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VCE PHYSICS UNITS 3&4
UNIT 4 HEAD START
LECTRE
Presented by:Alevine Magila
OVERVIEW:
How can two contradictory models
explain both light and matter?
2
• Mechanical Waves
• Light as a Wave
• Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
• The Photoelectric Effect
• Wave-Particle Duality
• Light and Matter
OVERVIEW:
How can two contradictory models
explain both light and matter?
3
• Mechanical Waves
• Light as a Wave
• Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
• The Photoelectric Effect
• Wave-Particle Duality
• Light and Matter
WAVES
• Waves are the transfer of energy from one place
to another without the net transfer of matter
• Mechanical waves such as sound require a
medium such as air to travel through
4
WAVE PULSES VS PERIODIC WAVES
A single disturbance travelling through a medium is called a
wave pulse.
A regularly spaced wave formed from a continuous vibration at
the source is called a periodic wave.
5
TYPES OF WAVES
• There are two types of waves: transverse waves and
longitudinal waves
• In transverse waves, the particles of the medium
oscillate perpendicular to the direction of travel of the
wave
• In longitudinal waves, the particles of the medium
oscillate parallel to the direction of travel of the wave
6
Sound waves are longitudinal waves!
Water waves/ Vibrations on a string are examples of
transverse waves
MEASUREMENTS FOR WAVES
Period (T): The time taken for a complete cycle measured
in seconds (s)
Frequency (f): The number of cycles in one second
measured in Hertz (Hz)
These two quantities are related by: 𝑓 =1
𝑇
7
MEAUSREMENTS FOR WAVES
Wavelength (λ): The length of a single cycle measured in
metres, m, or the distance a wave travels during one period (T)
Velocity (v): The speed at which a wave travels measured in
metres per second, m s-1. For mechanical waves, such as
sound, this can change depending on the medium, such as air
or water
Wave Equation: Relates the frequency, wavelength and velocity
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 =𝜆
𝑇Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a particle on the
wave from it’s mean position. The larger the amplitude of the
wave, the greater the wave’s energy
8
SUPERPOSITION
9
• What happens when two waves interact?
• The principle of superposition: when two or more waves
interact, they form a resultant wave with a displacement
that is equal to the sum of the displacements of each of
the individual waves.
SUPERPOSITION
• The principle of superposition: when two or more waves
interact, they form a resultant wave with a displacement
that is equal to the sum of the displacements of each of
the individual waves.
10
SUPERPOSITION
• The principle of superposition: when two or more waves
interact, they form a resultant wave with a displacement
that is equal to the sum of the displacements of each of
the individual waves.
11
SUPERPOSITION
• The principle of superposition: when two or more waves
interact, they form a resultant wave with a displacement
that is equal to the sum of the displacements of each of
the individual waves.
12
http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/superposition/superposition.html
INTERFERENCE
• We say that constructive interference has occurred
when the waves have particle displacements in the
same direction
13
INTERFERENCE
• We say that destructive interference has occurred when
the waves have particle displacements in the opposite
directions
14
STANDING WAVES
15
STANDING WAVES
• Both waves have equal amplitudes
• Both waves have the same period and frequency
• What is the resultant wave going to look like?
16
STANDING WAVES
17
t = 0
STANDING WAVES
18
t = 0.25T
STANDING WAVES
19
t = 0.50T
STANDING WAVES
20
t = 0.75T
STANDING WAVES
21
t = T
STANDING WAVES
22
t = 0
STANDING WAVES
23
The blue bold line is a
standing wave.
• Points that always have an
amplitude of 0 are called nodes
(the red point)
• Points that always have the
maximum amplitude are called
antinodes (the black point)
STANDING WAVES
REMEMBER, standing waves can only be formed
by two waves that:
• Are travelling in opposite directions
• Have the same amplitudes
• Have the same frequency and period
24
STANDING WAVES - MODES
• A standing wave’s mode of
vibration describes its
shape
• Mode of the standing wave
= the number of antinodes
it has
25
RESONANCE
Consider a swing that is pushed once and left to swing
The swing will oscillate at its ‘default’ or natural frequency.
By pushing on the swing, we can apply a forced frequency to the
swing.
When the applied forced frequency is equal to the swing’s
natural frequency, we say that resonance occurs.
26
RESONANCE
• Many objects can be made to vibrate at it’s natural or
resonant frequency
• Resonance occurs when the forced frequency on an
object is equal to the natural frequency of that object.
27
RESONANCE
Two important things happen when resonance
occurs:
1. The amplitude of vibration significantly increases
2. The maximum possible energy from the source is
transferred to the resonating object.
28
THE DOPPLER EFFECT
• The Doppler Effect is the apparent change in frequency
of a wave due to relative motion between the source
and the observer
29
𝑣
THE DOPPLER EFFECT
• The Doppler Effect is the apparent change in frequency
of a wave due to relative motion between the source
and the observer
30
Ambulance stationary Ambulance moving
THE DOPPLER EFFECT
• The Doppler Effect is the apparent change in frequency
of a wave due to relative motion between the source
and the observer
• The Doppler effect only influences the apparent
frequency of a sound – not it’s true frequency.
31
DIFFRACTION
When waves pass through a gap or, an aperture, if the width (sometimes also
called the diameter) of the aperture is a suitable length, the waves experience
a circular bending when they emerge from the gap.
This process is known as diffraction.
Note that in the image below, the lines represent wave crests. The troughs of
the waves are in the spaces in between the lines.
32
DIFFRACTION
• Diffraction is an important wave phenomenon that has important
implications for light and matter later on.
• The extent of diffraction is proportional to the ratio between the
wavelength of the wave and the diameter of the aperture.
33
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝𝜆
𝑤
Large gap, only a little bit of diffraction Tiny gap, a lot of diffraction
OVERVIEW:
How can two contradictory models
explain both light and matter?
34
• Mechanical Waves
• Light as a Wave
• Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
• The Photoelectric Effect
• Wave-Particle Duality
• Light and Matter
LIGHT AS AN ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVE
• James Clerk Maxwell found that
oscillating electric and magnetic fields
travel at a speed of 3.0 x 108 m s-1 –
exactly the speed of light!!!
• Light IS an electromagnetic wave
35
THE WAVELENGTH AND
FREQUENCY OF LIGHT
Traditionally, we know the wave equation as
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
However, thanks to Maxwell, we now know the speed of
light to be c:
𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆An important feature of this relationship is that c is a
constant and will not change.
Therefore, if the frequency changes, the wavelength will
change. Conversely, if the wavelength changes, the
frequency will change: one influences the other.
36
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
37
REFRACTION
• Light travels fastest in a vacuum at 3.0 x 108 m s-1
• Light travels ‘slower’ in more optically dense materials
• Light bends when it ‘changes’ speed; this is known as
refraction
38
REFRACTION
• The incoming ray is referred to as the ‘incident ray’
• The final ray is referred to as the ‘refracted ray’
• Often in optics, we establish an imaginary line called the
normal
39
REFRACTION
• When objects move to a more optically dense material,
they are refracted towards the normal.
40
REFRACTION
• The refractive index, n, for a given material is defined as
𝑛 =𝑐
𝑣
• Where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and v is the
speed of light through the material
41
SNELL’S LAW
• The incident ray and the refracted ray of a beam of light
are related by Snell’s Law:
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
42
CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL
INTERNAL REFLECTION
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 90°
43
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜽𝒄 =𝒏𝟐𝒏𝟏
Total
• Note that there is no total
internal reflection if n2 > n1
DISPERSION
• White light is composed of all the different colours of the
visible spectrum
• Dispersion is the splitting of white light into its
component colours
44
DISPERSION
• Each of the colours in white light has a slightly different
wavelength
• Since each colour has a different wavelength, each
colour will travel at a slightly different speed through the
prism
• Therefore, each colour will be refracted to a slightly
different extent through the prism
45
DISPERSION
• This causes the white light to ‘split’ into it’s component
colours.
• This phenomenon is known as dispersion
46
POLARISATION
• Transverse waves can have many different orientations
• Polarisation is the restriction of a transverse wave to
only one orientation (i.e the wave is only allowed to
vibrate in one direction)
47
POLARISATION
• Only transverse waves can be polarised – longitudinal
waves cannot be polarised
• Light can be polarised, which suggests that light is a
transverse wave
48
POLARISATION
• Sunglasses are one application of polarisation
• Light reflected from an object is typically oriented in one
direction
• A polarising lens can be used to reduce glare
49
OVERVIEW:
How can two contradictory models
explain both light and matter?
50
• Mechanical Waves
• Light as a Wave
• Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
• The Photoelectric Effect
• Wave-Particle Duality
• Light and Matter
YOUNG’S DOUBLE-SLIT
EXPERIMENT SET UP
51
PREDICTION
Particle model prediction
According to the particle model, there would only be two
bright bands corresponding to the two slits
52
RESULTS
Thomas Young explained the pattern on the
screen by suggesting that light was
inherently a wave in nature.
53
RESULTS
He suggested that light diffracted through the
two slits, and underwent constructive and
destructive interference, forming the bright and
dark bands on the screen.
54
RESULTS
55
• He suggested that light
diffracted through the two
slits, and underwent
constructive and destructive
interference, forming the
bright and dark bands on the
screen.
• We call the pattern on the
screen an diffraction pattern
RESULTS
Since diffraction and interference are wave
phenomena, Young’s double-slit experiment
provides evidence for the wave-like nature of
light.
56
RESULTS OF YOUNG’S DSE
The results of Young’s Double Slit Experiment were:
• On the screen there are bands of light (anti-nodal) and
dark (nodal) lines
• The fringes (bands) produced are evenly spaced
• The intensity of light is greatest at the centre and
decreases as the bands get further from the centre.
57
INTERFERENCE PATTERNS
When changes are made
to the experiment, the
resulting fringes are
changed. A useful formula
is:
58
𝑥 =𝜆𝐿
𝑑
Where
• x is the distance between two light bands (or the distance
between two dark bands)
• λ is the wavelength of light used
• L is the distance between the slits and the screen, and
• d is the distance between the slits
INTERFERENC PATTERS – PATH
DIFFERENCE
DefinitionAt any point on the screen (P), a wave from slit one (S1) will have
travelled a distance S1P and a wave from slit two (S2) will have travelled
a distance S2P. The difference in the distance travelled is the path
difference,
pd = |S1P − S2P|
We can measure path difference in metres, but is usually measured in
wavelengths to determine if the spot P is bright or dark.
59
INTERFERENCE PATTERNS
60
S1
S2
P
The path difference is given
by
p.d = |S1P − S2P|
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
Constructive interference occurs when the path difference
is a multiple of λ, that is
pd = nλ where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
This is because at point P, even though the waves have
travelled a different lengths, the waves arrive in the same
phase,
i.e. a trough meets a trough and a crest meets a crest.
61
INTERFERENCE PATTERNS
62
S1
S2
P
The path difference is given
by
p.d = |S1P − S2P|
Constructive interference:
pd = nλ
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
Destructive interference occurs when the path difference is
an odd multiple of 0.5λ, that is
This is because at point P, the waves have travelled through
different paths with different lengths and arrive in the
opposite phase, i.e a trough meets a crest and a crest meets
a trough.
63
p.d = (n -1
2) λ Where n = 1, 2, 3….
INTERFERENCE PATTERNS
64
S1
S2
P
The path difference is given
by
p.d = |S1P − S2P|
Constructive interference:
pd = nλ
Destructive interference:
pd = (n -1
2)λ
OVERVIEW:
How can two contradictory models
explain both light and matter?
65
• Mechanical Waves
• Light as a Wave
• Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
• The Photoelectric Effect
• Wave-Particle Duality
• Light and Matter
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• Hertz was experimenting with
a spark-gap generator
• He noticed that when the
spark-gap device was
illuminated with light / UV
light, electrons were released
66
Heinrich Hertz 1857 - 1894
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• The photoelectric effect is the
phenomenon whereby high-energy
light is able to eject electrons from
a metal / a metal plate
67
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The photoelectric effect experiment consists of 4 main
components:
▪ A metal plate placed at the cathode
▪ A monochromatic (single wavelength) light source that shone
onto the cathode,
▪ An ammeter to detect photocurrent, and
▪ A variable voltage that could provide current in the same or
opposite direction to the photocurrent (if the circuit was closed).
➢Forward potential: the variable voltage would make the anode
positive to help the photoelectrons move from the cathode to the
anode, or
➢Reverse potential: the variable voltage would make the anode
negative to prevent photoelectrons from the cathode reaching the
anode.
68
THE STOPPING VOLTAGE AND
PHOTOELECTRON ENERGY
How do we measure the energy of a
released photoelectron?
We can apply a reverse potential.
The stopping voltage, V0, is the
voltage where no photoelectric
current is detected.
69
THE STOPPING VOLTAGE AND
PHOTOELECTRON ENERGY
• Recall from Unit 3 that W = qV
• For an ejected photoelectron, W = eV0
• The stopping voltage can stop even the fastest moving electron. Hence,
the kinetic energy of the fastest moving electron, EK (max), is given by
70
𝐸𝑘 (max) =1
2𝑚𝑣2 = 𝑒𝑉0
THE ELECTRONVOLT
An alternative way to express energy, is with the non-SI unit,
the electronvolt, eV.
The electronvolt is often much more convenient to use than the
Joule since it can be used to directly express the energy in
terms of the stopping voltage
For example: If for a particular photoelectric effect experiment,
the stopping voltage is 5 V, then the maximum kinetic energy
will be 5 eV.
71
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
OBSERVATIONS
There are 3, very significant
observations that we can make from
the photoelectric effect:
1. There is a frequency called the
threshold frequency, f0, that below
which, there will be no
photoelectrons emitted.
2. Increasing the intensity of light
increases the number of
photoelectrons released.
3. Photoelectrons are released
instantaneously
72
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
OBSERVATIONS VS PREDICTIONS
1. There is a frequency called
the threshold frequency, f0,
that below which, there will
be no photoelectrons
emitted.
2. Increasing the intensity of
light increases the number of
photoelectrons released.
3. Photoelectrons are released
instantaneously
73
1. All frequencies of light should
eventually be able to emit
photoelectrons
2. Increasing the intensity of
light increases the kinetic
energy of released
photoelectrons
3. Photoelectrons are released
with some time delay
Observations Predictions
THE PHOTON MODEL
To explain the photoelectric effect, Einstein modelled light as
discrete, quantised ‘packets’ of energy called photons.
The photon model was initial developed by Max Planck, who said
that light photons have energy given by the equations:
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 =ℎ𝑐
𝜆
…Where h is Planck’s constant, which is equal to 6.63 x 10-34 J s.
Einstein posited that there is some minimum amount of energy
which we now call the work function, 𝜙, that is required to release
an electron from a metal.
74
THE PHOTON MODEL
Einstein suggested that when a light photon
collides with an electron it transfers all of it’s
energy to the electron.
Hence, for the least bound electron,
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜙 + 𝐸𝑘 (max)
This relationship is normally written as
75
𝐸𝑘 (max) = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙
GRAPH OF MAX KE VS FREQUENCY
• KEmax is the vertical axes and f is
the horizontal axis
• -W (work function, 𝜙) is the ‘y-
intercept’ and f0 (threshold
frequency) is the ‘x-intercept’.
• h is the gradient of the line and
remains constant even for
different W and f0 values of
metals.
76
𝐸𝑘 (max) = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
OVERVIEW:
How can two contradictory models
explain both light and matter?
77
• Mechanical Waves
• Light as a Wave
• Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
• The Photoelectric Effect
• Wave-Particle Duality
• Light and Matter
SO WHAT IS LIGHT…?
Both! Light follows the principle of wave-particle duality - meaning it can behave as both a
particle AND as a wave.
78
THE WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
In 1909, G.I Taylor did an interesting experiment with interference
He repeated Young’s double-slit experiment with very dim source of light
This provided evidence for the dual nature of light
79
EVIDENCE FOR WAVE-PARTICLE
DUALITY
• An interference pattern still forms
on the screen – even if only one
photon is passed through the slits
at a time
• The shape of the pattern on the
screen is described by a
probability function
80
PARTICLE PROPERTIES OF A
PHOTON
• Many physicists believed that
since light has energy, that it
might also have a momentum
• Arthur Compton provided
evidence for this in 1923
• Monochromatic beam of X-rays
at a block of graphite
• Scattered X-ray photons of
greater wavelength than the
incident ray
81
PHOTON MOMENTUM
• Equation for the momentum of a photon
82
𝒑 =𝒉
𝝀
PHOTON MOMENTUM EXAMPLE
ExampleWhat is the momentum of X-ray photons with energy 3.68 keV?
83
SYMNETRY OF NATURE
• Famous physicist, Louis de Broglie
• Believed in the symmetry of
nature
• Came up with the idea of matter
waves; won the Nobel prize
84
PHOTON MOMENTUM
• Equation for the momentum of a photon
• De Broglie believed this was a general statement about
nature
• Derived equation for the wavelength of a “matter wave”
or a “de Broglie wave”
85
𝒑 =𝒉
𝝀
𝝀 =𝒉
𝒑=
𝒉
𝒎𝒗
DE BROGLIE WAVES FOR MATTER
For most everyday objects the De Broglie wavelength is much
too small to be noticeable.
Try the following examples:
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a 600 g basketball that
is thrown at 5 m s-1
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron travelling at
600 m s-1
86
DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH
• De Broglie was making a radical claim: that matter has
wave properties!
• Davisson and Germer validated de Broglie’s ideas with
experimental evidence
• They repeated an experiment similar to Young’s double-
slit experiment, except they used ELECTRONS instead
of photons.
• They found a diffraction pattern, suggesting that the
electrons had interfered
87
DIFFRACTION PATTERNS OF DE
BROGLIE WAVES
Recall that
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝𝜆
𝑤
88
INTERFERENCE PATTERNS OF DE
BROGLIE WAVES
• The two patterns will only be the same if the de Broglie
wavelength of the electron is the same as the wavelength of
the X-ray photon
• This is because the diffraction is related to 𝜆
𝑤 .Since w does not
change, the wavelength for both electrons and X-rays are the
same.
• Since 𝑝 =ℎ
𝜆 ,if the electron and the X-ray photon have the same
wavelength, they must also have the same momentum, p.
• However, just because the electrons and photons have the
same momentum does not mean they have the same energy.
89
DIFFRACTION PATTERNS EXAMPLE
ExampleFor the diffraction patterns shown below, suppose the electron has a mass of
9.1 × 10−31 kg and the X-rays have a frequency of 3.0 × 1018 Hz. Find the
energy in eV of the beam of electrons.
90
OVERVIEW:
How can two contradictory models
explain both light and matter?
91
• Mechanical Waves
• Light as a Wave
• Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
• The Photoelectric Effect
• Wave-Particle Duality
• Light and Matter
LINE EMISSION
92
LINE ABSORPTION
93
BOHR’S MODEL OF THE ATOM
• An electron moves in a circular orbit around the nucleus (the
electrostatic attraction of the nuclear (+) and the electron (-)
is the source of the centripetal force)
• There are only a certain number of allowable orbits at
different distance from the nucleus which are called n =
1,2,3…
94
BOHR’S MODEL OF THE ATOM
• Electrons do not emit energy (photons) when they are in one of these
allowable orbits and ordinarily occupy the lowest orbit available
(ground state)
• A photon absorbed has exactly the same energy as the increase
(change) in energy of an electron in its current orbit jumping to a
higher orbit
• A photon emitted has exactly the same energy as the decrease
(change) in energy of an electron in a higher orbit falling to a lower
orbit.
95
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS
96
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS
97
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS
98
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS
99
THE ISSUES WITH BOHR’S MODEL
OF THE ATOM
• Bohr’s model of the atom was a conceptual
breakthrough but it was limited.
• Bohr’s model was only adequate for predicting single-
electron atoms (a.k.a hydrogen or ionised helium)
100
DE BROGLIE’S MODEL
• To resolve the issues with Bohr’s model of the atom, de Broglie
proposed that the electrons orbiting the nucleus were matter
waves.
• De Broglie suggested that the matter wave could only be stable
if it formed a standing wave around the nucleus of the atom.
101
DE BROGLIE’S MODEL
• De Broglie suggested that the matter wave could only be stable
if it formed a standing wave around the nucleus of the atom.
• The only wavelengths that the electrons could ‘have’ were the
ones that fitted perfectly into the orbit.
102
DE BROGLIE’S MODEL IN 2D
103
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY
PRINCIPLE
Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle:
The more exactly we know
the position of a particle,
the less we know about
it’s momentum.
Conversely, the more we
know about it’s
momentum, the less we
know about it’s position
104
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY
PRINCIPLE
• Impossible to know both the position and the
momentum exactly
• The more accurate a measurement of position, the less
accurate the momentum measurement becomes
105
Δ𝑥Δ𝑝 ≥ℎ
4𝜋
106
THE ENDIf you have any questions from today, or you
feel like I didn’t cover a topic in enough detail
for you, don’t hesitate to ask me!
Alevine Magila
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