workplace isolation (Marshall et al., 2007) . It is

argued that the commonly used media channels lack in both media richness (Daft & Lengel,

1986) and social presence (Short et al., 1976) . According to Marshall et al. (2007)’s correlation

test, satisfaction with communication is the second most impacting factor for company isolation

(-0.49, after colleague isolation), the third most impacting factor for colleague isolation (-0.52,

after company and satisfaction with co-workers) and is the most impacting factor for both

satisfaction with supervisor (0.43) and satisfaction with co-workers(0.48).

Figure 3: Workplace Isolation Construct; Adapted from (Marshall et al., 2007)








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6.2. Identity Communication

Identity Communication Theory, as proposed by (Brown, Thatcher, & Wilson, 2016)

(2016) , argues that a medium has capabilities of communicating a person’s identity. The

enablers to good communication of identity are multiplicity of cues, immediacy of feedback and

information control (as per MRT), symbol sets, transmission velocity and rehearsability (as per

MST), and profiling ability - such as a profile page, along with some personal information and a

picture. Brown et al. (2016) argue that the benefits of identity communication in face to face

teams are hindered in virtual teams due to the media available to them. Brown et al. (2016)

argue that not being face to face creates a social barrier; But if identities were accurately

communicated then the benefits would be similar to those of face to face teams. Those benefits

include better performance, trust, increased cooperation, increased connectedness, immersion

and focus on improving group outcomes.

Brown et al. (2016) define an Identity as a definition of one’s self. Identities can be

communicated verbally, in writing or through one’s behaviour. The communication of identitties

facilitates coherence, being understood and continuity. A perception of positive identity

communication decreases stress and adversity and increases creativity and social integration.

Identity Communication Theory tests the impact of a medium’s identity communication

capabilities by comparing a text based messaging system without a profile page to a text based

messaging system with a profiling page.

6.3. Virtual Team Building

Holton (2001) conducts a participatory action research with inductive and deductive methods to

inquiry. In this research the impact of traditional team building activities is tested in a virtual team

of six members. The activities include the Bendaly Team Fitness Test, the Online Keirsey

Temperament Sorter and the Modified Belbin Group Role Questionnaire. It is concluded that

traditional team building activities have a positive impact on virtual teams in terms of trust,

cohesiveness, communication, a sense of knowing each other, collaboration and well-being.









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Some concerns about the media used in virtual teams are revealed; Emails, despite their high

rehearsability, tend to be responded to too fast, due to a feeling being overwhelmed by emails,

leading to low communication efficiency, as several back and forth email are necessary to fix a

misunderstood situation.

H1 : The appropriation of a medium impacts the perception of its communication qualities.

A new medium is also introduced: Web Conferencing. Web conferencing is a medium that is

high in parallelism, rehearsability and reprocessability (“Unable to find information for 4343702,”

n.d.) . Web conferencing was introduced as a medium that would allow better thought through

participation of all members, in their own time, to counterbalance video-conferencing’s

requirement of all members being simultaneously available. The reprocessability of Web

Conferencing, such as being able to re-read previously posted messages, was seen as an

advantage as it could be used to improve structured decision making. Congruence was noted

as one possible outcome of implementing Web Conferencing. However, adapting to the new

medium took some time, and one member complained of having to now search for messages in

three different places, making evident the need for a communication protocol. Web conferencing

was introduced as a medium that would also allow for casual conversation such as one can

have at a bar or coffee place;

H2a : High rehearsability has a positive correlation with team congruence.

H2b : High reprocessability has a positive correlation with team congruence.

H3a: High rehearsability has a positive correlation with structured decision making.

H3b: High rehearsability has a positive correlation with structured decision making.

H4: High parallelism has a positive correlation with casual communication.

H5: The lack of a communication protocol is negatively correlated with communication

satisfaction.





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At the end of the experiment, team members were questioned about their opinions on the

necessity of face to face interaction. A combination of both face to face and virtual working was

seen as the ideal scenario. Increased team building exercises were believed to lead to less

necessity of face to face interactions, however to some team members, F2F was still seen as an

essential part of work due to allowing team members to emotionally connect to one another,

despite believing it possible to work purely remotely. Time was seen as a critical factor, as with

passing of time members’ communication would involve personal communication as well as

work related communication.

An important result from this study is the team decision to continue performing team building

activities post-experiment, despite time being a scarce resource, as these were seen as highly

beneficial in developing trust, intimacy, familiarity, respect, comfort, understanding and positivity

towards other team members.

6.4. Trust

Trust in teams is essential for good performance, good communication, cooperation, conflict

resolution and good decision making (Kanawattanachai & Yoo, 2002) . Trust is a

multidimensional construct composed of both cognitive and affective elements (Lewis &

Weigert, 1985) . Swift Trust (Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999) establishes that virtual teams who trust

a priori perform better, despite several factors that would discourage trust in F2F teams, such as

unlikeliness to work together again and short time frames; Swift trust is not based on experience

or knowledge of one’s background, rather on positive expectations of the team, and the basis for

trust is set from the very first few interactions (Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999) . Swift trust however

has only an initial impact on trust, still requiring the building of trust past the first few interactions

(Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999) .

In a study by Furumo and Pearson (2006) , differences in trust (measured as a unidimensional

construct), cohesion, performance and satisfaction were measured, comparing virtual teams to

F2F teams. Trust, cohesion and satisfaction were lower for VTs, while performance was similar.

The technological condition of the virtual teams was a strong limitation in itself. The virtual team

used the WebCT software, which included asynchronous email, asynchronous web










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conferencing and synchronous instant messaging. The virtual team was not provided with any

high synchronicity medium (eg video conference) nor was it provided with a high profile-ability

medium (in fact profiling information was not allowed to be exchanged); Another limitation of this

study was length (1 week long study); Virtual teams have been shown to exhibit as much

cohesiveness and trust as F2F teams, given enough time (Hill, Bartol, Tesluk, & Langa, 2009) .

In a study by (Kanawattanachai & Yoo, 2002) , all teams were fully virtual, supported by a low

synchronicity platform which supported both asynchronous email and asynchronous web

conferencing functions. The study aimed to measure the development of trust as a

multidimensional construct (Lewis & Weigert, 1985) and its relation to performance, over an

eight week period. Trust had a positive correlation with performance (Kanawattanachai & Yoo,

2002) . Swift trust (Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999) had a positive impact on early trust and

performance. The high performing VTs relied more on cognitive than on affective trust

(Kanawattanachai & Yoo, 2002) , and part of the lower performing teams never developed

affective trust.










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7. Overview of Chapters 1. Introduction 2. Methodology 3. Media Theories

3.1. Social Presence 3.2. Media Richness Theory 3.3. Media Appropriateness 3.4. Media Naturalness 3.5. Media Synchronicity Theory 3.6. . . .

4. Workplace Isolation 4.1. Isolation 4.2. Identity Communication 4.3. Involvement 4.4. Satisfaction with supervisors

5. Virtual Teams 5.1. Virtual Team Building 5.2. Communication 5.3. Trust

6. Discussion 7. Limitations 8. Conclusion

8.1. Managerial Implications 8.2. Theoretical Implications

9. Bibliography 10. Appendix



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8. Plan of Work

Table 1: Plan of Work

# Task Start End Completion

1 Choosing of Topic 22/08/2017 18/09/2017 Completed

2 Extended Proposal Development 19/09/2017 29/09/2017 Completed

3 Development of Exposé 02/10/2017 23/10/2017 Completed

4 Literature Research Round 2 24/10/2017 27/10/2017 Not Completed

5 Review of Media Theories 28/10/2017 31/10/2017 Not Completed

6 Review of VT communication 01/11/2017 05/11/2017 Not Completed

7 Review of VT identity theories 06/11/2017 08/11/2017 Not Completed

8 Buffer & Clean up 09/11/2017 19/11/2017 Not Completed

9 Review of VT Trust Theories 20/11/2017 22/11/2017 Not Completed

10 Review of Isolation 23/11/2017 26/11/2017 Not Completed

11 Review of VT building 27/11/2017 01/12/2017 Not Completed

12 Review of VT involvement 02/12/2017 05/12/2017 Not Completed

13 Review of VT Satisfaction with Supervisors 06/12/2017 09/12/2017 Not Completed

14 Buffer & Clean up 10/12/2017 20/12/2017 Not Completed

15 Modeling of Final Framework 21/12/2017 31/12/2017 Not Completed

16 Conclusion 01/01/2018 13/01/2018 Not Completed

17 Defense Preparation 14/01/2018 21/01/2018 Not Completed



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P. 26

10. Appendix

10.1. Appendix A: Search Strings Table

Table 2: Literature review search strings

C I M S V V

Collaboration Technology Inclusiveness

Media inclusiveness Social Isolation Virtual Identity virtual teams scale

Colleage Isolation Inclusiveness performance Media Naturalness Social Presence

Virtual Identity Communication Virtual Teamwork

Communication Isolation Media Presence Team company identity

Virtual Identity in teams virtuality

Company culture identity

Isolation performance

Media Richness Theory

Team Inclusiveness

Virtual Inclusiveness web 2.0 Media

Company Isolation Leader inclusiveness Media salience Team Isolation Virtual Media Work identity

Identity communication Loneliness at work

Media Synchronicity Theory trust

Virtual Organization work inclusiveness

Identity in groups Media Capabilities Media Theory trust cohesion Virtual team communication Work Isolation

Identity in Teams Media communication

mediated communication trust identity

Virtual Team Isolation Worklife balance

Identity in virtual Teams

Media Communication Theory

mediated environments trust socializing

Virtual Team Processes Workplace identity

Identity inclusiveness Media face to face

Organizational Identification

Virtual Collaboration virtual teams

Identity Isolation Media identity Psychological Isolation

virtual compare face to face

virtual teams continuum



P. 27

10.2. Appendix B: Future reading Table

Table 3: Future Reading Table

Authors Title Journal Publication

Date

Ahuja, Manju K.; Carley, Kathleen M.

Network structure in virtual organizations Organization Science 1999-12

Baral, Rupashree; Bhargava, Shivganesh

Work‐family enrichment as a mediator between

organizational interventions for work‐life

balance and job outcomes

Journal of Managerial Psychology 2010-03-30

Bartelt, Valerie L; Dennis, Alan R

NATURE AND NURTURE: THE IMPACT OF AUTOMATICITY AND THE STRUCTURATION OF COMMUNICATION

ON VIRTUAL TEAM BEHAVIOR AND PERFORMANCE MIS Quarterly 2014-06

Berube Kowalski, Kellyann; Swanson, Jennifer Ann

Critical success factors in developing teleworking

programs Benchmarking: An International

Journal 2005-06

Biocca, F

The cyborg's dilemma: Progressive embodiment in virtual environments.

Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication 1997

Biocca, Frank; Harms, Chad; Burgoon, Judee K.

Toward a more robust theory and measure of social presence: review and suggested criteria

Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 2003-10

Black, Janice A.; Edwards, Sandra

Emergence of virtual or network organizations:

fad or feature Journal of Organizational

Change Management 2000-12

Brown, Susan A.; Thatcher, Sherry M. B.; Wilson, David

W.

Measurement and outcomes of identity

communication in virtual teams 2016-01-05



P. 28

Bucharest University of Economic Studies,

Bucharest, Romania; Ghilic-Micu, B.; Stoica, M.;

Bucharest University of Economic Studies,

Bucharest, Romania

A redefinition of telework through cloud computing -

telework 2.0

Bulletin of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv

Economics 2016

Burgoon, Judee K.; Newton, Deborah A.; Walther, Joseph

B.; Baesler, E. James

Nonverbal expectancy violations and conversational involvement Journal of nonverbal behavior 1988

Card, Noel A. Applied meta-analysis for social science research

Carlos Martins Rodrigues Pinho, José; Soares, Ana

Maria

Examining the technology acceptance model in the

adoption of social networks

Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing 2011-06-07

Charlier, Steven D.; Stewart, Greg L.; Greco, Lindsey M.;

Reeves, Cody J.

Emergent leadership in virtual teams: A multilevel investigation of individual communication and team dispersion antecedents The leadership quarterly 2016-10

Chen, Tsung-Yi; Chen, Yuh-Min

Advanced multi-phase trust evaluation model for

collaboration between coworkers in dynamic virtual project teams Expert systems with applications 2009-10

Cheng, Xusen; Macaulay, Linda; Zarifis, Alex

Modeling individual trust development in computer mediated collaboration: A

comparison of approaches Computers in human behavior 2013-07

Cooper, Cecily D.; Kurland, Nancy B.

Telecommuting, professional isolation, and employee development in

public and private organizations

Journal of organizational behavior 2002-06

Coppola, N.W.; Hiltz, S.R.; Rotter, N.G.

Building trust in virtual teams

IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication 2004-06

Daft, Richard L.; Lengel, Robert H.

Organizational information requirements,

media richness and structural design Management Science 1986-05



P. 29

Davis, Fred D

Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease Of Use,

And User Accep MIS Quarterly; Sep 1989

Delgado Piña, María Isabel; María Romero Martínez, Ana;

Gómez Martínez, Luis

Teams in organizations: a review on team effectiveness

Team Performance Management: An International

Journal 2008-03-07

DeLuca, D.; Valacich, J.S.

Outcomes from Conduct of Virtual Teams at Two Sites: Support for Media

Synchronicity Theory 2005

DeLuca, Dorrie; Valacich, Joseph S.

Virtual teams in and out of synchronicity Information Technology & People 2006-10

Dennis, A.R.; Valacich, J.S.

Rethinking media richness: towards a

theory of media synchronicity 1999

Dennis, Alan; Fuller, Robert; Valacich, Joseph

MEDIA, TASKS, AND COMMUNICATION PROCESSES: A

THEORY OF MEDIA SYNCHRONICITY

MIS Quarterly: Management Information Systems 2008-09-01

Dulebohn, James H.; Hoch, Julia E.

Virtual teams in organizations

Human Resource Management Review 2017-12

Fan, Zhi-Ping; Suo, Wei-Lan; Feng, Bo; Liu, Yang

Trust estimation in a virtual team: A decision

support method Expert systems with applications 2011-08

Ford, Robert C.; Piccolo, Ronald F.; Ford, Loren R.

Strategies for building effective virtual teams:

Trust is key Business horizons 2017-01

Fuller, Johann; Muller, Julia; Hutter, Katja; Matzler, Kurt;

Hautz, Julia

Virtual worlds as collaborative innovation and knowledge platform 2012-01-04

Furumo, K.; Pearson, J.M.

An Empirical Investigation of How Trust, Cohesion, and Performance Vary in Virtual and Face-to-Face

Teams 2006-01-04

Gibbs, Jennifer L.; Sivunen, Anu; Boyraz, Maggie

Investigating the impacts of team type and design

on virtual team processes Human Resource Management

Review 2017-12



P. 30

Golden, Timothy D; Veiga, John F; Dino, Richard N

The impact of professional isolation on

teleworker job performance and turnover

intentions: does time spent teleworking,

interacting face-to-face, or having access to

communication-enhancing technology matter?

The Journal of applied psychology 2008-11

Greenberg, Penelope Sue; Greenberg, Ralph H.;

Antonucci, Yvonne Lederer Creating and sustaining

trust in virtual teams Business horizons 2007-07

Han, Sehee; Min, Jinyoung; Lee, Heeseok

Building relationships within corporate SNS

accounts through social presence formation

International journal of information management 2016-12

Harker Martin, Brittany; MacDonnell, Rhiannon

Is telework effective for organizations? Management Research Review 2012-06-15

Hassanein, K; Head, M Instilling social presence

through the web interface. SIGHCI 2004 Proceedings 2004

Hassanein, Khaled; Head, Milena

The impact of infusing social presence in the

web interface: an investigation across

product types International Journal of Electronic Commerce 2006-01-01

Hassanein, Khaled; Head, Milena

Manipulating perceived social presence through the web interface and its

impact on attitude towards online shopping

International journal of human-computer studies 2007-08

Hauber, J; Regenbrecht, H; Hills, A; Cockburn, A;

Billinghurst, M

Social presence in two-and

three-dimensional videoconferencing. 2005

Haythornthwaite, Caroline

Online personal networks: Size, composition and

media use among distance learners New Media and Society 2000

Herzberg, Frederick; Mausner, Bernard;

Snyderman, Barbara The motivation to work,

2nd ed. 1959



P. 31

Hill, N. Sharon; Bartol, Kathryn M.; Tesluk, Paul E.;

Langa, Gosia A.

Organizational context and face-to-face

interaction: Influences on the development of trust

and collaborative behaviors in

computer-mediated groups

Organizational behavior and human decision processes 2009-03

Hoch, Julia E.; Dulebohn, James H.

Team personality composition, emergent leadership and shared

leadership in virtual teams: A theoretical

framework Human Resource Management

Review 2017-12

Holton, Judith A.

Building trust and collaboration in a virtual

team


Journal 2001-06

Hoppe, M; Eckert, R

Leader effectiveness and culture: The GLOBE

study. Greensboro, NC: Center for

Creative Leadership 2016

Jarvenpaa, Sirkka L.; Leidner, Dorothy E.

Communication and trust in global virtual teams Organization Science 1999-12

Jokinen, Tiina

Global leadership competencies: a review

and discussion Journal of European Industrial

Training 2005-04

Kanawattanachai, Prasert; Yoo, Youngjin

Dynamic nature of trust in virtual teams

The Journal of Strategic Information Systems 2002-12

Kirkman, Bradley L.; Rosen, Benson; Gibson, Cristina B.; Tesluk, Paul E.; McPherson,

Simon O.

Five challenges to virtual team success: Lessons

from Sabre, Inc. Academy of Management

Executive 2002-08-01

Kock, Ned

The Psychobiological Model: Towards a New

Theory of Computer-Mediated

Communication Based on Darwinian Evolution Organization Science 2004-06

Kramer, William S.; Shuffler, Marissa L.; Feitosa, Jennifer

The world is not flat: Examining the interactive

multidimensionality of culture and virtuality in

teams Human Resource Management

Review 2017-12

Lewis, J. D.; Weigert, A. Trust as a social reality Social Forces 1985-06-01



P. 32

Liao, Chenwei

Leadership in virtual teams: A multilevel

perspective Human Resource Management

Review 2017-12

Lipnack, Jessica; Stamps, Jeffrey

Strategy & Leadership Virtual teams: The new

way to work

Strategy & Leadership Team Performance Management: An

International Journal Information Technology & People 1999

Lombard, Matthew; Ditton, Theresa

At the Heart of It All: The Concept of Presence

Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 2006-06-23

Lu, Baozhou; Fan, Weiguo; Zhou, Mi

Social presence, trust, and social commerce purchase intention: An

empirical research Computers in human behavior 2016-03

Lupton, Paul; Haynes, Barry Teleworking – the

perception‐reality gap Facilities 2000-07

Manninen, Tony

Virtual Team Interactions in Networked Multimedia

Games -- Case: "Counter-Strike" --

Multi-Player . . . 2001

Marlow, Shannon L.; Lacerenza, Christina N.;

Salas, Eduardo

Communication in virtual teams: a conceptual

framework and research agenda


Marshall, Greg W.; Michaels, Charles E.; Mulki, Jay P.

Workplace isolation: Exploring the construct and its measurement Psychology and Marketing 2007-03

Martins LL, Gilson LL, Maynard MT

Virtual Teams: What Do We Know and Where Do

We Go From Here? Journal of management 2004-11

Morgan, Robert E

European Business Review"Balancing work

and family with telework? Organizational issues and

challenges for women and managers", Women in Management Review

European Business Review https Personnel Review Iss 2004

Morgan, Robert E.

Teleworking: an assessment of the

benefits and challenges European Business Review 2004-08

Morganson, Valerie J.; Major, Debra A.; Oborn, Kurt L.;

Comparing telework locations and traditional

work arrangements Journal of Managerial

Psychology 2010-08-17



P. 33

Verive, Jennifer M.; Heelan, Michelle P.

Nass, Clifford; Reeves, Byron

The Media Equation : How People Treat

Computers, Television, and New Media Like Real

People and Places 1996

Ning Shen, Kathy; Khalifa, Mohamed

Exploring Multidimensional

Conceptualization of Social Presence in the

Context of Online Communities

International journal of human-computer interaction 2008-09-22

Norton, Robert W.

Communicator style in teaching: Giving good

form to content New Directions for Teaching and

Learning 1986

Novotny, Ádám The Present and Future

of Teleworking 2004-01-27

Ordóñez de Pablos, Patricia; Lytras, Miltiadis D.

Competencies and human resource

management: implications for organizational

competitive advantage Journal of Knowledge

Management 2008-10-24

Pérez Pérez, Manuela; Martínez Sánchez, Angel; de

Luis Carnicer, Pilar; José Vela Jiménez, María

A technology acceptance model of innovation

adoption: the case of teleworking

European Journal of Innovation Management 2004-12

Pérez Pérez, Manuela; Martínez Sánchez, Angel; de

Luis Carnicer, Pilar; José Vela Jiménez, María

The synergism of teleworking and information and communication

technologies Journal of Enterprise Information

Management 2005-02

Pérez Pérez, Manuela; Pilar De, Mu; Carnicer, Luis;

Sánchez, Angel Martínez; Pe, Manuela; Pe, Ârez; Mã, Ârez; De, Pilar; Ânez, Angel

Martõ; Ânchez, Sa

Women in Management Review Differential effects of gender on perceptions of teleworking by human

resources managers Differential effects of

gender on perceptions of teleworking by human resources managers

Women in Management Review European Business Review Iss

Journal of Managerial Psychology 2002

Pérez Pérez, Manuela; Sánchez, Angel Martínez; de

The differences of firm resources and the

adoption of teleworking Technovation 2005-12



P. 34

Luis Carnicer, Pilar; Vela Jiménez, María José

Pérez Pérez, Manuela; Sánchez, Angel Martínez;

De, Pilar; Carnicer, Luis; Vela Jiménez, María José

Journal of Enterprise Information Management

The synergism of teleworking and information and communication

technologies The synergism of teleworking

and information and communication

technologies

Journal of Enterprise Information Management foresight Iss An

International Journal 2005

Pérez Pérez, Manuela; Sánchez, Angel Martínez;

Pilar De, Ma; Carnicer, Luis; Vela Jiménez, Ma José; Pe, Manuela; Pe, Ârez; Angel,

Ârez; Ânez, Martõ; Ânchez, Sa; De, Pilar; Vela, Jose Â;

Ânez, Jime

Journal of Knowledge Management Knowledge tasks and teleworking: a

taxonomy model of feasibility adoption)

"Knowledge tasks and teleworking: a taxonomy

model of feasibility adoption""Is telework

effective for organizations?: A

meta-analysis of empirical research on perceptions

of telework and organizational outcomes"

Knowledge tasks and teleworking: a taxonomy

model of feasibility adoption

Journal of Knowledge Management Personnel Review Management Research Review 2002

Pérez Pérez, Manuela; Sánchez, Angel Martínez; Pilar, María; Carnicer, Luis

Personnel Review The organizational

implications of human resources managers'

perception of teleworking

Personnel Review Journal of Knowledge Management Iss

Personnel Review 2003

Piccoli, ; Ives, Gabriele;; Blake,

Trust and the unintended effects of behavior control

in virtual teams MIS Quarterly 2003-01-09

Pickering, Martin J; Garrod, Simon

Toward a mechanistic psychology of dialogue. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2004-04

Poehler, Lance; Schumacher, Terry

The virtual team challenge: is it time for

training? 2007-08-05



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Prasad, Krishna; Akhilesh, K.B.

Global virtual teams: what impacts their design and

performance?


Journal 2002-09

Rice, RONALD E. Media Appropriateness Human communication research 1993-06

Roehling, Mark

The important but neglected legal context of virtual teams: Research

implications and opportunities


Rusman, Ellen; van Bruggen, Jan; Sloep, Peter; Koper,

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Fostering trust in virtual project teams: Towards a

design framework grounded in a

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human-computer studies 2010-11

Salter, C; Harris, M; McCormack, J

Bass & Avolio’s Full Range Leadership Model and Moral Development. E-Leader Milan 2014

Sarker, Saonee; Ahuja, Manju; Sarker, Suprateek;

Kirkeby, Sarah

The role of communication and trust in global virtual teams: A

social network perspective

Journal of Management Information Systems 2011-07-01

Savicki, V; Kelley, M

Computer mediated communication: Gender and group composition. CyberPsychology & Behavior 2000

Schaubroeck, John M.; Yu, Andrew

When does virtuality help or hinder teams? Core team characteristics as

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Schmidtke, James M.; Cummings, Anne

The effects of virtualness on teamwork behavioral components: The role of shared mental models


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