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THESES SIS/LIBRARY TELEPHONE: +61 2 6125 4631 R.G. MENZIES LIBRARY BUILDING NO:2 FACSIMILE: +61 2 6125 4063 THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY EMAIL: [email protected] CANBERRA ACT 0200 AUSTRALIA
USE OF THESES
This copy is supplied for purposes of private study and research only.
Passages from the thesis may not be copied or closely paraphrased without the
written consent of the author.
ARMENIAN MIGRATION, SETTLEMENT AND
ADJUSTMENT IN AUSTRALIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE ·
TO THE ARMENIANS IN SYDNEY
by
James Ray Kirkland
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in the Research School of Social Sciences of the·
Australian National University
March 1980
ii
This thesis is the original work of the author whilst a Research Scholar in the Department of Demography of the Research School of Social Sciences at the Australian National University from May 1976 to March 1980.
iii
Dedicated to my wife
KATIE
and my son
HAMISH
iv
ABSTRACT
Immigration to Australia has been very substantial since World War
II. Some of the more recent arrivals have come from the Middle East. The
Armenians are one such group, nine-tenths of whom have settled in Australia
since 1962. This thesis has been a study of this Armenian migration and
settlement in Australia with particular reference to their residential,
occupational, social and psychological adjustment since arrival.
Because the Armenians are a rare population on which very little
information - including any official statistics - was available, it was
necessary to undertake a social survey for the collection of data. The
Sydney Armenians, the largest population group in Australia, was selected
for this Survey to make it as representative as possible of the overall
Australian Armenian population.
Data collection was conducted in two stages - a postal questionnaire
"census" of all known Sydney Armenian households and a follow-up fieldwork
period of six months during which intensive interviews were conducted. In
all, a study population of 890 respondents was obtained, of whom 97 were
interviewed. The Armenian population of Sydney at the time of the Survey
was estimated at no more than 7,000 individuals, while a generous estimate of
the Australian Armenian population would have been no more than 10,000.
Although quite diverse and having originated in 43 different countries
at arrival in Australia they were for the most part urban dwellers of skilled
and white-collar occupations and with a fair amount of formal schooling
(considering their countries of origin). Moreover, most had acquired some
facility with the English language before arrival. These characteristics,
combined with the fact that most of the Armenian migration was of the nature
of family reunion or chain movement, have resulted in a very rapid adjustment
to life in Australia. Becoming satisfactorily adjusted in the various
spheres of life, however, does not mean these first generation immigrants
v
have tended to assimilate into Australian society. In fact, just the
opposite appears to have occurred. Rapid and successful adjustment,
characterized by the reestablishment to the greatest extent possible of
their overseas existence, has tended to serve as a barrier to assimilation
by not requiring them to change to become more like Australians. It is
unlikely therefore that the Sydney Armenians, as a group, will undergo
substantial assimilation until the second or subsequent generations.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish first to express my gratitude to my supervisors Dr. Charles
A. Price and Professor W.D. Borrie for their help and guidance during the
research and preparation of this thesis. I am also very grateful to
Dr. Lincoln Day of the Demography Department, the Australian National
University, for reading a number of my chapters and making many helpful
suggestions. Special thanks also go to Pat Mooney for turning my "ugly
. duckling" of a first draft into a "swan" - a monumental feat. Thanks also
go to Barbara Addison for helping with the first draft.
I also owe thanks to Dr. Anny Stuer who kindly helped proofread
my drafts and to my two office-mates Mr. J. Richard and Mr. G.L. Dasvarma
who managed to endure my presence through many trials and tr~bulations. I
would also like to thartk Mrs. Daphne Boucher for typing the final draft.
I owe my greatest debt to my wife Katie whose help and support
was unending.
Lastly, I want to express my gratitude to those Armenians in Sydney
who gave of their time and made this study possible.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
AUTHORSHIP STATEMENT ii
DEDICATION iii
ABSTRACT iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xiii
LIST OF FIGURES, MAPS AND DIAGRAMS xviii
CHAPTER I:
CHAPTER II:
INTRODUCTION
THE STUDY DESIGN
DATA COLLECTION
Other Data Collected
DATA ANALYSIS
ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS
ARMENIAN HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION
ANCIENT HISTORY: THE PRE-OTTOMAN PERIOD
The Moulding of a Distinct Armenian National
1
1
5
18
19
20
21
21
22
Identity 23
Religious Nationhood and Linguistic Identity 24
Armenian Movements During the Byzantine Period 26
MODERN HISTORY: THE OTTOMAN PERIOD 27
Historical Development of the Eastern Armenians 28
Historical Development of the Western Armenians 30
The Condition of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire 33
The Armenian "Awakening" 38
The "Armenian Question" and the Armenian Revolutionary Movement 40
Armenian Movements During the Ottoman Period 43
CHAPTER I II:
viii
RECENT HISTORY: THE POST-OTTOMAN PERIOD 45
The Pre-World War I Period (1909-1914) 45
Deportation and Massacre of the Turkish Armenians 47
The Turkish Armenian Population 50
Armenian Dispersions and Settlement 51
The Armenian Middle Eastern Diaspora and the Rise of Arab Nationalism: An Overview 54
ARMENIAN POPULATION ESTIMATES 57
ARMENIAN MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA 61
INTRODUCTION 61
ORIGINS OF THE ARMENIAN IMMIGRANTS 62
ESTIMATE OF AUSTRALIA'S ARMENIAN POPULATION IN 1976 62
THE FIRST MIGRATION PHASE: MIGRATION PRIOR TO WORLD WAR II 67
"The Pioneers": Migration Prior to World War I 67
The Inter-war Period
THE SECOND MIGRATION PHASE: POST-WORLD WAR II MIGRATION
General
THE EARLY POST-WAR PERIOD: 1945-1962
Migration from Southeast Asia: General
Migration from Indonesia
Migration from Other Southeast Asia Countries
Migration from China
Migration from the Middle East
Migration from Europe
POPULATION ESTIMATE OF ARMENIANS IN AUSTRALIA IN 1962
THE LATER PERIOD: 1963-1976
General
Migration from India
Migration from the Middle East: The SocioCultural Context
69
72
72
74
74
74
76
78
79
82
83
84
84
84
86
Migration from Egypt 88
Migration from the Levant Countries: General 96
CHAPTER IV:
ix
Migration from Syria
Migration from Lebanon
Migration from Jordan and Israel
Migration from Iraq
Migration from Other Arab Countries
Migration from the Non-Arab Middle East: General
Migration from Iran
Migration from Turkey
·Migration from Soviet Armenia
Migration from Other Regions
Migration from Europe and North America
Migration from Other Countries
OVERVIEW OF ARMENIAN MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA
Introduction
Motivation for Migration to Australia
Characteristics of the Migration and the Migrants
Migration Finance
Structure of the Migrating Unit
Permanent Settlement in Australia
Education and Occupations of the Migrants
Religion
Languages
THE NATURE OF ARMENIAN MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA: VOLUNTARY MIGRATION OR A REFUGEE MOVEMENT?
FUTURE ARMENIAN MIGRATION TO AUSTRALIA
SETTLEMENT AND RESIDENTIAL ADJUSTMENT IN SYDNEY
INTRODUCTION
SETTLEMENT IN SYDNEY: GENERAL
SETTLEMENT IN SYDNEY PRIOR TO 1963
SETTLEMENT IN SYDNEY: 1963-1976
96
100
103
105
107
109
109
112
114
117
117
. 118
118
118
119
131
131
133
133
135
137
137
138
139
141
141
148
150
151
ARMENIAN RESIDENTIAL CONCENTRATION AND SEGREGATION 161
RESETTLEMENT IN SYDNEY 170
Why Armenians Have Changed Residences 171
CHAPTER V:
CHAPTER VI:
The Selection of New Residences
FUTURE SETTLEMENT TRENDS AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
OCCUPATIONAL ADJUSTMENT
INTRODUCTION.AND DEFINITIONS
PRE-MIGRATION OCCUPATIONAL SITUATION
POST-MIGRATION OCCUPATIONAL SITUATION·.
Search for and Acquisition of Employment in Australia
Factors Affecting Occupations Entered in Australia
OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AND EMPLOYMENT STABILITY IN AUSTRALIA
OCCUPATIONAL STATUS CHANGE AND JOB SA!ISFACTION
WIVES' WORKFORCE PARTICIPATION
OCCUPATIONAL ADJUSTMENT: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Armenian Economic Assimilation in Sydney
MAINTENANCt: OF ARMENIAN IDENTITY AND Ji;THNICITY ·IN AUSTRALIA
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
THE BASIS FOR A UNIQUE ARMENIAN IDENTITY AND ITS PRESERVATION
FACTORS RELATING TO DIFFERENCES IN THE ETHNICITY OF SYDNEY ARMENIANS
MAINTENANCE OF ARMENIAN IDENTITY AND ETHNICITY IN AUSTRALIA: GENERAL
LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND LANGUAGE SHIFT AMONG THE SYDNEY ARMENIANS: GENERAL
Patterns of Language Use
Armenian Language Maintenance and Shift in Australia
Armenian Language Maintenance Outside the Family
INTERMARRIAGE: GENERAL
Background and Trends of Armenian Intermarriage
Characteristic of Those Who Intermarried
Patterns of Endogamous Marriages
Attitudes Towards Intermarriage
CHAPTER VII :
xi
THE MAINTENANCE OF ARMENIAN HISTORICAL AND ETHNIC CONSCIOUSNESS IN SYDNEY: THE POLITICAL CONTROVERSY AND THE STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL RELATIONS 292
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS 303.
SOCIAL PARTICIPATION AND SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT 306
INTRODUCTION 306
BACKGROUND FACTORS AFFECTING ARMENIAN SOCIAL PARTICIPATION IN AUSTRALIA 308
FRIENDSHIP PATTERNS IN AUSTRALIA 310
Selection of Intimate Friends in Sydney 310
The Nature of Intimate Friendships 312
Factors Affecting the Formation of Friendships with Australians 317
COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION: GENERAL 321
Community Participation of the Sydney Armenians 325
Armenian Membership in Formal Organizations in Sydney 330
Range and Frequency of Armenian Community Participation 336
The Non-Participators 342
CONCLUSIONS 344
CHAPTER VIII: PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT: SATISFACTION, IDENTIFICATION
CHAPTER IX:
AND ACCULTURATION 346
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
SATISFACTION: GENERAL
SATISFACTION OF THE SYDNEY ARMENIANS WITH LIFE IN
346
349
AUSTRALIA 350
IDENTIFICATION WITH AUSTRALIA 361
ACCULTURATION 373
The Armenian Family in Sydney 375
Measurement of Armenian Acculturation to Australia 384
PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT: CONCLUSIONS
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Factors Affecting Armenian Migration, Settlement and Adjustment in Australia
388
391
393
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I:
APPENDIX II:
xii
Theoretical and Met;hodological Implications of the Study 395
What the Future Holds 397
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS AND RELATED MATERIALS
A.l. Letter of Introduction from Demography Department Head to Leaders of Armenian
400
Organizations in Sydney 401
A.2. Letter of Introduction from Academic Registrar, Australian National University, to Members of Sydney Armenian Community 402
B.l. Cover Letter in English for Postal Questionnaires 403
B.2. Cover Letter in Armenian for Postal Questionnaires 404
B.3. Armenian Survey Postal Questionnaire 405
B.4, Follow-up Letter in Both English and Armenian to Postal Questionnaire. 412
C.l. Armenian Survey Interview Schedule 413
D.l. Armenian Associations/Organizations Questionnaire 454
E.l. Random Check on Non-Respondents 457
AUSTRALIAN IMMIGRATION: GENERAL 458
APPENDIX III: THE STRUCTURE OF THE ARMENIAN DASHNAK PARTY AND ITS SATELLITE ORGANIZATIONS 462
APPENDIX IV: SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES 465
APPENDIX V:
APPENDIX VI:
OTHER KINDS OF SOCIAL PARTICIPATION: NEIGHBOURHOOD PARTICIPATION, CHURCH ATTENDANCE AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
THE ACCULTURATION CONCEPT IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT STUDIES
APPENDIX VII: SELECTED ASPECTS OF THE OBJECTIVE OR EXTERNAL ACCULTURATION OF THE SYDNEY ARMENIANS
APPENDIX VIII: INDICES OF SATISFACTION, IDENTIFICATION AND ACCULTURATION FOR THE SYDNEY ARMENIANS
APPENDIX IX:
A.
B.
c.
INDEX OF SATISFACTION WITH LIFE IN AUSTRALIA
INDEX OF IDENTIFICATION WITH AUSTRALIA
INDEX OF ACCULTURATION
THE TRADITIONAL ARMENIAN FAMILY
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CITED AND SELECTED REFERENCES
470
477
482
504
504
508
512
514
518
No.
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.1
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5a
3.5b
3.6
3.7
3.8
·3. 9
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
xiii
LIST OFTABLES
Title
Completeness of Sections on Postal Questionnaire
Main Reasons Given for Refusing to Answer Postal Questionnaire
Chi Square Tests of Significance on the Distribution of the Interviewed Sample Compared in Selected Characteristics with the Distribution of the Overall Respondent Population
Armenian Populatton Estimates
Origins of the Australian Armenians
Causes of Armenian Emigration
Knowledge of Australia Before Deciding to Migrate
Motivation for Migration: Information Flows
Chain Migration and Family Reunion
Chain Migration and Family Reunion
Characteristics of the Migrants: Prior Mobility by Place of Birth
Characteristics of Armenian Migration to Australia
Characteristics of the Migrants: Age Structure, Conjugal Status and Life-Cycle Stage on Arrival by Last Country of Residence
Characteristics of the Migrants: Socio-Economic Status at Arrival by Country of Last Residence
Arrival in Australia
Index of Metropolitan Segregation Scores for Period of Residence Groups
Settlement Concentration by Country of Last Residence
Principal L.G.A. and Suburb of Settlement by Country Groups
4.5 Armenian Residential Mobility by Life-Cycle Stage on
4.6
4.7
4 .• 8
Arrival
Principal Reasons for Residential Changes in Sydney
Relationship of Occupational Mobility to Residential Mdbility
Residential Mobility by Length of Residence in Sydney
11
12
17
59-60
63
120
122-123
125
127
128
130
132
134
136
149
165
167
169
173
175
178
180
I
No.
4.9
4.10
4.11
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5. 20.
5.21
xiv
Title
Mobility in Sydney: Residential Moves Within Different Sized Areas of Sydney
Influence of Initial Residence on Range of Future Movements
Proportions of Country Groups Which Presently Reside in Major Area of First Residence
Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia: Financial Resources Available on Arrival
Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia: Region/Country of Origin
Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia: Period of Arrival in Australia
Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia: Assistance Received in Finding Work
Assistance in Finding First Job by Period of Arrival
Factors Affecting Time Spent Searching fcir First Job in Australia: Prior Occupational Experience
Influence of Pre-Migration Job Experience on Occupation Entered in Australia
Factors Affecting Jobs Entered in Australia
Factors Affecting Jobs Entered in Australia: Country of Last Residence
Occupational Distribution of .the Sydney Armenians: Pre-
183
184
187
201
203
204
205
205
206
208
210
212
Migration, First and Most Recent Jobs 214
Factors Related to Duration of First Job in Australia 217
Factors Related to Number of Jobs Held in Australia 219
Occupational Change by Country of Last Residence 220
Occupational Status Change of Armenian Immigrants 224-225
Occupational Status Change 226
Relationship of Country of Last Residence to Occupational Status Change 228
Occupational Status Change by Duration of Residence in Australia 229
Immigrants' Views of Their Occupational Status Change by Their Duration of Residence in Australia 231
Labour Force Participation of Armenian Wives by Duration of Residence in Australia 233
Armenian Wives Workforce Participation 235
Principal Reasons Wives Have Worked in Australia 237
No.
5.22
5.23
5.24
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7a
6.7b
6.8
6.9
7.1
XV
Title
Husbands' Attitudes Towards Their Wives Working
Occupational Distribution of Selected Ethnic Groups (Males) in Sydney, 1976
Occupational Dissimilarity of Selected Ethnic Groups (Males) in Sydney, 1976
Characteristics Associated with Level of Armenian Ethnicity
Intermarriage Among Respondents' Parents
Intermarriage Trends of Sydney Armenians
Intermarriage Trends by Year of Arrival in Australia
Intermarriage in Australia with British-Australians or Members of Other Ethnic Groups
Intermarriage Rates of Country Groups
Tendency to Marry In or Out of Own Birthplace Groups (Males)
Tendency to Marry In or Out of Own Birthplace Groups (Females)
Attitudes Towards Children Marrying Non-Armenians
Reasons Given for Wanting Children to Marry Within the Group-
Influence of Country Background on Friendship Patterns in Australia
7.2 Influence of Ethnic Origin on Friendship Patterns in
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
Australia
Stability of Armenian Friendship Patterns in Australia
Place Respondent First Encountered Intimate Friends
Frequency of Contact with Intimate Friends
Place Respondents and Intimate Friends Usually Meet
Attitudes Towards Friendships with Australians and Desire for More Personal Contact with Australians
Organizational Membership and Participation
Categories of Organizational Membership and Participation
Organizational Membership by Country of Last Residence
Organizational Membership by Duration of Residence
Influence of English Proficiency at Time of Arrival on Membership in Australian Organizations Today
Participation in Organizations by Region/Country of Last Residence
238
241
242
251
272
274
275
277
278
281
282
285
286
311
313
314
315
316
318
320
328
329
331
333
335
338
No.
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
xvi
Title Page
Participation Score by Duration of Residence in Australia 339
Influence of English Proficiency at Time of Arrival on Participation in Australian Organizations Today 339
Relation of Participation in Armenian and Australian Organizations 340
Influence of Regional Background on Patterns of Association in Australian Organizations 341
Satisfaction Level by Migration, Settlement and Life Situation Variables 356
Satisfaction Level by Personal Characteristics 358
Satisfaction Level by Country of Last Residence 359
Relationship of Satisfaction with Life in Australia and Identification with Australia 363
8.5 Relation of Personal Characteristics to Level of
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
Identification
Other Factors Assumed to Influence Identification
Level of Identification by Country of Last Residence
Comparison of the Armenian's Self-Identification and His Level of Identification with Australia
Reasons for Becoming Naturalized Australians
When Respondents Felt Their Children Should be Allowed to Make Their Own Decisions Without First Consulting Them
Decision-Making in the Armenian Family
Type of Authority Structure in the Armenian Family
Relationship of Selected Variables to Level of Acculturation
Relationship of Country of Origin to Level of Acculturation
365
366
367
370
372
378
381
383
386
387
No.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
V.l
VI.l
VII.l
VII.2
VII. 3
VII.4
VII.5
VII.6
VIII.l
VIII.2
VIII. 3
VIII.4
xvii
APPENDIX TABLES
Title Page
Country of· Last Residence by Employment Status Before Migration 466
Means By Which Respondent Found First Job in Australia 467
Reasons for Changing Jobs in Australia 468
Occupational Status Change After Arrival 469
Influence of Duration of Residence in Australia on Political Party Affiliation 476
Attempts to Separate Psychological and Non-Psychological Aspects of the Acculturation Process 480
Factors Related to Level of English Proficiency at Time of Arrival and at Survey 485-486
Changes in English Proficiency Between Arrival and Time of Armenian Survey 488
Factors Affecting the Degree of Improvement in English Language Proficiency 489
Reasons Given for Adopting English First Names in Australia 493
Reasons for Giving Australian-Born Children English Names 495
Perception of Changes in Leisure-Time Activities in Australia 502
Satisfaction Scores of Sydney Armenians 507
Index of Identification Indicators 509-510
Identification with Australia Index 511
Distribution of Index of Acculturation Scores 513
No.
3.1
3. 2 .
3.3
5.1
No.
4.1
4.2
4.3
No.
4.1
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES, MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
LIST OF FIGURES
Title
Post-War Armenian Immigration (Continuous Distribution Graph)
Arrival of Egyptian Armenians 1945-1976
Mode of Migration
Time Spent Searching for First Job in Australia
MAPS
Armenian Settlement Pattern in Sydney in 1962
Initial Residential Locations of Arrivals. 1963-1976
Residential Distribution of Armenian Respondents in 19·76
DIAGRAMS
Sequence of Typical Residential Change of Sydney Armenians
6.1 Political and Social Structure of the Sydney Armenian Community
III.! Structure of Armenian Dashnak Party
73
93
124
200
152
154
155
177
300
464