1

INTRODUCTION

GETTING THE BEST FROM ROSS BIRDS

The management practices and feeding recommendations in

this guide are designed to maximize the genetic potential, uniformity,

livability and hatchability of Ross parent stock during

rearing and laying. Figures and graphs are based on actual

flock results obtained under good environmental and management

conditions and should be regarded as achievable performance

objectives.

Performance can be substantially influenced by many factors,

including flock management, nutrition, health status and climatic

conditions. Like the figures and graphs, data in this

manual indicate levels of performance that can be achieved

under good management and environmental conditions.

Variations may occur for a number of reasons. For example,

feed consumption can be affected significantly by form of

feed, quality of feed ingredients, feed energy level and house

temperature. Again, data presented in this manual should be

regarded as achievable performance objectives rather than

specifications.

TECHNICAL SERVICE For further information on the management of Ross breeding

stock, please contact your local technical service manager or

the technical service department at 800-826-9685.

Ross Breeders, Inc.

Cummings Research Park

5015 Bradford Drive

Huntsville, Alabama 35805

Tel: 256-890-3800

Toll free: 800-826-9685

Fax: 256-890-3919

e-mail: info@rossbreeders.com

Web site: www.rossbreeders.com

USING THIS GUIDE This manual summarizes best management practices for Ross

male and female parent stock.

FINDING A TOPIC This guide is divided into sections based on the birds’ life

stages. These tabbed sections allow quick location of topics of

particular interest. A list of topics appears on the contents

page and on the appropriate tab section page. There is also an

alphabetical key word index at the back of the guide.

KEY POINTS Key points emphasizing important aspects of husbandry and

management techniques have been included at the beginning

of each subsection. Colored headings and check marks indicate

key points.

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES Specific performance objectives for each parent stock genotype

have been produced as separate inserts to allow for regular

updating. These supplements may be found in the pocket

at the rear of the guide. ©2000 Ross Breeders, Inc.

**Certain danger points have been given emphasis using this sign and bold text.

CONTENTS

SECTION 1 BREEDER PHYSIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT: 0 THROUGH 65 WEEKS Physiological Development

and Management by Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Measuring Body Weight and Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Uniformity Calculation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Feeding to Control Body Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Fleshing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

SECTION 2 BROODING AND REARING: 0 THROUGH 22 WEEKS Housing Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Brooding Area Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Feeders and Drinkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Housing Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Specific Management

Requirements for Males and Females . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Feeding to Control Body Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

0 Through 4 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

5 Through 15 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

16 Through 22 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Corrective Management Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Underweight at 1 Through 16 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Overweight at 1 Through 16 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Underweight at 16 Through 22 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Overweight at 16 Through 22 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

SECTION 3 LAYING: 22 THROUGH 65 WEEKS Housing Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Housing Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Separate Sex Feeding Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Male Management During Laying . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

22 Through 30 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

31 Through 65 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Female Management During Laying . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

22 Through 30 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

31 Through 65 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Egg Weight and Feed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Care of Hatching Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Nest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Egg Collection and Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Egg Cooling and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

CONTENTS

SECTION 4 BIOSECURITY AND NUTRITION Flock Health and Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

House Clean-out Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Biosecurity Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Disease Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Nutritional Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Nutritional Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Feed Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

SECTION 5 APPENDICES AND INDICES Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Appendix 1: Conversion Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Appendix 2: Available Supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Index of Diagrams and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Key Word Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

PHYSIOLOGICAL

DEVELOPMENT AND

MANAGEMENT BY PHASE

Ross breeding stock exhibits the same inherent rapid growth

and feed efficiency characteristics as its broiler generation.

Developing and continuing good management practices

throughout the flock’s lifecycle (0-65 weeks) will be essential to

achieve optimum performance, including proper body weight,

good flock uniformity and satisfactory physical condition.

During the rearing period, growing Ross breeding stock to the

target growth curve is required to allow males and females to

achieve optimum physiological development and uniformity in

preparation for the laying period.

During the laying period, it is essential to maintain the strict

monitoring programs begun during the rearing period to

achieve and extend optimum reproductive performance.

Diagram 1.1 illustrates key physiological development stages

for Ross broiler breeders. Diagram 1.2 indicates the most

important management practices coinciding with each stage

and leading to proper physiological development.

MEASURING BODY

WEIGHT AND UNIFORMITY

OBJECTIVE To accurately track body weights and assess flock uniformity to

determine feed allocation.

KEY POINTS 4 Use a scale accurate to 0.1 lb. (45 g). 4 Weigh birds weekly (at the same time of day) beginning

at three weeks of age.

4 Avoid leg damage by holding the birds by both wings during weighing. Never hold birds by one leg.

4 Record weights on a body weight recording chart and calculate average body weight and uniformity.

4 Transfer average body weight to the appropriate Ross Rearing/Breeding Program Supplement. Compare

average body weight with target body weight to

determine feed allocation.

4 Poor uniformity is one of the first indications of abnormal performance or health problems. Make management

practice changes based on differing flock uniformity.

4 Poor uniformity can often be attributed to inadequate feeder space and poor feed distribution.

SAMPLE WEIGHING A highly productive flock of breeding stock can only be

achieved by maintaining accurate measurements of body

weight and uniformity throughout the growth curve. Growth

and development within a flock are assessed and managed by

weighing representative samples of birds and comparing them

with target uniformity and body-weight standards.

Males and females must be weighed and body weights tracked

separately to manage their different rates of physiological

development. For this reason, Ross recommends keeping males

and females separate for feeding and management purposes

until mating (22 weeks). If this is not possible, it is essential

to maintain separation until at least six weeks of age.

If an electronic recording scale is not used, individual body

weights should be recorded on a body weight recording chart

(see Diagram 1.3) to calculate average body weight and flock

uniformity. The average body weight should then be transferred

from this chart to the graph provided in the most current

revision of the appropriate Ross Rearing/Breeding Program

Supplement. Chart the flock’s progress, comparing actual

averages to the targets on the graph. Make management adjustments

as needed. Check with your Ross technical service manager

on a regular basis for the most up-to-date supplements.

Up to three weeks of age (less than 21 days old), birds can be

weighed in bulk (10-20 birds at a time). From three to 65

weeks of age, randomly selected groups of 50-100 males and

females should be caught using catching frames and weighed

individually. It is essential that the entire group be weighed

to eliminate any selective bias. Any supplemental “spiking”

males added after the peak period must be weighed and

tracked separately from the original males. The total sample

must not be less than 1 percent of the female population

and 4 percent of the male population.

UNIFORMITY

CALCULATION METHODS

OBJECTIVE To accurately determine flock uniformity.

Achieving good flock uniformity is a major objective during

rearing. The uniformity of a flock is determined by mathematically

analyzing the variability of the weight of the individual

birds within that flock. There are two basic methods

for calculating the uniformity of a flock: the coefficient of

variation (CV%) method and the ±15% uniformity method.

The CV% method is recommended because it is a more

accurate determination of what percentage of the flock needs

special attention and management to prevent problems.

While there are several formulas for calculating CV%, the

same formula should be used consistently throughout the

rearing period, as different formulas can produce slightly different

numerical results. An electronic scale that automatically

calculates uniformity using the CV% method may be a wise

investment. If this is not possible, use the following steps to

calculate CV%.

CV% METHOD FOR UNIFORMITY CALCULATION Step 1 — Record Weights

Mark the weight of each individual bird on a body weight

recording chart (see Diagram 1.3).

Step 2 — Weight Range

Calculate the weight range of the flock by subtracting

the weight of the lightest bird from the weight of the

heaviest bird.

Heaviest bird weight - lightest bird weight

3.2 lbs. - 2.0 lbs. = 1.2 lbs.

Step 3 — Average Weight

Calculate the average bird weight by taking the total weight of

the birds weighed divided by the number of birds weighed.

Total weight/number weighed

130.7 lbs. / 50 = 2.6 lbs.

Step 4 — F Value for Sample Size

Use Table 1.1 to determine the appropriate F value given the

number of birds weighed (sample size).

50 = 4.5

Step 5

Plug the numbers from the above steps into the following

equation:

CV% = (Weight Range x 100) / (Average Weight x F Value)

CV% = (1.2 x 100) / (2.6 x 4.5)

CV% = 120 / 11.7

CV% = 10.26 = 10 = Good

Step 6

Compare your CV% with the values in Table 1.2. If your

CV% is not good, take corrective actions. Depending on

the situation, these actions can include changing feeding

amounts, frequency/distribution of feeding, feeder and

drinker space, square footage per bird, ration changes, disease

diagnosis and treatment, etc. Corrective actions should be

discussed with your Ross technical service manager and a

continuing monitoring program should be established. Table 1.1

If you prefer not to use the CV% method to calculate uniformity,

we recommend using the ±15% uniformity method. The

following steps will assist you in using this method.

±15% METHOD FOR UNIFORMITY CALCULATION Step 1

Mark the weight of each individual bird on a body weight

recording chart (see Diagram 1.3).

Step 2

Calculate the average bird weight by taking the total weight of

the birds weighed divided by the number of birds weighed.

Total weight/number weighed

130.7 / 50 = 2.6

Step 3

Multiply average bird weight by 0.85.

2.6 lbs. x 0.85 = 2.2 lbs.

Step 4

Multiply average bird weight by 1.15.

2.6 lbs. x 1.15 = 3.0 lbs.

Step 5

Total the quantity of bird body weights that fall between the

result of step 3 (average bird weight x 0.85) and the results of

step 4 (average bird weight x 1.15).

45

Step 6

Divide the result of step 5 by the total number of birds

weighed.

45 / 50 = 90% uniformity

Step 7

Compare your ±15% with the value in Table 1.2. If your

±15% is not good, take corrective actions. Depending on the

situation, these actions can include changing feeding

amounts, frequency/distribution of feeding, feeder and

drinker space, square footage per bird, ration changes, disease

diagnosis and treatment, etc. Corrective actions should be

discussed with your Ross Breeders technical service manager

and a continuing monitoring program should be established.

Once calculations for uniformity have been determined, compare

the shape of the curve on the body weight recording

chart to Diagram 1.4.

Diagram 1.4a depicts the optimum condition. At one day of

age, typical flocks will have a normal (bell-shaped) distribution

curve (CV% = <11 and >80% uniformity under the

curve). Over time, individual birds within the flock respond

differently to the environment, vaccination, disease, management

conditions, competition for feed, available feeder and

drinker space, etc. These different responses create changes in

the flock’s uniformity curve.

Diagram 1.4b depicts a flock in which an increasing number

of small birds has produced a skewed weight distribution

(CV% = 11-14 and 70-80% uniformity under the curve).

Reasons for this skewed distribution can include: poor chick

quality, poor feed distribution, poor feed quality, inadequate

temperature, inadequate humidity, disease, improper vaccination

and/or improper beak trimming.

The reduced competitiveness of small birds can lead, over

time, to an increase in heavy birds, which then creates a more

flattened distribution curve with less uniformity (CV% >14

and <70% uniformity), shown by the curve in Diagram 1.4c. Table 1.

FEEDING TO

CONTROL BODY WEIGHT

OBJECTIVE To control the development of breeding stock throughout

their life cycle, using feed allocation, so that target body

weights, uniformity, coordinated sexual maturity and maximum

reproductive performance is achieved, both within and

between sexes.

KEY POINTS 4 Both overfeeding and underfeeding during specific phases of the life cycle can have a negative impact on breeding

stock performance.

4 All decisions on feed allowance must be based on flock average body weight in relation to target body weight.

Use the feeding program only as a guide.

4 Do not overreact. Before making a drastic change in the feeding program, take another sample weight to validate

the data.

4 In flocks of mixed sex, use the female body weight in relation to target weight to determine overall feed levels.

4 Adequate feeder and drinker space must be provided during the entire life of the flock (see Feeders and

Drinkers, pages 19–20).

4 Good feed distribution is essential to uniformity. Feeding equipment should be capable of distributing feed to entire

population within 4-6 minutes.

4 Accurate feed weighing equipment is essential for calculating feed allowance.

4 Daily feed allocation per bird must be recorded to monitor feed consumption.

FLESHING PROCEDURES

OBJECTIVE To ensure consistent flock performance throughout reproductive

life cycle by monitoring fleshing development visually

and manually.

KEY POINTS 4 Fleshing evaluations need to be conducted on both the males and females during three critical phases of life cycle:

16-22 weeks of age, 30-40 weeks of age and 40-65 weeks

of age.

4 Overfleshed and underfleshed females typically achieve lower peaks and fail to produce total egg numbers equal

to that of an ideally fleshed flock.

4 Overfleshed males will have reduced mating activity, which in turn will impact fertility, as well as a higher

incidence of leg problems.

The best opportunity for evaluating the degree of fleshing in

birds is when they are being handled for their weekly weighing.

Make general observations of bird condition prior to capture.

During movement to or from the scale, flesh individual

birds by running your free hand up the length of each bird’s

breast, from crop to thigh. A subjective score of over, under

or ideal can be assigned to each bird and then averaged for

the entire flock. Diagram 1.5 illustrates typical characteristics

of underfleshed, normally fleshed and overfleshed birds.

High levels of performance in the laying period depend on

achieving high standards of management in the early stages of

the birds’ lives. The following section details management

recommendations to ensure an adequate growth progression

from day old through seven days, to achieve target body

weight by 2-4 weeks, and to ensure a smooth growth curve

and flock uniformity is maintained through 22 weeks.

HOUSING

RECOMMENDATIONS

Biosecurity is critical to the well-being of breeder flocks. A

basic biosecurity program should address all-in, all-out placement

and rearing different-aged flocks separately, as well as

visitor guidelines and pest control (see Biosecurity

Recommendations, page 49).

The objective of housing is to provide a protective environment

in which feed, water, temperature, humidity, day length

and light intensity can be controlled at the optimum level for

good rearing performance and subsequent laying performance.

These practices also promote good health and welfare.

The technical specifications of the housing system must be

defined so birds are maintained under appropriate environmental

conditions, taking into account welfare, performance

targets, materials available, financial constraints, and ease and

effectiveness of environmental control.

BROODING AREA SETUP

OBJECTIVE To provide the optimum environment for the establishment of

a uniform, healthy flock.

KEY POINTS 4 Prepare, clean out and disinfect houses and equipment 2 weeks before chick placement.

4 Ensure house reaches adequate floor temperature (see Table 2.6) and proper air quality 24 hours before chicks

arrive. Once chicks are placed, check temperatures at

chick level.

4 Chicks must have immediate and easy access to both feed and water.

4 Stocking density should be two square feet per bird at one day of age.

Preparing for the new flock begins right after the old flock is

moved. Houses and equipment must be completely cleaned,

disinfected (see House Clean-out Procedures, page 47) and

set up in time for the brooders to be started and temperatures

to reach the desired level 24 hours before the chicks arrive

(see Temperature, page 20). If sufficient time for floor temperature

to reach house temperature is not allowed, chicks may become chilled.

A minimum of four inches (10 cm) of good quality litter

should be placed evenly throughout the house. Drinker

height should be adjusted in response to litter depth.

A typical brooder layout for 500-600 day-old chicks is shown

in Diagram 2.1. Brooding down the center of the house is

most likely to achieve uniform heat distribution. This principle

applies to both radiant and hot air systems.

A stocking density of two square feet per bird, at one day of

age, is one of the most crucial factors in producing a healthy

and uniform flock. At this density, the recommended number

of feeders and drinkers can be installed for the remainder of

the rearing period, allowing the flock to be fed and watered

evenly for better uniformity.

Brooder guards may be used to control early chick movement.

Guards may be placed around each stove or run the

length of the house. Remove the brooder guards after the seventh

day.

WARNING During brooding, extra drinkers, e.g., easy fills, and feeder

lids are required. When using open track feeder chains, provide

a minimum of two inches of feeder space per chick

placed. For pan-type feeder systems, allow one pan per 20

chicks, in addition to feeder lids. Supplementary feeders

should be gradually removed from days 7-10 (see Table 2.2)

Drinkers should be positioned strategically to ensure that

chicks do not have to travel more than three feet for access to

water in the first 24 hours. At brooding temperatures, bacteria

can multiply rapidly in open water, so water should be

kept clean and fresh. Supplementary drinkers should be

removed gradually from days 3-5.

LIGHTING

OBJECTIVE To utilize birds’ response to day length and light intensity,

which optimizes sexual maturity and subsequent reproductive

performance.

KEY POINTS 4 Flock management is more successful when controlled environment or blackout housing is used during the

rearing period.

4 In blackout houses, ensure that houses are light-proof during dark periods and rear birds from 22 days to

22 weeks on an intensity of approximately 0.5-1.0 f-c

(~5-10 lux) at bird level.

4 It is critical that the meter used to measure light intensity is properly calibrated for the specific type of lighting being

used, i.e., sodium, fluorescent or incandescent. Consult a

lighting expert to make sure that the meter you are using

is accurate for your specific situation.

4 Maximize response to increases in day length and light intensity by achieving the correct rearing body weight and

fleshing profile, good flock uniformity and appropriate

nutritional input.

4 Ensure males and females are synchronized in terms of sexual maturity by rearing them on the same lighting

program.

4 Do not pre-light males or females. Poor uniformity of sexual development will occur if photo-stimulation

is attempted prior to achieving proper body size (see

Table 2.1).

The difference in day length and light intensity between the

rearing and laying environment controls and stimulates ovarian

and testicular development. The birds’ response to increases

in day length and light intensity is dependent on achieving

the correct rearing body weight and fleshing profile, good

flock uniformity and appropriate nutritional input.

Improper lighting programs can result in over- stimulation or understimulation of the flock, reproductive disease problems and increased mortality. CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT/ BLACKOUT REARING TO OPEN HOUSE LAYING Controlled environment (blackout) housing has advantages

over open-sided housing, especially during rearing, since it

limits variation due to environmental influences, facilitates

control of maturity and body weight and assists in the production

of uniform flocks.

Blackout housing during rearing permits greater control over

day length, while allowing the use of open-sided housing

during lay. Control of lighting in rearing also resolves production

problems associated with out-of-season flocks, i.e., delay

in egg production, high female body weight and high feed

consumption.

During the light period, light should be evenly distributed

throughout the house and the intensity should be controllable,

especially in the rearing period. Light intensity during

the light period should never be less than 0.5 f-c (5 lux).

Accurate measurements of light intensity require the use of a

light meter.

The lighting program shown in Table 2.1, assuming birds are

at the correct body weight-for-age, have proper fleshing and

have good uniformity, will decrease the frequency of erratic

ovulation, egg yolk peritonitis, abnormal eggs, prolapse of

the oviduct and broodiness. The right balance between light

stimulation and physical development will result in better

livability from the onset of egg production and optimum

performance per hen housed.

FEEDERS AND DRINKERS

OBJECTIVE To provide the correct equipment and spacing for the birds to

receive the proper quality and quantity of feed and water

throughout the rearing period.

KEY POINTS 4 Ensure feeding equipment is capable of distributing feed to the entire flock within 4-6 minutes.

4 Use accurate feed weighing equipment. 4 Determine correct feeder space in correlation with the age and weight of birds (see Table 2.2).

4 Provide potable water that is clear with no organic or suspended matter. Where bacterial counts are high, the

cause should be established and corrected as soon

as possible.

4 Record water consumption on a daily basis to assist in monitoring management conditions.

4 Maintain a reserve supply of water in case of emergency.

FEEDING SPACE Proper nutritional management depends on feeder space

as well as feed distribution time. Feeding space per bird is

determined by bird size and will increase as the bird becomes

older (see Table 2.2). Good feed distribution will allow all

birds to have access to feed within 4-6 minutes.

WATER CONSUMPTION Potable water must be available at the bird drinking level 30

minutes prior to feeding and up to one hour after feed is consumed.

During off-feed days, water should be available one

hour in the morning and one hour in the afternoon, adjusted

to seasonal demands and litter conditions. Recommended

drinker space is outlined in Table 2.3.

Drinker requirements are influenced by the surrounding temperature;

every 1.8°F (1°C) rise in ambient temperature over

70°F (21°C) will increase water requirement by 6.5 percent.

Water should be delivered to breeding stock at a temperature

of 50-54°F (10-12°C). Very cold (<40º F [4º C]) or very

warm (>80°F [27°C]) water will reduce intake. In hot

weather, flushing the water lines ensures that the water

is as cool as possible.

Water should be monitored to assure it is clear with no

organic or suspended matter, and free of pathogens. In particular,

water should be free from Pseudomonas, Salmonella and

E. coli. Consecutive samples must not contain coliforms in

more than 5 percent of samples and have no more than one

coliform/mL in any one sample. Additional water quality

standards are given in Table 2.4. These are unlikely to be

exceeded if water comes from a main supply. Water from

wells, however, may have excessive nitrate levels and high

bacterial counts due to run-off from fertilized fields.

FEMALES

Age Feeding Space

Feeder Lids Chain Feeder Pan Feeder

1-10 Days 1 Lid/100 Birds 3.0" (5 cm)/Bird 1

Pan/20 Birds

10 days-4 Weeks 3.0" (5 cm)/Bird 1 Pan/20

Birds

5-Depletion 6.0" (15 cm)/Bird 1 Pan/10 Birds MALES

Age Feeding Space

Feeder Lids Chain Feeder Pan Feeder

1-10 Days 1 Lid/100 Birds 3.5" (7.5 cm)/Bird 1

Pan/20 Birds

10 days-4 Weeks 3.5" (7.5 cm)/Bird 1 Pan/20

Birds

5-Depletion 7.5" (19 cm)/Bird 1 Pan/8 Birds

19

DRINKER SPACE DURING REARING & PRODUCTION

Automatic Circular (Bell) Drinkers 1/80 Birds

Nipples 1/10 Birds

Cups 1/25 Birds

WAR Overconsumption of feed (especially during weeks 6-22) can lead to crop impaction and death from suffocation due to the pressure exerted on the bird’s trachea. If crop impaction problems occur, consider modifying the feed restriction program, e.g., change from every other day to 5/2 feeding. Always ensure water is available prior to feeding.

Where bacterial counts are high, the cause should be

established and corrected as soon as possible. Chlorination

administered between 1 and 3 ppm chlorine at the drinker

level, ultraviolet light or ozonation can be fully effective

corrections. Manufacturers’ guidelines should be followed

in establishing these procedures.

Hard water or water with high levels of iron (>3 mg/L) can

cause blockages in drinker valves and pipes. Sediment will

also block pipes; water should be filtered using a 40-50

micron (µm) filter where this is a problem.

The pattern of water consumption is an extremely useful indicator

of flock health and physiological condition. Water consumption

should be recorded on a daily basis to assist in

monitoring management conditions (see Table 2.5 for average

water consumption levels).

HOUSING ENVIRONMENT

OBJECTIVE To maintain the optimum environment for uniform chick

growth.

KEY POINTS 4 Exploit natural features such as topography and prevailing winds to minimize entry of direct sunlight and for

optimum ventilation or cooling.

4 Maintain and adjust temperature according to schedule throughout the rearing period.

4 Provide proper ventilation to maintain good air quality during rearing. Chicks kept in very dry, dusty houses are

more susceptible to dehydration and respiratory problems

(see Ventilation, page 21).

TEMPERATURE Initial floor temperature of 90°F (32°C), measured on the

litter at the edge of the brooder, should be reached in the

rearing house at least 24 hours before chicks are scheduled

to arrive. Recording thermometers should be placed at bird

height throughout the house to validate automated systems.

The temperature should be reduced according to the

schedule in Table 2.6 until the final floor temperature of 70°

F (21°C) is achieved.

Chick behavior is an important indicator of proper

temperature (see Diagram 2.4)

Table 2.4

MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE LEVELS OF

MINERALS AND BACTERIA IN DRINKING WATER

Total Dissolved Solids 300-500 ppm

Chloride 200 mg/L

pH 6-8

Nitrates 45 ppm

Sulphates 200 ppm

Iron 1 mg/L

Calcium 75 mg/L

Copper 0.05 mg/L

Magnesium 30 mg/L

Manganese 0.05 mg/L

Zinc 5 mg/L

Fluoride 0.06 mg/L

Mercury 0.002 mg/L

Lead 0.05 mg/L

Fecal Coliforms 0 Table 2.5

AVERAGE DAILY WATER CONSUMPTION/1,000 PULLETS

AT AVERAGE DAYTIME HOUSE TEMPERATURE

50°F (10ºC) 70°F (21ºC) 90°F (32ºC) 100°F (38ºC)

AGE IN WEEKS gal. gal. gal. gal.

2 15 18 30 36

4 20 25 42 51

6 23 28 47 57

8 26 32 53 64

10 29 35 59 72

12 32 39 65 79

14 35 43 72 87

16 38 47 79 95

18 42 52 86 104

20 45 56 94 113

22 49 61 102 123

24 53 66 109 133 Adapted from: North, M.O. and Bell, D.D., 1990. Commercial Chicken Production

Manual,

Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, New York.

Table 2.6

TEMPERATURE GUIDE

AGE TEMPERATURE FLOOR

AT EDGE OF TEMPERATURE

BROODER 2" (5cm) AT EDGE OF

ABOVE LITTER BROODER ON LITTER

Week 1 95ºF (35ºC) 90ºF (32ºC)

Week 2 90ºF (32ºC) 85ºF (29ºC)

Week 3 85ºF (29ºC) 80ºF (27ºC)

Week 4 80ºF (27ºC) 75ºF (24ºC)

Week 5 75ºF (24ºC) 70ºF (21ºC)

Week 6 70ºF (21ºC) 70ºF (21ºC)

WARNING In most areas, closed houses will require a cooling system

during times of high ambient temperature to lower the house

temperature. Evaporative cooling systems (see Table 2.7 and

Diagram 2.2) are often employed when temperatures exceed

80° F (27°C) to help maintain the birds at temperatures within

the range of 75-85°F (24-29°C). The effectiveness of these

systems depends on relative humidity.

Good insulation can also assist in preventing fluctuation of

house temperature. Effective insulation is provided by six

inches (15 cm) of fiberglass (R-value of 19).

VENTILATION Poor air quality due to inadequate ventilation may cause

damage to the lungs and cardiovascular system, making the

birds more susceptible to disease. The ventilation system

must be capable of supplying adequate fresh air and removing

gaseous byproducts produced by the chicks and/or the

heating systems. It is a good practice to establish a system of

minimum ventilation during brooding.

The ventilation system will also contribute to temperature

and humidity control, especially in warm conditions and

should provide an environment that is uniform and draft-free

at bird level. Houses should be equipped with a minimum

(winter) ventilation system, as well as a maximum (summer)

system, including fans on timers and thermostats that meet

the minimum air exchange rate of one volume of building air

per 45-60 seconds.

A minimum realtive humidity of approximately 50% is

recommended. For more information on proper ventilation,

relative humidity, and temperature control, please contact

your local Ross technical service manager.

Do not chill chicks at any time. Table 2.7

EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEMS IN COMMON USE

COOLING SYSTEM

High Pressure

Fogging System

Cooling Pads DESCRIPTION

Water is forced at high pressure

(100-200 psi) through a nozzle to

cause a mist (droplet sizes ²30

microns may cause wet litter)

Air is drawn through a water-soaked

pad by tunnel ventilation

(see Diagram 2.2).

SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT

REQUIREMENTS FOR

MALES AND FEMALES

Two critical objectives during brooding and rearing are to

produce flocks that meet the average target body weight and

have good uniformity (see Measuring Body Weight and

Uniformity, page 7–13). Although the principles used to

obtain these goals and manage males and females are generally

the same, it is critical that males and females be weighed,

tracked and managed separately during the entire brooding

and rearing phase (0-22 weeks) to manage their differing

rates of physiological development.

FEEDING TO

CONTROL BODY WEIGHT

OBJECTIVE To control the development of breeding stock throughout the

brooding and rearing phase using feed allocation, so that target

body weights, uniformity, coordinated sexual maturity and

maximum reproductive performance are achieved within and

between sexes.

KEY POINTS 4 Weigh birds on a weekly basis (see Sample Weighing,

page 7) beginning at three weeks.

4 All decisions on feed allowance must be based on flock average body weight in relation to target body weight.

Use the feeding program only as a guide.

4 In flocks of mixed sex, use the female body weight in relation to target weight to determine overall feed levels.

4 Feed allocations can either be maintained or increased, but must never be decreased during this phase.

4 Provide adequate feeding space during the rearing period (see Table 2.2, page 19).

4 Good feed distribution is absolutely essential. Feeding equipment should be capable of distributing feed to entire

population within 4-6 minutes.

Up to three weeks of age (less than 21 days old), birds can be

weighed in bulk (10-20 birds at a time). The total sample must

not be less than 1 percent of the female flock and 4 percent of

the male flock. From three to 22 weeks of age, randomly

selected groups of 50-100 birds per house should be caught

using catching frames and weighed individually. It is essential

that the entire group be weighed to eliminate any selective bias.

The Ross body weight targets in the early stages of rearing can

only be achieved by ad libitum feeding of a good quality ration

from one day of age. Feed intakes should be recorded from day

one, so that a smooth transition can be achieved from ad libitum

to the controlled feeding program seen in the appropriate Feeding Program Summary Supplement.

Ideally, birds should be fed every day for the entire rearing

period; however, it is impossible to maintain the appropriate

growth curve in that manner. Females should be provided with

full feed every day from one to 21 days (3 weeks) of age or

until consumption time is 4-5 hours. Under no circumstance

should males be removed from full feed before 21 days

(3 weeks).

In situations where the volume of the feed recommended is too

small to achieve uniform feed distribution throughout the feeder

system, follow a feeding schedule that delivers two days

allotment at once, i.e., feed both day one and day two rations

on day one. The most frequently used feeding schedules are

shown in Table 2.8. When using medication in rations, assure

that each bird’s daily intake of feed provides the specified

amount.

The feeding programs discussed in the Ross Male/Female

Feeding Program Supplements are only a guide to help

indicate the amount of feed required. Any changes to

quantities of feed required should be calculated using the

amount of feed currently allocated and the deviation from

target body weight curves. Also, external stresses such as

vaccination should be taken into consideration when

figuring feed increases.

BROODING AND REARING

FROM 0 THROUGH 4 WEEKS OBJECTIVES To achieve the successful establishment of the flock from day

one, develop good appetite, promote feather growth and minimize

7-day mortality.

To ensure good early development of skeletal, immune, and

cardiovascular systems, and to obtain the best possible flock

uniformity. Table 2.8

EXAMPLES OF FEEDING FREQUENCIES

FREQUENCY SCHEDULE

Mon Tue Wed Thur Fri Sat Sun

Every day F F F F F F F

6 and 1 F F F F F F 0

5 and 2 F F F 0 F F 0

4 and 3 F F 0 F 0 F 0

Skip-a-day 0 F 0 F 0 F 0 F=Feed Day 0=Non-feed Day

KEY POINTS 4 Separate sex rearing is recommended for the entire rearing period (0-22 weeks), but is absolutely essential until six

weeks of age to promote maximum health and

productivity of males and females.

4 Ensure chicks have immediate access to fresh water and feed. Check and adjust feeders and drinkers at least twice

a day.

4 Check chicks at regular intervals throughout the day. Use chick behavior and vocalization as an indicator of

satisfactory brooding environment.

4 Birds should be on or over target body weight by 7-14 days (see appropriate Ross Rearing/Breeding Program

Supplement).

CHICK PROCESSING Trimming the comb (dubbing) of male chicks is optional. In

our experience, leaving the male’s comb intact facilitates earlier

and more effective separate sex feeding and body weight

control. Therefore, it is not recommended to dub males.

To prevent damage to the female at mating, it is generally

advisable to trim the rear toe (dew claw) on each foot of the

male chick (only one toe per foot) and to cauterize the

wound at the hatchery.

Beak trimming of both males and females is recommended to

prevent cannibalism. It is essential that only properly trained

staff, using the correct equipment, be employed for beak

trimming. Because beak trimming can be most accurately

performed at 6-7 days of age, it is recommended that it be

done during this age period. The objective is to cauterize the

upper and lower beak in a single action, removing the least

amount of beak and minimizing immediate and future stress

on the chicks. It is necessary to make the cut square (see

Diagram 2.3) to avoid uneven growth and beak deformity in

later life. To reduce the possibility of infection, great care

must be taken to ensure proper cauterization during these

procedures.

Providing a vitamin supplement in the drinking water, for a

short period both before and after the beak trimming

procedure,

can assist in the healing process.

CHICK PLACEMENT Historically, it was acceptable to practice mixed rearing of

males and females; however, with modern high-yield birds

such as Ross parent stock, there is a greater difference

between the sexes and their ability to compete for feed.

For this reason, male and female breeding stock should

be reared and managed separately from day old until

mating (22 weeks).

Mixed rearing of the sexes, although it can be successful,

often produces poor results. Mixed rearing does not allow the

growth and uniformity of males and females to be controlled

separately, lowering the maximum potential for egg production

and hatchability.

If it becomes necessary to mix the sexes early, this should

never be done before six weeks of age, so that males achieve

the correct body weight and skeletal development.

Great care must be taken in allocating equal numbers of

chicks to each brooder area. Chicks must be placed in the

brooding area immediately upon arrival. Full chick boxes

should never be stacked in the brooder house and empty

chick boxes should be removed from the building as soon as

possible.

Upon placement in the brooding ring, the chicks will require

fresh drinking water and feed. Small amounts of feed should

be given frequently (3-4 times per day) to encourage eating.

Monitor the number of chicks with full crops to gauge early

appetite development. By three days of age, 100 percent of

the chicks should have full crops.

MONITORING CHICK PROGRESS Chick behavior must be continuously and carefully observed

during the brooding period, as this is the best indicator of the

correct environmental conditions. Excessive vocalization

(chick noise) is a sign of incorrect environmental conditions

such as temperature, relative humidity, ventilation, etc.

Uneven chick distribution is also a sign of incorrect environment

and adjustment should be

made as indicated in Diagram

2.4

Temperature too low Chicks crowd to brooder

Chicks noisy, distress-calling

Drafty This distribution requires investigation.

Influenced by draft, uneven light

distribution, external noises, etc.

Temperature too high Chicks make no noise

Chicks pant, head and wings droop

Chicks away from brooder

Temperature correct Chicks evenly spread

Noise level signifies contentment

For best performance, birds should be on target body weight

by 7-14 days. Flocks that fail to achieve target body weights

tend to gradually lose uniformity. Corrective action taken

at this stage will assist in preventing consequences of poor

uniformity and poor development of essential physiological

functions at later stages (see Corrective Management Action,

page 26).

Flock uniformity can be improved by providing frequent

small increases in feed allowances, rather than by making

larger changes once a week, e.g., go from 10 lbs./100 to

10.25 lbs./100 to 10.5 lbs./100 every feed day. If body weight

exceeds targets, feed allowances can be maintained for an

extended amount of time, but they should never be reduced.

REARING FROM

5 THROUGH 15 WEEKS To bring the entire flock to standard body weight-for-age

prior to 10 weeks and maintain the appropriate growth profile

and flock uniformity throughout the period, in preparation

for the transition to sexual maturity.

KEY POINTS 4 Ensure that birds achieve weekly body weight targets (see appropriate Ross Breeding/Rearing Program

Supplement).

4 Use small but regular feed increases to promote good early uniformity (see appropriate Feeding Program Summary

Supplement).

The period from 5-15 weeks is one of rapid growth and

development for breeding stock. Good control of body weight

gain using increasing quantities of feed is essential. During

this stage, small changes in the quantity of feed consumed

can have a big impact on body weight. Therefore, monitoring

body weight is very important. Sample weighing should be

continued on a weekly basis (see Sample Weighing, page 7).

If growth during the period from 10-15 weeks does not

respond to changes in the quantity of feed provided, small,

frequent increases in feed quantity may be necessary (0.2-0.4

lb./100/day) to ensure target body weights are achieved.

The period from 6-10 weeks is critical for the males’ skeletal

development (i.e., muscle/tendon, ligaments and skeletal

bones). Any deviation from the target growth profile may

cause subsequent problems in the livability and performance

of males. Stress or interruption in growth over this period

will also affect growth of the testes and reduce subsequent

fertility. Males are more responsive to stimulation (i.e.,

lighting and body weight gain) for sexual development

than females.

REARING FROM

16 THROUGH 22 WEEKS OBJECTIVE To prepare males and females for the physiological demands

of sexual maturity and minimize the variation in sexual maturity

and body weight both within and between sexes.

KEY POINTS 4 Ensure the body weight of the flock follows the target profile, with increasing weekly weight gains through to

sexual maturity, preventing deviation of body weight from

target, particularly beyond 19 weeks.

4 If the flock’s average body weight deviates from the target body weight line by more than 10 percent, consider

redrawing the target body weight line (see Corrective

Management Action, page 28).

4 Provide birds (male and female) with a feed increase of about 27 percent during this period to ensure the correct

increase in growth.

4 Fleshing must be examined on a regular basis (see Fleshing Procedures, page 13).

4 Incremental increases in body weight and development should be used as indicators of flock progress.

4 Development of secondary sexual characteristics (wattles, comb, feathering, etc.) should be observed

at 22 weeks.

4 Follow recommended lighting program (see Lighting, page 18)

MANAGEMENT OF MALES The recommendations and observations made for female

management during this period are equally relevant to the

male population.

From 16 weeks until the time of mating, the objective should be

to follow the target body weight profile bringing the males to

uniform and coordinated sexual maturity at the same time as

the females. Uniformity of sexual maturity is more likely to be

disrupted in the period of 16-22 weeks if body weight gain and

flock uniformity do not follow the recommended target body

weight profile.

MANAGEMENT OF FEMALES The period from 16-22 weeks is crucial in influencing onset of

production, fertility, early egg size, yield of hatching eggs, pre-peak

feed requirements and potential peak production levels.

During this period, increasing quantities of feed are used to

accelerate growth and achieve the weekly incremental weight

gain without reducing uniformity. These increases in feed are

given regardless of body weight. The resulting increase in

body weight promotes the physiological changes leading

to sexual maturity.

Prior to 16 weeks, weekly feed allowance can be either maintained

or increased. However, from 16 weeks on, weekly feed

allowance is always increasing, usually by 7-10 percent. Note

and compensate for energy changes between rations.

At 16 weeks, the production manager must compare current

body weight with target body weight and may need to redraw

the curve parallel to the target line through to 30 weeks. The

weekly incremental body weight increases will ensure the

smooth physiological transition up to sexual maturity (23–24

weeks) and through to physical maturity at around 30 weeks

(see Corrective Management Action, page 28).

It is common practice to move birds from pullet houses to

separate facilities for laying. The optimum time for the move

is 22 weeks, when the flock is well-established on its transition

toward sexual maturity. Consideration should be given to the

timing of the move and the associated increased feed requirements

to safeguard the continued smooth transition to sexual

maturity. Flock uniformity can be lost quickly if feed space is

restricted below recommendations in Table 2.2. An increase in

feed quantity on the day before and the day after the move will

help to compensate for the stress of the move.

Careful attention to lighting, in both day length and intensity,

is essential in maximizing performance (see Lighting, page

18). Lighting programs should be synchronized between

pullet and laying houses.

CORRECTIVE

MANAGEMENT ACTION: REARING BODY WEIGHT

When body weights within a flock are not on target, a number

of problems may occur both at the time the weight discrepancy

is detected and in the future.

If average body weight differs from target body weight by

more than 0.2 lbs. (90 g), reweigh a sample of birds. If trend

is valid, take the corrective action indicated. These principles

apply to both males and females.

The following examples may help identify potential situations,

probable outcomes and corrective actions.

UNDERWEIGHT AT

1 THROUGH 16 WEEKS Insufficient body weights before 16 weeks of age

will result in:

- Reduced uniformity

-

- Improper skeletal development (small frame size)

-

- Decreased feed efficiency from 16 through 22 weeks of age

-

- Compromised immune systems

-

To correct this problem:

- Remain on starter feed longer

-

- Initiate the next scheduled feed increase and increase the

amount of the next scheduled feed increase until body

weight is brought gradually back to target

- As a rule of thumb, for every 0.10 lb. underweight, a

bird will require an additional 13 kcal ME/day (26 kcal

ME/every other day) beyond the normal feed increase to

recover in 1 week.

Diagram 2.5

OVERWEIGHT AT

1 THROUGH 16 WEEKS Flocks that are overweight before 16 weeks of age

will result in:

- Reduced uniformity

-

- Excessive skeletal development (frame size)

-

- Decreased feed efficiency during lay

-

To correct this problem:

- Do not reduce feed lower than the current feeding level

-

- Decrease the amount of next feed increase

-

- Delay the next feed increase

WARNING

UNDERWEIGHT AT 16

THROUGH 22 WEEKS If female body weights are depressed by more than

10 percent beyond 16 weeks, future reproductive performance

will be reduced as uniformity of sexual maturity is

lost, giving rise to:

- delayed onset of lay

-

- poor initial egg size

-

- heightened percentage of reject/misshapen eggs

- reduced fertility

-

- increased susceptibility to broodiness

-

- loss of uniformity

-

To correct the problem, redraw the target body weight line,

determine the cause of the weight problem and grow the

birds to the new target body weight-for-age. It may also be

advisable to delay the lighting program until the birds are

closer to the target body weight. Lighting the birds at low

body weights will result in poor egg size and quality as well

as reduced persistency of lay.

Maintain feeding frequency program (e.g., skip-a-day, 5/2,

4/3, etc.) to provide enough volume of feed for all birds until

5% daily production.

These principles are the same for males.

REVISING TARGET BODY WEIGHT — UNDERWEIGHT —

Step 1 — At the age when the underweight situation develops,

calculate how many days the actual body weight is

behind the target body weight.

Step 2 — To arrive at the new age to achieve target body

weight (5.60 lbs.), add the number of days from step 1 to 23

weeks. Redraw the body weight line and feed to achieve this

revised target body weight.

Example — At 20 weeks, actual body weight is 4.25 lbs.

(0.40 lb. underweight). The actual weight is 9 days behind

the target, making the revised age to achieve the target body

weight of 5.60 lbs. 170 days (161 days + 9 days).

OVERWEIGHT AT 16

THROUGH 22 WEEKS Flocks that exceed target body weight by more than

10 percent in this period lose sexual and body weight

uniformity, giving rise to:

- early onset of lay

-

- increased egg size and double yolks

-

- reduced hatching egg yield

-

- increased feed requirement through lay

-

- reduced peak and total eggs

-

- reduced fertility throughout life

-

- increased levels of mortality due to prolapse

-

To correct the problem, redraw the target body weight line,

determine the cause of the weight problem and grow the

birds to the new target body weight-for-age.

REVISING TARGET BODY WEIGHT — OVERWEIGHT

Step 1 — At the age when the overweight situation develops,

calculate how many days the actual body weight is in advance

of the target body weight.

Step 2 — To arrive at the new age to achieve target body

weight (5.60 lbs.), subtract the number of days from step 1

from 23 weeks. Redraw the body weight line and feed to

achieve this revised target body weight.

Example — At 20 weeks, actual body weight is 5.05 lbs.

(0.40 lb. overweight). The actual weight is 7 days ahead of

the target; therefore, the revised age to achieve the target

body weight of 5.60 lbs. is 152 days (161 days - 9 days).

If problems persist in achieving the recommended body weight targets, schedule a technical service manager visit as soon as possible.

At 22 weeks, males and females are mixed and additional

management techniques are necessary to maintain the birds

in optimum reproductive condition throughout the production

period. Attention must be paid to housing and equipment,

the procedure of mating up (male:female ratios) and

the physical condition of both males and females.

HOUSING

RECOMMENDATIONS

The objective of housing is to provide a protective environment

in which feed, water, temperature, day length and light

intensity can be controlled at the optimum level for good

reproductive performance, as well as bird health and welfare.

The technical specifications of the housing system must be

defined so birds are maintained under appropriate environmental

conditions, taking into account bird welfare, performance

targets, materials available, financial constraints, and

ease and effectiveness of environmental control.

HOUSING ENVIRONMENT

OBJECTIVE To maintain the environment (water, lighting, temperature,

and ventilation) in a manner that optimizes the flocks’ production

potential.

KEY POINTS 4 Water quality and drinker space are essential features of

breeding stock management.

4 Follow the lighting program provided. Improper lighting programs can result in over/understimulation of

the flock, reproductive disease problems and increased

mortality.

4 Keep the house at an adequate temperature for production with an adequate supply of fresh air. Ventilation systems

should replenish oxygen and remove carbon dioxide and

noxious gases produced by the chickens.

WATER CONSUMPTION Recommended drinker space can be seen in Table 2.3 (page

19). The number of drinkers required is influenced by the

surrounding temperature; every 1.8°F (1°C) rise in ambient

temperature over 70°F (21°C) will increase water requirement

by 6.5 percent. Potable water should be delivered to breeding

stock at a temperature of 50-54°F (10-12°C). Very cold

(<40ºF [4ºC])or very warm (>80°F [27°C]) water will

reduce intake. In hot weather, flushing the water lines

ensures that the water is as cool as possible.

Water should be monitored to assure it is clear with no

organic or suspended matter, and free of pathogens. Water

quality standards are given in Table 2.4 (page 20). Where

bacterial counts are high, the cause should be established and

corrected as soon as possible.

The pattern of water consumption is a useful indicator of

flock health and physiological condition. Water consumption

should be recorded on a daily basis to assist in monitoring

management conditions (see Table 2.5, page 20).

LIGHTING The lighting program shown in Table 3.1, assuming birds are

at the correct body weight-for-age, have proper fleshing and

are uniform in body weight, will decrease the frequency of

erratic ovulation, egg yolk peritonitis, abnormal eggs, prolapse

of the oviduct, broodiness, etc.

Ideally, blackout curtains should be used in both the

rearing and laying houses. If this is not possible, start

lighting program at natural day length and build to 16

hours/day per Table 3.1 to avoid decreasing light day

length in the laying house. Birds do not respond to a

day length greater than 16 hours.

It is critical that the meter used to measure light intensity is

properly calibrated for the specific type of lighting being

used, i.e., sodium, fluorescent or incandescent. This is especially

important when moving pullets from one style of lighting

to another, e.g., moving pullets from a grower house with

incandescent lights to a breeder house with sodium lights.

Consult a lighting expert to make sure that the meter you are

using is accurate for your specific situation. Table 3.1

LIGHTING PROGRAM FOR THE LAYING HOUSE

WEEKS HOURS LIGHT INTENSITY (f-c)

22 14 ³3

24 15 ³3

26

Depletion 16 ³3

WARNING TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION In cases of high ambient temperature, consideration should

be given to air speed, ventilation and humidity. Evaporative

cooling pads, high-pressure foggers and the operation of in-house

fans should be used to reduce house temperature and

stress.

The ventilation system must be capable of supplying adequate

fresh air and removing gaseous and airborne byproducts. It

also contributes to temperature and humidity control, especially

in warm conditions and should provide an environment

that is uniform and draft-free at bird level.

Houses should be equipped with a minimum (winter) ventilation

system, as well as a maximum (summer) system, including

fans on timers and thermostats that meet the minimum

air exchange rate of one volume of building air per 45-60 seconds.

SEPARATE SEX

FEEDING EQUIPMENT

OBJECTIVE To feed males and females from separate laying house feeding

systems to effectively control body weight and uniformity of

each sex.

KEY POINTS 4 Use a high-profile grill to restrict males from eating from the female feeding system.

4 Check daily for damage to the female feeder grill, and repair or replace as needed.

4 If restrictive devices are used, give extra attention to male feed management, as males will be completely restricted

from the female feeders.

4 Adjust male feeder heights to limit access by females yet still allow all males to feed.

4 To promote proper feeding habits, delay feeding of males until distribution of female feed is complete.

Separate sex feeding systems require skilled management and

correct feeding equipment. Feeder equipment requires ongoing

attention and should be checked twice weekly. Poor feeder

condition reduces the precision of feed allocation to males

and females.

Because lack of adequate feed can seriously depress egg and

semen production, the flock supervisor should be present at

feed distribution to take quick action if feed distribution

equipment problems arise. Monitor both males and females

while feeding for at least three days after housing to ensure all

birds are eating and drinking properly. After that point, feeding behavior should be observed regularly.

Males stealing female feed, poorly managed feeding equipment and uneven feed distribution (particularly when the flock is between 50% daily production and peak) may significantly reduce peak performance levels. Be aware of factors that indicate when a shortfall in female body weight is occurring, e.g., change of daily egg weight, bird condition, etc. Checklist for successful separate sex feeding:

- grill width and height

-

- grill installation

-

- corner and feed hopper restrictive covering

-

- feeder height and space

-

- restrictive devices

-

FEMALE FEEDING EQUIPMENT Females are generally fed from trough-type feeding systems.

Adequate feeding space must be provided to the females during

the laying period, as Table 3.2 indicates. If there is a

change of feeding equipment type, e.g., from pans in the pullet

house to troughs in the hen house, then extra precautions

may be necessary, e.g., netting pullets on the slats during

feedings.

The most effective method of restricting male access to female

feed is by fitting female feeders with grills that exclude the

majority of males because of their greater head width and/or

comb height. The combination of a 1-11/16 inch (43 mm) or

greater grill width and a 2 1/4 inch (57 mm) horizontal wire

ensures that a significant number of the males cannot obtain

feed from the female feeders. The use of horizontal fittings

has the additional advantage of strengthening the grill.

Table 3.2

FEEDER SPACE DURING LAYING

TYPE OF FEEDER BIRD FEEDING SPACE

Chain Female 6.0" (15 cm)/female

Chain Male 7.5" (19 cm)/male

Chain Male and Female 6.5" (16.5 cm)/mixed

Pan Female 1 per 10 females

Pan Male 1 per 8 males

Pan Male and Female 1 per 9 mixed

MALE FEEDING EQUIPMENT Male exclusion from the female feeders is absolutely essential

to ensure male performance in the laying house. Males must

also have a proper minimum feeding space of 7.5 inches (19

cm) or one pan per eight males on a male feeding line. When

using undubbed males, check that their combs do not restrict

access to male feeders.

It is suggested that male feeders be placed in the scratch area

instead of the slatted area to eliminate overcrowding during

feeding and reduce equipment congestion, which can cause

injuries. Male feeders should be raised after each feeding.

Male feed distribution must be uniform. When manually

filled hanging hoppers are used, it is important that the same

quantity of feed is delivered to each hopper and that they do

not tilt to one side. Suspended feeder tracks where feed can

be hand-leveled ensure that each male has access to the same

quantity of feed.

Correct male feeder height is dependent on male size and

feeder design (trough or pan depth). The height should be in

the range of 20-24 inches (50-60 cm) above the litter. Avoid

the build-up of litter under the male feeders. Also avoid giving

too much feeding space to males, as the more aggressive

males will overeat and females will feed from the male system.

The best method for ensuring the correct height and

space is through observation and adjustment.

Males and females can be encouraged to use their own feeders

if males are fed later than the females. This can be

achieved by lowering male feeders about 15 minutes after

female feed distribution begins.

MALE MANAGEMENT

DURING LAYING

PRE-PEAK PERIOD FROM

22 THROUGH 30 WEEKS OBJECTIVE To manage the male:female ratio, flesh-to-frame ratio and

body weight of males to maximize early fertility.

KEY POINTS 4 Begin mating at 22 weeks of age. Immature males should be excluded and allowed extra time to develop.

4 Develop a successful mating ratio by observing the flocks’ behavior and condition and by reacting to problems such

as overmating.

4 Monitor average body weight and body weight gain weekly from housing to peak production. Mark 20-30

percent of selected males before mating to aid in

sample weighing.

4 Control male body weight gain to allow gradual increase in body weight with age, without overfleshing the males.

4 Monitor fleshing on a regular basis to maintain optimum flock performance.

4 Overmature and overweight males should be removed. 4 Observe and monitor alertness and activity, physical condition, feathering, feed cleanup time and vent color.

4 Flock supervisor(s) should visit twice each week, or as necessary during housing-to-peak period, for proper

management adjustments. Preferably, visits should

occur at feeding time.

INTRODUCTION OF MALES (MATING) Males and females are generally ready to be mated at

22 weeks. Care should be taken to ensure both males

and females are sexually mature. If variation exists in sexual

maturity within the male population, mature males should

be mixed with the females and immature males should be

allowed extra time to develop before introduction.

All males should be uniform, free of physical abnormalities,

have strong, straight legs and toes, and be well-feathered with

a good upright stance and muscle tone. In addition, the secondary

sexual characteristics (face and comb color, wattle and

comb growth) should indicate that the selected males are

equally advanced and uniform in stage of sexual maturity (see

Diagram 3.1). Diagram 3.1

OPTIMIZING MALE MATING RATIO To maintain a consistent level of good fertility, each flock will

require an optimum number of sexually active males. The

removal of substandard males must be a continuous process.

Table 3.3 indicates the typical male to female ratio through-out

the laying period. The mating ratio should be reviewed

each week and the number of males to be removed should be

calculated from the table. These mating ratios are only a

guide and should be adjusted according to local circumstances

and flock performance.

Examine the flock twice weekly for signs of surplus males

and overmating from 25 weeks on (frequently observed at

around 26-27 weeks of age). “Slatting,” when the females will

not leave the slatted area of the house, is a sign of overmating.

If this occurs, accelerate the removal of males, taking out

1 male/200 females until the problem is corrected.

Surplus and inactive males can reduce fertility and should be removed immediately. MALE BODY WEIGHT CONTROL At this stage, it is important to observe, handle and weigh

males to determine target body weight-for-age, body weight

gain and fleshing progression on a weekly basis. All males

should be uniform in body weight. If the average male body

weight is 10 percent or more above the target body weight

line, it is necessary to redraw the line parallel to the original

line. If the average male body weight is 10 percent or more

below the target body weight line, it is necessary to bring

them back on line gradually over the next 1-2 weeks.

Average body weight and body weight gains can be used

to determine the amount of feed placed in the male feeder

to achieve the required male growth rate (see the appropriate

Rearing/Breeding Program and Male Feeding Program

Supplements). Daily feed allowance can vary considerably

(from 22-40 lbs./100/ day [10-18 kg/100/day]), depending

on the amount of feed being taken from the feeders by

either sex.

After mating, production objectives for males and females are

more likely to be achieved if separate sex feeding equipment

and techniques are employed (see Separate Sex Feeding

Equipment, page 34-35). At the time of exclusion from

female feeders, a feed increase for the males will be required

to maintain growth. The size of this increase will vary, but

an initial increase of 1-2 lbs./100/day (0.5-1 kg/100/day)

followed by a mid-week sample weighing to monitor progress

is recommended. Males may begin to lose weight if less than

27.5 lbs./100/day (12.5 kg/100/day) of feed is allocated to the

male feeders when effective exclusion occurs.

The time it takes to clean up the feed allotment should be

carefully monitored and individual male behavior and variation

should be observed and recorded. It is important to verify

and respond to any changes within the flock.

More specific information regarding the best management

practices for measuring of body weight and uniformity can be

found in Measuring Body Weight and Uniformity, pages 7-11.

Also, for specific nutritional information see the appropriate

Nutritional Program Summary Supplement.

MONITORING MALE PHYSICAL CONDITION Dispersal of the males within the flock means that the application

of good husbandry techniques may be more difficult

than for females. Good routines are essential to recognizing

changes in condition of males. The flock should be observed

at various times of the day to monitor mating activity, feeding,

resting location, distribution during daytime and immediately

prior to lights out. In addition, general behavior and posture

should be noted (see Diagram 3.2).

- Face, comb and wattle color/condition (firm or flaccid)

are important indications of physical condition.

- Assess muscle tone, fleshing and keel bone prominence

carefully, watching for any deterioration in physical

condition of males.

- Observe condition of legs, joints and feet. Wet litter causes

the skin under the feet to crack, leading to the risk of

infection and discomfort that will reduce mating activity.

Slat condition is also important in control of leg and foot

problems.

- Observation of feather condition, partial feather loss, neck

molt and damage, whether inflicted by males or females,

should be noted. Excessive feather damage, as well as

scratches and tears on the wattles and combs of males, can

also indicate a surplus of males.

- Intensity of redness of the vent is a useful management aid

in the assessment of male mating activity within the flock.

Males mating at optimum rates will demonstrate a red

vent color, as well as wear of the pin feathers around the

vent. When overmating is observed, males with pale vent

color should be removed

BREEDING POPULATION

• 6-8.5 males/100 females

during weeks 22–26

• 8.5 males/100 females

during weeks 27–65

• Remove substanda males throughout

life of flock MALE PEN

• Develop proper fleshing

per frame size

Table 3.3

POST-PEAK PERIOD FROM

31 THROUGH 65 WEEKS OBJECTIVE To manage the number and body weight of males to maintain

persistency of fertility to depletion (65 weeks).

KEY POINTS 4 Place emphasis on management practices that optimize the mating ratio, uniformity, physical condition and body

weight control of males.

4 Monitor male condition on a regular basis to maintain optimum flock performance (see Diagram 3.2).

4 Maintain the optimum mating ratio by removing individual males according to their physical condition.

4 Administer small increases in feed to maintain body weight profile and uniformity.

4 Observe and monitor alertness and activity, physical condition, feathering, feed cleanup time and vent color.

The management principles and procedures used to manage

males in the post-peak period are similar to those described

for the pre-peak period. In the post-peak period, body weights

are controlled by adjusting feed quantity, so that the target

body weight gain profile (see Rearing/Breeding Program

Supplement) is achieved. Sample males should continue to be

weighed on a weekly basis through 65 weeks (see Sample

Weighing, page 7).

After 30 weeks of age, weekly body weight gain should be

approximately 0.1 lb. (45 g), when averaged over a three-week

period. Body weight data should be used in conjunction

with the additional husbandry information to make feed

allowance decisions. Male feed allowance is normally in

the range of 28.6-35.25 lbs./100/day (13-16 kg/100/day)

during this period.

Underfeeding is most common after 35 weeks, but can

occur earlier. Males will suddenly appear dull and listless,

showing feather molt, reduced fleshing, reduced activity

and less frequent crowing. In addition, vent color will

become less red and the color range will widen. When this

occurs, the more active males will work for a short period,

using their body resources, but others will cease to function.

If the condition reaches the final stages, a significant number

of birds will not recover. Overall, this will result in reduced

hatching egg fertility.

Diagram 3.2

On observing any combination of these symptoms, a number

of corrective steps should be taken:

- Feed allowance should be increased by 0.5-1.0 lb.

(or more)/100/day (0.2-0.5 kg [or more]/100/day).

- Check cleanup time, feeding space per bird and feeder

condition.

- A change in feed texture (e.g., crumble to mash) should be

considered to permit active males sufficient time to

consume adequate nutrients.

- The accuracy of weekly average weight gain data should be

verified and a sample of the birds reweighed, if in doubt.

It is quite normal to observe some displacement and wear of

the feathers at the back of the females’ heads and at the base

of the tail. When this condition progresses to the removal of

feathers, it is a sign of overmating or overaggressive males. If

the mating ratio is not reduced, the condition will worsen to

defeathering of areas of the back and scratching and tearing

of the skin, leading to welfare problems, loss of female condition

and reduced egg production. Flocks where overmating

occurs will exhibit reduced fertility, hatchability and egg

numbers.

Routinely cull individual males according to their physical

condition (see Optimizing Male Mating Ratio, page 36).

Culled males should be removed from the flock immediately.

To assist in maintaining the optimum mating ratio, it is a

common practice to “spike” flocks with younger males during

this period. If this is done, it is imperative to:

- Conduct lab analysis and clinical examinations on spiking

males to ensure no pathogens are introduced into the flock.

- Make sure spiking males are mature enough to avoid being

dominated by older hens and males.

- Place spiking males into the house only after lights are out

and the house is dark.

- Distribute younger males throughout the house.

-

- Make sure spiking males find feed and water immediately.

-

- Weigh spiking males (marked with colored leg bands) separately from older males so actual body

weight trends can be monitored.

FEMALE MANAGEMENT

DURING LAYING

PRE-PEAK PERIOD FROM

22 THROUGH 30 WEEKS OBJECTIVE To promote and support early female reproductive performance,

using feed and light stimulation, as measured by early

egg size, egg quality and timing, and level of peak production.

KEY POINTS 4 Stimulate egg production by giving programmed feed and light increases. Overstimulating birds with light or feed

can cause productivity and livability problems.

4 Monitor pelvic “pin” bone spacing regularly throughout the pre-peak period.

4 Monitor average body weight, flock uniformity, body weight gain and feed cleanup time at least weekly and

respond quickly to changes.

4 Monitor fleshing on a regular basis to maintain optimum flock performance.

4 Achieve target body weight by concentrating on correct incremental weekly gains.

4 If the birds fail to show the expected increase in body weight, flock variability increases or it takes longer for the

birds to consume the allocated feed, take quick action to

determine the cause of the problem.

4 Flock supervisor(s) should visit twice weekly, or as necessary during housing-to-peak period, to make proper

management adjustments. Preferably, these visits should

occur at feeding time.

Problems with feeding, water or disease at this stage can have devastating effects on the onset of production, as well as on the subsequent per- formance of the flock. Observations of birds in the pre-peak period have demonstrated

the importance of achieving correct body weights during

early lay to maximize egg production and hatchability. Uniform

flocks will come into production rapidly and feed levels must be adjusted

appropriately to support the increased demands of

egg production and growth on the birds at this stage.

In the ideal situation, it would be possible to measure changes

in egg production, body weight, fleshing and condition on a

daily basis and adjust feed each day. The decision on how

much feed is required at each stage depends on observation

and measurement of short-term trends in important production

parameters (see Table 3.4).

The difference in feed allocation prior to first egg and at peak

allows a profile to be established. The maximum metabolizable

energy (ME) intake at peak production is usually around

455 kcal/day, although successful production has been

observed on a range of 430-460 kcal/day. Feed increases,

beyond the theoretical maximum feed amount, may be

required in high-producing flocks. A further 14-28 kcal can

be fed after evaluation of both absolute and trend data.

The profile can then be adjusted, depending on body weight,

growth, egg production, egg weight and house temperature. It

is vital that both absolute and trend data in body weights and

egg weights are used to determine feed increases. If the average

female body weight is more than 10 percent greater than

the target body weight line, it is necessary to redraw the line

parallel to the original one. If the average female body weight

is 10 percent or more below the target body weight line, it is

necessary to bring the birds back to line gradually over the

next 1-2 weeks.

Inadequate or excessive gains in egg weight and/or female body weight indicates incorrect nutritional input. Failure to correct the problem will result in lower peak production. Small, regular feed increases (at least weekly) are essential to

prevent excessive body weight gain and to achieve appropriate

body weight, fleshing and timely onset of egg production.

Birds that are supplied with more feed than they require for

egg production will develop an abnormal ovarian structure

and gain excess weight, resulting in poor quality eggs with

low hatchability. An excess of double-yolked eggs and mortality

due to peritonitis and/or prolapse are also symptoms of

overfeeding during this period. It may be beneficial to delay

switching from grower rations (1% calcium) to breeder

rations (3% calcium) until 24 weeks of age (5-10% production)

to avoid or reduce incidence of calcium tetany (see Ross

Tech, Prevention and Treatment of Calcium Tetany in Broiler

Breeder Hens).

During periods of hot weather, changes in the total feed

increases will need to be made on a slightly different schedule

to follow the typical increase in rate of percent production.

The most up-to-date feeding recommendations for each particular

breed are provided in the Female Feeding Program

Summary Supplement, available from your Ross technical

service manager.

During hot weather, provide maximum ventilation during feeding time to prevent heat stress.

It is critical to implement a lighting program exactly on schedule

during this period of feed increases to support and stimulate

the female reproductive physiology (see Lighting, page 33).

MONITORING THE FEMALE PHYSICAL CONDITION Good routines are essential in order to recognize changes in

condition of females. The flock should be observed at various

times of the day to monitor mating activity, feeding, resting

location, daytime distribution and distribution immediately

prior to lights out. In addition, general behavior and posture

should be noted.

- Face, comb and wattle color/condition (firm or flaccid)

are important indications of physical condition.

- Assess muscle tone, fleshing and keel bone prominence

carefully, watching for deterioration in physical condition

of females.

- Condition of legs, joints and feet must be observed. Wet

litter causes the skin under the feet to crack, leading to the

risk of infection and discomfort that will reduce mating

activity. Slat condition and height are also important for

the control of leg and foot problems.

- Observation of feather condition, partial feather loss, neck

molt and damage, whether inflicted by males or females,

should be noted. \

FREQUENCY OF OBSERVATION OF

IMPORTANT PRODUCTION PARAMETERS

PARAMETER FREQUENCY

Body Weight At Least Weekly

Rate of Body Weight Gain At Least Weekly

Uniformity At Least Weekly

Egg Production Daily

Increase in Egg Production Daily

Egg Weight Daily

Change in Egg Weight Daily

Cleanup Time Daily

Bird Condition (Fleshing, Color) At Least Weekly

House Temperature (Min. and Max.) Daily

WARNING During this period, the spacing of the pelvic (“pin”) bones is

measured to determine the state of sexual development of the

female. Under normal situations, pelvic bone spacing

develops as shown in Table 3.5.

POST-PEAK PERIOD FROM

31 THROUGH 65 WEEKS OBJECTIVE To maximize the yield of fertile hatching eggs by ensuring

continued high levels of egg production after peak.

KEY POINTS 4 Reduce feed levels starting from peak to three weeks after peak depending on bird condition, body weight, feed

quantity and temperature, to control female body weight

gain, egg size and to improve persistency of lay in the

post-peak period.

4 Make feeding decisions weekly in response to observations of body weight, egg weight and bird condition. During

temperature extremes, it may be necessary to adjust

feed allowance.

4 Monitor fleshing on a regular basis to maintain optimum flock performance.

Control of body weight and egg weight progression must be

major priorities in the period from 30-65 weeks. This is

achieved by programmed feed reduction, carried out in

response to observations and measurements of bird condition

and egg production. Routines should be established that

allow the following to be monitored:

- Weekly body weight change relative to target body weight.

- Daily egg weight and egg weight change relative to target

egg weight.

- Physical condition (fleshing; fat deposition; feather cover

and condition; leg and foot condition; wattle, comb and

face color; rate of lay).

Failure to control body weight from 30 weeks can significantly reduce persistency of lay, egg size, shell quality and female fertility after 40 weeks. Breeding flocks usually attain physical maturity and cease to

grow in frame size at around 30-31 weeks. At this point the

birds continue to gain weight; however, it is through the

deposition of fat and growth of other body tissues. Limiting

the rate of fat accumulation, through adjustments in feed consumption,

is the key to controlling egg production in the

post-peak period.

Over the period of 30-33 weeks, maximum nutrient requirements

for egg production occur. At some point beyond this

period, typically at peak production (30 weeks), feed reduction

should begin. If you wait until 33 weeks, birds will

already be getting fat (see Diagram 1.1, page 8).

The exact timing for the start of feed reduction will depend

on flock history and the birds’ condition. The timing and

amount of feed reduction will depend on:

- Average body weight change from start of production.

-

- Daily egg production and trend.

-

- Daily egg weight and egg weight trend.

-

- Flock health status.

-

- Ambient temperature.

-

- Feed composition (energy and protein level) and quality.

-

- Quantity of feed (energy intake) at peak.

-

- Flock history (rearing and pre-peak performance).

-

- Feed cleanup time being longer than usual.

-

The program of feed reduction will vary for each flock due to

the differences in the characteristics listed above. To remain

healthy and vigorous beyond 30 weeks, birds must gain body

weight at an average rate of 0.025 lb. (11g)/week. After a feed

reduction, if production decreases more than anticipated,

restore the feeding amount to the previous level and attempt

to reduce the feed level again in 5-7 days.

Feed reduction is best accomplished within the first 10 weeks

after peak production is reached (see appropriate Feeding

Program Summary Supplement)

AGE

84-91 Days

119 Days

21 Days Before First Egg

10 Days Before First Egg

Point of Lay

PELVIC BONE SPACING

Closed

Approximately 3 /4" (2 cm)

or one finger width

Approximately 1" (2.5 cm)

or 1 1 /2 fingers

Approximately 1 1 /2" (4 cm)

or 2 1 /2 fingers

Approximately 2" (5 cm) or 3 fingersTable 3.5

WARNING EGG WEIGHT

AND FEED CONTROL

OBJECTIVE To use egg weight to determine if the nutritional input is adequate

for achievement of optimum egg production.

KEY POINTS 4 Weigh bulk samples of eggs and record daily from no later

than 10% of daily production.

4 Monitor trends in daily egg weight by plotting average egg weights on a large-scale graph and make adjustments to

feed intake based on deviations from target egg-weight

profile.

4 Respond promptly to falling trends in daily egg weight by increasing feed allowance. Responding to egg weight

shortfall beyond 75% of daily production is not

recommended, since it is likely that excessive

body weight gain will occur.

To determine average egg weight, a sample of 120 to 150 eggs

should be weighed in bulk. These must be taken from eggs

collected directly from the nest at the time of the second collection.

Double-yolked, very small and abnormal eggs, e.g.,

soft-shelled, should not be included in the sample. Average

egg weight can be obtained by dividing the bulk weight by

the number of eggs weighed.

The daily weight can then be plotted against the standard

profile. It is important that the graph scale is large enough to

make daily variation clearly observable. The effects of egg

weight fluctuations, due to sampling variations and environmental

influences, are minimized if the mid-point between

consecutive daily weights are joined on the graph to produce

both the trend and projected profiles (see Diagram 3.3).

The average egg weight at a given age depends on body

weight and sexual maturity and can be above, below or on

standard. Egg weight shortfall can occur, particularly in high-

producing flocks, when they are producing between 50-70%

daily production (pre-peak).

Trends in daily egg weight act as a sensitive indicator of the

adequacy of total nutrient intake. In flocks that are receiving

the correct quantity of feed, egg weight will normally increase

parallel to the standard egg weight profile. If the flock is

being underfed, egg size will not increase over a 4-5 day period,

as expected. This is corrected by bringing forward the

next planned feed increase.

Failure to detect a falling trend in egg weight within 4-5 days can result in reduced levels of peak egg production.

CARE OF

HATCHING EGGS

The production of vigorous day-old broiler chicks from

hatching eggs involves effective collection, disinfection, cooling,

storage and incubation of the eggs. Each of these processes

has to be carried out so that the development of the

embryo is not compromised. The best hatchability of fertile

eggs is achieved when the eggs are kept in clean conditions

and at the correct temperature and humidity from the time

they are laid until when they are hatched.

NEST MANAGEMENT

OBJECTIVE To provide hens with a sanitary area in which to lay eggs.

KEY POINTS 4 Hens are more likely to use nests that satisfy the requirements of their natural laying behavior, i.e.,

cleanliness, dryness, shade and seclusion.

4 Locate nests in areas where the birds will use them and at a height where they will not become contaminated.

4 Prevent nest contamination by utilizing nest closures at night and keeping liners and floor litter clean and dry.

Naturally clean eggs maintain a greater potential for hatchability

than soiled or contaminated eggs, regardless of the disinfection

procedures used on the shell surface. Nests should

be of appropriate design to promote usage and supply clean

eggs. Manufacturers should be consulted for details of house

design and nest layout. Nests are usually assembled in one-or

two-tier units, allowing one nest per 5.5 birds.

Hens will lay eggs on the floor if they find nests unattractive or if there are too many females per nest. Before a new flock is placed, ensure that all nest pads are

properly installed. From time of placement until the first eggs

are laid, nest pads should be cleaned daily and belts should

be run twice a day. From first egg until depletion, check one-quarter

of the pads each day and remove and clean all obviously

dirty pads, as well as worn or torn pads. Belt brushes

should be replaced after the first and last run of each day.

EGG COLLECTION

AND DISINFECTION

OBJECTIVE To maximize the quantity and quality of eggs collected.

KEY POINTS 4 Collect eggs frequently during the day, so they may be cooled and stored as quickly as possible.

4 Proper light intensity (³3 f-c) helps reduce incidence of floor eggs.

4 Floor and dirty eggs must be collected and stored separately from clean eggs.

4 Eggshells should remain dry. 4 Disinfected eggs are very vulnerable to bacterial recontamination if egg stores are not subjected to an

effective, ongoing sanitation program.

REDUCING FLOOR OR SLAT LAYING If hens are laying eggs on the floor or slats, a member of the

farm crew should walk the house at least five times a day

(between 7 a.m. and 4:30 p.m.) to remove floor and dirty

eggs during the laying period. The numbers of floor or slat

eggs can be reduced by:

- Introducing perches from six weeks.

-

- Incorporating a suitable perch rail in nest box design.

-

Ensuring males and females reach sexual maturity at the

same time.

Allowing for correct feeder space for females, i.e., minimum

6" (15 cm)/female.

- Effective management of early mating ratios. Overmating

can predispose slat egg laying.

- Feeding within 30 minutes of “lights on.”

-

HATCHING EGG COLLECTION Increasing the frequency of collection reduces damage to

eggs, as well as allowing eggs to reach physiological zero

(70°F [21°C]) at similar stages of embryonic development

.

From housing until first egg, belts should be run twice each

day to allow birds time to adapt to their new environment.

After laying begins, collection belts should run regularly,

starting after the first walk-through and stopping after the last walk-through.

Place all clean nest eggs onto clean setter trays. Any nest egg

with dirt covering an area less than the size of a pencil eraser

may be wiped off and placed with the clean eggs.

DISINFECTION If disinfection is used, the following procedure has proved

effective:

- Spray eggs to the point of saturation with an approved

sanitizing agent or disinfectant kept at 78ºF (25ºC).

- Let eggs dry for five minutes before placing in egg room.

-

To distinguish eggs which have been disinfected, mark

flats of disinfected eggs, e.g., with double lines, prior to

placement in the cooler.

The relative effectiveness of different methods available for

hatching egg disinfection can be seen in Table 3.6.

RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF DISINFECTION PROCEDURES

FORMALIN IN-LINE WASHER DIPPING UV LIGHT 6

Kills Bacteria l l l 3 w Safe for Embryo l 1 w 2 w l Safe for Operator m l l w No Cuticle Damage l m l 4 l Eggshell Dry l m m l Temperature Extremes l m w 5 l l =Good w =Acceptable m =Poor 1 Cannot be used between 12-96 hours of incubation.

2 High embryo mortality associated with bacterial rots in older flocks.

3 Usage and solution changes require careful monitoring.

4 Depends on chemical used. Quaternary ammonium products are usually acceptable; hydrogen peroxide is not.

5 Tank temperature and dip duration require careful monitoring.

6 Ultraviolet light does not destroy Staphylococcus effectively. Effectiveness is improved when combined with fumigation

at some point prior to setting.

Table 3.7

WARNING EGG COOLING AND STORAGE

OBJECTIVE To provide a consistent environment that maximizes hatchery

performance.

KEY POINTS 4 Cool eggs for storage to below physiological zero (70°F [21°C]) within four hours of collection.

4 Optimum temperature and humidity for storage will depend on length of storage required and should not be

allowed to fluctuate during storage (see Table 3.7).

4 Aim for slow, unrestricted circulation of large volumes of air. Avoid stacking eggs in densely packed groups.

Procedures should be established to ensure uniform cooling

of eggs to 68-70°F (20-21°C) within four hours from the time

of collection from the nest. This is critical because embryonic

development and cell division slows below 79°F (26°C) and

stops completely at 70°F (21°C), the point called “physiological

zero.” If cell division continues beyond five hours after lay,

the egg is less likely to hatch as a result of increased early

embryonic death.

Correct temperature and humidity during egg storage are

important in achieving maximum hatchability. The appropriate

conditions are shown in Table 3.7. The effectiveness of the

cooling and storage should be monitored for each egg storage

area. The cooling profile of eggs passing through the process

can be measured using miniature temperature loggers to

identify problem areas.

Free air movement around and between all eggs is also

important. Eggs should not be stacked in densely packed

groups. Ventilation and air conditioning systems should circulate

large volumes of air slowly within the egg storage area.

Correct movement of air is essential to achieve and maintain

the humidity and temperature with minimal variation (1.8°F

[1°C]) throughout the entire storage area and period.

Temperature variation will result from fast-moving air streams

and obstructions to airflow.

TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY FOR EGG STORAGE

DAYS TEMPERATURE RELATIVE HUMIDITY

1-3 66-68°F (19-20ºC) 70-75%

Hatchability problems often occur due to variation in temperature and humidity during egg collection and storage. The cooler should be cleaned and disinfected on a regular

basis. The best time to clean the egg room and coolers is after

the eggs have been picked up, i.e., one to three times a week.

At this point, the cooler floors and walls should be mopped

with an approved disinfectant. Weekly checks should also be

made to ensure the cooler and humidifier are clean and functioning

properly. Table 3.6

Table 3.8 can be used as a guideline for trouble-shooting

hatch problems. Ross has hatching experts available for consultation.

To schedule a visit, contact your Ross technical service

manager. Table 3.8

FLOCK HEALTH

AND HYGIENE

HOUSE CLEAN-OUT PROCEDURES OBJECTIVE To ensure the reduction and/or elimination of pathogenic

microorganisms from the previous breeder flock that could

affect the health, welfare and reproductive performance of the

incoming flock.

KEY POINTS 4 Removable equipment and fittings should be taken out of the building and cleaned separately.

4 Dust, debris and litter must be removed from both the internal and external areas of the house and disposed of

properly.

4 A pressure washer with warm water and detergent should be used to remove dirt and debris from the inside and

outside of the house, as well as from the equipment. Any

items that cannot be washed, e.g., polyethylene or cardboard,

must be destroyed.

4 Houses should be inspected between each flock and all needed repairs should be made. Particular attention

should be paid to areas where rodents and other pests

could enter the house.

4 Disinfection/fumigation should not take place until the entire building, including external areas, is thoroughly

cleaned and all repairs are complete.

4 Heating houses to high temperatures after sealing can enhance disinfection and fumigation. Fumigation is less

effective at temperatures lower than 68ºF (20ºC) and

relative humidity of less than 65%.

4 House should be sealed for at least 24 hours after disinfection and fumigation. Before anyone re-enters the

house, it must be thoroughly ventilated.

4 It is essential to monitor the efficiency and cost of the cleaning process.

CLEANING PROCEDURES As soon as the birds have been removed from the house, the

litter, equipment and all surfaces should be sprayed with a

locally recommended insecticide. Insects are significant carriers

of disease and must be destroyed before they migrate into

woodwork or other materials. A second treatment with insecticide

should be undertaken before fumigation.

A low-pressure sprayer should be used to spray disinfectant

solution throughout the inside of the house, from ceiling to

floor, to dampen dust before removal of litter and equipment.

In open-sided houses, the curtains should be closed during disinfection.

All removable equipment and fittings, e.g., drinkers, feeders,

nest-boxes, dividing pens, etc., should be taken out of the

building and placed on the external concrete area.

Dust, debris and cobwebs should be removed from fan shafts,

beams, unrolled curtains (in open-sided houses), ledges and

stonework. This is best achieved by brushing so that the dust

falls onto the litter.

A breezeless day should be chosen for litter removal to minimize

the distribution of dust. All ventilation and electrical

systems must be switched off. Trailers or trash dumpsters

should be placed inside the house before they are filled with

soiled litter. The full trailer should then be covered before

removal to prevent dust and debris from blowing outside.

Litter must be removed to a distance of at least one mile

(1.6 km) from the farm, and disposed of in accordance

with local, state and federal government regulations.

Before washing, turn off all electricity in the house. A pressure

washer with detergent should be used to remove the

remaining dirt and debris. It is recommended that portable

scaffolding and lights be used to ensure proper washing of

areas otherwise inaccessible. Inside the house, particular

attention should be paid to the following areas:

- fans, fan boxes and fan shafts

-

- ventilation grills

-

- tops of beams and ledges

-

- water pipes

-

- electrical points

-

- any remaining equipment

-

It is vital that external areas are also cleaned thoroughly with

a pressure washer. Particular attention should be paid to

cleaning of the following external areas:

- under ventilator and extractor fans

-

- access routes and concrete pathways

-

- door surrounds

-

- evaporative cooling cell areas

-

- air inlets (blackouts)

-

- gutters

Ideally, poultry houses should be surrounded by 3 feet

(1 m) of concrete or gravel. An external concrete area appropriately

sized for washing and storing removable items should

also be a part of the house design. Where this does not exist,

the area must:

- be free of vegetation

-

- be free of unused machinery/equipment or any other

rodent harborage

- have an even, level surface

-

- be well-drained, free of any standing water

-

All equipment that has been removed to the external concrete

area must be washed, as well as all equipment remaining in

the house. After cleaning, it is essential that equipment is covered

and stored until it is returned to the house.

Water systems should be cleaned and flushed in the following

manner during the cleaning process:

- Drain all tanks and pipes.

-

- Remove dirt and sediment from inside tanks.

-

- Wash with detergent, the inside and outside of all covers,

lids, taps and connecting pipes.

- Fill tanks and fixed pipes with sodium hypochlorite

(150 ppm) solution (household bleach). Leave for

24 hours. Drain the system and rinse with clean water.

Feed systems should also be cleaned after the removal of each

flock:

- Empty, wash and disinfect all feeding equipment, e.g.,

track, chain, hanging feeders, etc.

- Empty bulk bins and connecting pipes. Clean out and seal

all openings.

- Fumigate or disinfect wherever possible.

-

REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE A clean, empty house provides the ideal opportunity for

structural repairs and maintenance. Once the house is empty,

attention should be given to the following tasks:

- Check all electrical equipment, generators, fans and

cooling systems.

- Repair or replace damaged walls, ceilings and flooring.

- Carry out painting or whitewashing where required.

-

- Ensure that all doors shut tightly.

Rodents, wild birds and other pests can easily carry and

transmit diseases to flock. They can also consume feed,

reducing the accuracy of feed monitoring programs. The following

areas should be checked during house maintenance to

assure pests have no means of entering the house:

- Check all walls, panels and ceilings for holes and repair

if necessary.

- Check that all doors close firmly and tightly, with no gaps.

-

- Check for any leaks in the feed system. Easily accessible

feed attracts pests.

- In open-sided housing, the building must be made bird-proof

and repaired as necessary.

- Ensure that any outside scale buildings are rodent- and

bird-proof.

-

Clean up any rodent refuges, e.g., trash piles, lumber, old

equipment, etc., surrounding the building area.

- Keep grass neatly cut around the outside of houses.

-

DISINFECTION AND FUMIGATION Disinfectant should be applied by the use of a pressure-washer.

Foam disinfectants can be used on modern impervious

surfaces, allowing greater contact time, thus increasing the

effectiveness of disinfection. Disinfectants approved by governments

for use against specific poultry pathogens of both

bacterial and viral origin are most likely to be effective.

Follow manufacturer’s instructions at all times.

Fumigation should begin as soon as possible after completion

of disinfection. Surfaces should be damp. The houses should

be warmed to a minimum of 70°F (21°C). After fumigation,

the house must remain sealed for at least 24 hours with “no

entry” signs clearly displayed. The fumigation procedure

should be repeated after shavings have been distributed

throughout the house. Shavings should be tested for mold

and bacteria before being placed in the house. Follow manufacturer’s

instructions at all times.

Fumigation is hazardous to humans and animals. Operators must wear the correct protective clothing, i.e., respirators, eye shields and gloves. Two operators must be present in case of emer- gency. Follow manufacturer’s instructions at all times. For further guidance, refer to and follow all health and safety regulations. EVALUATION OF FARM CLEANING AND DISINFECTION EFFICIENCY Cleaning efficiency is evaluated by taking total viable bacterial

counts. Trend analysis of results enables disinfection performance

to be monitored and changes to be made to disinfection

procedures on a farm-by-farm basis or to the total disinfection

policy, if necessary.

Samples are taken 2-3 days after the final disinfection and

fumigation. The minimum number of samples required per

house is as follows:

- 4 x walls

-

- 4 x floors

-

- 4 x roof supports

-

- 20 x nest boxes

-

Monitoring for salmonella species is required as an additional

safeguard. When disinfection has been carried out effectively,

the sampling procedure should not isolate salmonella species.

Current recommendations for salmonella sampling are as follows:

- 4 x walls

-

- 4 x floors

-

- 1 x feed hopper

-

- 20 x nest boxes

-

- 2 x crevices

drains and electrical boxes

-

BIOSECURITY RECOMMENDATIONS

OBJECTIVE To implement procedures that will prevent the introduction

of pathogens likely to affect the health, welfare or reproductive

performance of breeding stock or the quality of their products.

KEY POINTS 4 Houses should be constructed with biosecurity needs in mind.

4 All facility staff and visitors should abide by all biosecurity procedures.

BIOSECURITY PROGRAM ELEMENTS The health of the birds and progeny can be affected by specific

avian pathogens such as mycoplasmas and salmonella. The

presence of these types of infections can affect both the viability

of the broiler progeny and the acceptability of the broiler

for human consumption. To minimize the chances of these

infections and to maintain good flock status, a biosecurity

program should be implemented. The following items should

be included in any biosecurity program:

- Concrete floors with a smooth, hard finish are

recommended for cleaning ease and effective disinfection.

- Equipment that can easily be raised or removed will make

the cleaning and disinfection procedure more effective

and efficient.

- An area of concrete or gravel extending to a width of

3 feet (1 m) around the house will inhibit entry of rodents.

- The size, relative situation and design of houses should be

such as to minimize the transmission of pathogens

between and within flocks. Ideally, all farms should

contain flocks of the same age.

- The existence of nearby sites of other avian species

presents an airborne disease risk and should be avoided,

if possible.

- The site should be planned with biosecurity of vehicle

and staff access in mind. Strict hygiene and disinfection

procedures should be employed for all staff and vehicles

entering and leaving the facility.

- Only essential visitors should be allowed access to

facilities.

- Hand basins and disinfection soap should be provided and

used at all entrance doors. Rinse basins or foot baths

should also be at each house entrance. The disinfectant

should be changed every other day, or according to the

manufacturer’s recommendations.

- Feed must be obtained from a manufacturer with

effective decontamination procedures (heat treatment)

for salmonella control. Untreated feed is a major source

of salmonella and should be considered contaminated.

DISEASE MANAGEMENT

OBJECTIVE To achieve hygienic conditions within the poultry house environment

to minimize the adverse effects of disease, attain

optimum performance and bird welfare, as well as provide

optimum food safety conditions.

KEY POINTS 4 A suitable vaccination program should be prepared by a certified poultry veterinarian in conjunction with the

production/breeder manager.

4 Strict operation of a comprehensive program of hygiene management is essential for maximum productivity and

good health status of breeder flocks.

4 The severity of infection of many diseases can be associated with the level of stress the flock experiences.

4 It is essential to inspect birds routinely to identify emerging disease or welfare problems.

4 Immediate removal of any dead or culled birds from the poultry house is essential to prevent the buildup of

pathogenic microorganisms and the possible transmission

of disease to healthy birds.

Diseases, including Marek’s Disease, Newcastle Disease, Avian

Encephalomyelitis (Epidemic Tremor), Infectious Bronchitis,

Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD), Reovirus Tenosynovitis (viral

arthritis), Fowl Cholera and Infectious Larygotracheitis, are

common and should be considered when a vaccination program

is being planned.

The immune response of the birds resulting from vaccination

or field challenges should be routinely evaluated by serological

analysis. Vaccination does not promote immunity to disease

under all conditions, but enables a flock or individual

bird to withstand levels of infection that cause disease in non-vaccinated

flocks.

Where it may prove impossible to exclude a pathogen in a

particular situation, the commercial effects of a disease may

be minimized by reducing stress derived from other sources.

Many factors interact to increase the symptoms seen as a

result of infection. When defining control measures for disease

control, it is important to take into account the possible

occurrence of stress or incidence of infections such as:

- Poor feed management and other stress factors that can

precipitate problems of Staphylococcal synovitis.

- Precocious development, i.e., excessive light stimulation at

a young age, is associated with peritonitis, increased

double-yolked eggs, and E. coli septicemia at point of lay.

- Stocking density, biosecurity, vaccination and control of

immunosuppressive infections, e.g., Marek’s Disease,

Reovirus, Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD) and Chicken

Anemia Virus (CAV), can markedly affect the severity of

other diseases.

Experienced poultry service personnel should inspect birds as

necessary, passing within viewing distance (10 feet [3 m]) of

each bird. Light intensity should be sufficient to ensure all

birds are clearly visible.

Often the first sign of disease onset is a drop in water or feed

consumption. Thus, a good management practice is to keep a

daily record of feed and water consumption. If the flock’s

health is affected, act immediately by sending birds for post-mortem

examination and contacting the flock service advisor

and a poultry veterinarian.

All dead and culled birds should be removed from the house

and their carcasses disposed of immediately. Federal, state

and local environmental regulations must be observed in the

disposal of carcasses.

NUTRITIONAL STANDARDS

Ross Breeders conducts and funds research focused on optimizing

the performance of Ross breeding stock, as well as

their broiler offspring. Due to the combined rapid progress of

genetic and nutritional research, Recommended Nutrient

Specifications are published as separate supplements. For a

copy of the most recent Recommended Nutrient

Specifications for males and females, contact your Ross technical

service manager.

NUTRITIONAL OVERVIEW

OBJECTIVE To optimize the reproductive performance of males and

females by providing them with rations meeting specific

nutrient requirements throughout their life cycle.

KEY POINTS 4 Daily intake of energy, amino acids, minerals and vitamins has a direct impact on flock performance.

4 Rations must be balanced based on intake of digestible nutrients. An overabundance or deficiency of even one

nutrient can have a negative impact on total flock

performance.

4 Consult your nutritionist and/or Ross technical service manager with specific questions r

ENERGY SUPPLY Metabolizable energy (ME) is the amount of energy available

to the birds after they have digested their feed and the nutrients

have been absorbed into their blood stream. Adequate

energy intake is critical throughout both the male and female

life cycles. Inadequate energy intake will result in lower than

expected performance in the following areas: growth rate,

uniformity, egg production, egg size and hatchability.

Poor quality (low digestibility) feed ingredients can make it

impossible for the birds to consume adequate levels of feed to

meet their ME requirements. Diets that are relatively high in

fiber, (greater than 5%) are less digestible and can cause the

birds to produce excessive heat during their digestion

process. This can be beneficial during cold weather, but highly

detrimental during periods of heat stress.

Excess energy intake can result in an increased frequency of

double yolks, oversized eggs, obesity and increased death loss

during periods of heat stress.

PROTEIN (AMINO ACIDS) Protein, specifically amino acids, can have a critical influence

on growth performance, normal sexual maturity, immune

system function, egg production, egg size and hatchability.

As a practical guide, a maximum level of 16 percent is suggested

for the laying diets of Ross breeding stock. Protein

quality (apparent digestibility) also needs to be considered,

especially during heat stress conditions. Excessive protein

intake (>26 g/bird/day) during heat stress periods can

cause excessive death loss.

MAJOR AND TRACE MINERALS The major minerals, calcium and phosphorus, are critical for

proper skeletal development, bodily function, reproductive

performance and shell quality.

To maintain calcium balance, hens require 4-5 g of calcium

per hen per day, beginning the day they lay their first egg. In

practice, this requirement is satisfied by making the change

from grower or developer rations (1.0% calcium) to Breeder 1

rations (3.0% calcium) at 5% egg production.

Providing a correct balance between calcium and phosphorus

intake is critical. Excessive levels of available phosphorus

throughout lay reduce shell quality and have a negative

impact on hatchery performance. Consult the most recent

Recommended Nutrient Specifications for recommended

available phosphorus levels.

Conventional levels of supplementation are recommended for

trace minerals. Consult the most recent Recommended

Nutrient Specifications for recommended trace mineral fortification

levels, as well as the form of trace minerals used, e.g.,

oxide, sulfate, chloride, etc., in the premix. Some anions,

especially chloride, should be taken into account when considering

the mineral balance of the feed. An imbalance in

these anions can cause an increase in gut motility, resulting in

loose droppings, increased water intake and decreased nutrient

digestibility.

VITAMINS Vitamins are critical in all aspects of growth and reproductive

performance. Consult the most recent Recommended

Nutrient Specifications for recommended vitamin levels.

Under stressful conditions, disease outbreaks and other situations,

birds can show a positive response to higher levels of

vitamins. The goal should be to remove or reduce stress factors,

rather than to depend on permanent use of excessive vitamin

supplementation for optimal performance.

Vitamins are sensitive to many factors, including heat, oxidation

and shelf life. Quality control measures must be put in

place to ensure vitamin levels in the finished feed are meeting

the recommended nutrient specifications. Several strategies

can be employed to accomplish this goal, including:

- Using separate vitamin and mineral supplements and

excluding choline chloride from supplements. The recommendation

for choline is given as a minimum specification

in the complete feed and not quoted as a component of

the premix.

- Adjusting formulas of finished feed to account for

estimated vitamin degradation during a given feed

conditioning processes.

Vitamin E is the most expensive vitamin on a per bird/day

basis. It influences many critical biological functions, including

respiration, immune system functionality, reproductive

performance and chick viability. For breeder feeds, 45 IU vitamin

E/lb. (100 mg/kg) feed is recommended to ensure a

level of 200 µ/g tocopherol in the yolk. Research has shown

this level to enhance the immune system of newly hatched

chicks. There may be situations, such as disease outbreaks

and environmental stresses, where higher than recommended

levels of vitamin E are beneficial.

FEED MANUFACTURING

OBJECTIVE Carry out best management manufacturing practices to

ensure that Ross breeding stock receives rations with adequate

nutrient fortification, while minimizing potential contaminants.

KEY POINTS 4 Raw materials and processing techniques must be consistent from batch to batch for a given flock.

4 Ingredients must be free of contamination by chemical residues, microbial toxins and pathogens.

4 Raw materials should be as fresh as possible within practical limitations and should be stored under

controlled conditions.

4 Storage facilities must be protected from contamination by insects, rodents and, in particular, wild birds, all of which

are potential carriers of disease.

4 To avoid undersupplying energy, nutritionists may use relatively conservative metabolizable energy (ME) values

for raw materials. This means that the average ME levels

fed may be greater than expected and energy

oversupplied. It is important to compare actual versus

expected body weight gains over time to monitor

the latter.

4 Breeding stock can be fed successfully on mash, crumbled or pelleted feed, as long as good feeding management is

practiced.

4 Provide feed as fresh as possible. The risk of nutrient degradation and mold growth in feed increases as a given

feed delivery remains in the farm feed bin.

RAW MATERIALS Drastic changes in the formulation nutrient specifications for

a single flock must be avoided. This formulation stability

must include ingredient quality, energy content and feed processing

conditions.

Feed fats should be consistent, good quality fat. Fish oils have

been shown to depress performance and any fats containing

sterculic acid, e.g., cottonseed, kapok, etc., must be avoided.

Products of fat oxidation (peroxides) and trans-isomer fatty

acids in overcooked vegetable oils are undesirable.

FEED PROCESSING Breeding stock can be fed successfully on mash, crumbled or

pelleted feed, as long as good feeding management is practiced

in each case. Mash or crumbled feeds will allow extended

feed cleanup times, allowing all birds to consume their

proper feed allotment. In periods of high temperature where

feed cleanup time is too long, pelleted diets may be advantageous.

Conditioning feed will also have the beneficial effect of

reducing the microbial load in the feed.

FINISHED FEED QUALITY The time period for feed to go from the feed plant to actually

being consumed by the breeder flock should be as short as

possible. This is especially important under conditions of

high temperature and humidity, which will accelerate degradation of overall feed quality.

A quality control program for monitoring the finished feed

should include:

- proper sampling method

-

- appropriate sampling frequency

-

- comparison of actual versus target dietary nutrient

specifications

- tests for contamination (microbiological, as well as toxins)

-

- proper storage of feed samples

-

Table 4.1 can be used as a guideline for trouble-shooting

nutritional deficiencies.

Ross also has nutritionists available for consultation.

To schedule a visit, contact your Ross technical service manager.

1 Joule (J)

= 0.735 foot pound (ft lb.)

= 0.00095 British thermal unit (Btu)

1 foot pound (ft lb.) = 1.36 Joules (J)

1 British thermal units (Btu) = 1055 Joules (J)

PRESSURE 1 pound per square inch (psi)

= 6895 Newtons per square meter (N/m 2

)

= or Pascals (Pa)

= 0.06895 bar

1 bar

= 14.504 pounds per square inch (psi)

= 105 Newtons per square meter (N/m 2

)

= or Pascals (Pa)

= 100 kilopascals (kPa)

1 Newton per square meter or Pascal (N/m 2

)

= 0.000145 pound per square inch (lb./in 2

)

STOCKING DENSITY 1 square foot per bird (ft 2

/bird)

= 10.76 birds per square meter (bird/m 2

)

1 bird per square meter (bird/m 2

)

= 10.76 square feet per bird (ft 2

/bird)

5 birds per square meter (bird/m 2

)

= 2.15 square feet per bird (ft 2

/bird)

7 birds per square meter (bird/m 2

)

= 1.54 square feet per bird (ft 2

/bird)

1 kilogram per square meter (kg/m 2

)

= 0.205 pound per square foot (lb./ft 2

)

1 pound per square foot (lb./ft 2

)

= 4.878 kilograms per square meter (kg/m 2

)

TEMPERATURE Temperature (ºC) = 5/9 (Temperature ºF-32)

Temperature (ºF) = 32 + 9/5 (Temperature ºC)

VENTILATION 1 cubic foot per minute (ft 3

/min)

= 1.699 cubic meters per hour (m 3

/hour)

1 cubic meter per hour (m 3

/hour)

= 0.589 cubic foot per minute (ft 3

/min.)

INSULATION U value measured in Watts per square meter per degree

LIGHT 1 foot-candle = 10.76 lux

Table 5.1

TEMPERATURE CONVERSION

°C °F °C °F

0 32.0 22 71.6

2 35.6 24 75.2

4 39.2 26 78.8

6 42.8 28 82.4

8 46.4 30 86.0

10 50.0 32 89.6

12 53.6 34 93.2

14 57.2 36 96.8

16 60.8 38 100.4

18 64.4 40 104.0

20 68.0

APPENDIX 2 AVAILABLE SUPPLEMENTS FEMALE MANAGEMENT Key factors for rearing/breeding Ross female parent stock,

including feed and water management, body weights, housing

environment, servicing and vaccination, and production management.

MALE MANAGEMENT Key factors for rearing/breeding Ross male parent stock,

including feed and water management, body weights, housing

environment, servicing and vaccination, and production management.

REARING/BREEDING PROGRAM Production tracking charts for female parent stock, including

lighting, uniformity, weight goals, feed allowances, mortality,

egg production, hatchability and vaccination records.

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS Production benchmarks for female parent stock, including

hatching eggs, egg weight, chicks, hatchability, daily and peak

production by age, body weight, feed/pullet, and feed/dozen

hatching eggs.

MALE FEEDING Nutrient specifications and feeding program summary for

Ross male parent stock, including target body weights, feed

allocation, nutrient requirements and lighting requirements.

FEMALE FEEDING Nutrient specifications and feeding program summary for

Ross female parent stock, including target body weights, feed

allocation, nutrient requirements and lighting requirements.

PLANNING CALENDAR Six-year calendar for tracking flock age by week.

Supplements are also available for broiler production.

Ross Tech bulletins are available on a wide range of

management topics.

Ross provides technical assistance to customers on breeder

and broiler management, and can arrange for consultation

with hatchery and feed milling experts, veterinarians and

nutritionists. For assistance, contact your Ross technical service

manager to arrange a consultation.

INDEX OF

DIAGRAMS AND TABLES NUMBER TITLE PAGE Diagram 1.1 Physiological Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .8

Diagram 1.2 Management Progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .9

Diagram 1.3 Sample Body Weight Recording Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .10

Table 1.1 Sample Size and F Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.11

Table 1.2 Evaluating Flock Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.12

Diagram 1.4 Flock Uniformity Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .12

Diagram 1.5 Breast Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .13

Diagram 2.1 Typical Brooder Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .17

Table 2.1 Lighting Program — Blackout Rearing to Open House Laying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .18

Table 2.2 Feeder Space for Partial House Rearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .19

Table 2.3 Drinker Space During Rearing and Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .19

Table 2.4 Minimum Acceptable Levels of Minerals and Bacteria in Drinking Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .20

Table 2.5 Average Daily Water Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .20

Table 2.6 Temperature Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.20

Table 2.7 Evaporative Cooling Systems in Common Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .21

Diagram 2.2 Tunnel Housing Featuring Pad Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .21

Table 2.8 Examples of Feeding Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.22

Diagram 2.3 Proper Beak Trimming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .23

Diagram 2.4 Chick Distribution Under Brooders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .24

Diagram 2.5 Females Underweight at 4 Weeks Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .26

Diagram 2.6 Females Overweight at 4 Weeks Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .27

Diagram 2.7 Females Under/Overweight at 20 Weeks Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .29

Table 3.1 Lighting Program for the Laying House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .33

Table 3.2 Feeder Space During Laying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.34

Diagram 3.1 Example of Immature Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .35

Table 3.3 Male Supplement Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.36

Diagram 3.2 Male Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .37

Table 3.4 Frequency of Observation of Important Production Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .39

Table 3.5 Pelvic Bone Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.40

Diagram 3.3 Graphing Egg Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .41

Table 3.6 Relative Effectiveness of Disinfection Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .43

Table 3.7 Temperature and Humidity for Egg Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .43

Table 3.8 Trouble-shooting Hatch Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.44

Table 4.1 Trouble-shooting Nutritional Deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .52

Table 5.1 Temperature Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.56

INDEX OF KEY WORDS KEY WORD PAGE Abnormal Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33, 41

Air Exchange Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21, 34

Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20, 21

Amino Acids, see also supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

Avian Encephalomyelitis (Epidemic Tremor) . . . . . . . . . . .50

Biosecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47-49

Blackout Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33

Body Weight Recording Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7, 10

Body Weight, Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7, 11

Body Weights, see supplements

Breast Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Breeder Diet, see also supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Brooder Guards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Brooder Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Broodiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33

Brooding Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Brooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17-18, 22-24

Calcium in Feed Rations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Calcium Tetany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Carcass Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Chick Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20, 23, 24

Chick Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Chicken Anemia Virus (CAV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Cleaning Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Coefficient of Variation (CV%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Comb Trimming (Dubbing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23, 35

Conversion Tables (Appendix 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55-56

Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21, 34

Crop Impaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Culling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36, 38

Daily Production, see supplements

Dead Bird Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Dew Claws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Diet Specifications, see supplements

Disease Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49-50

Disinfection of Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

Drinkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17, 19

Drinkers, Supplemental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Dubbing (Comb Trimming) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23, 35

E. coli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19, 50

Egg Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Egg Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Egg Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42-43

Egg Production, see supplements

Egg Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25, 40, 41

Egg Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Egg Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40, 41

Egg Yolk Peritonitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33

Equipment Cleaning Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47-48

Erratic Ovulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33

Feather Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35, 36, 37, 39

Feed Allowances,

see also supplements . . . .22, 23, 24, 36, 37-38, 40-41, 44

Feed Consumption (Cleanup) Time . . . . .22, 36, 37, 38, 40

Feed Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22, 34, 35

Feed Increases,

see also supplements . . . . . . . . .22, 24, 25, 36, 38, 39, 41

Feed Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51-52

Feed Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Feed Reduction, Post-peak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Feed Systems, Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

Feed Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Feed, Overconsumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Feeder Grills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Feeder Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19, 22, 34-35

Feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17, 19, 34-35

Feeders, Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Feeders, Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Feeders, Supplemental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Feeding Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Feeding Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22-23

Feeding Schedule, see Feeding Frequency

Feeding to Control Body Weight . . . . . . . . . . .13, 22, 36, 37

Feeding, Ad Libitum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Female Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22, 25, 34, 38-40

Fertility, see supplements

Fleshing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Fleshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40

Floor Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Floor Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Foot Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36, 40

Fowl Cholera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Fumigation of Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

Grower Diet, see supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Hatch Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37, 38, 44

Hatchability, see supplements

Hatching Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25, 37, 38, 41-44

Hot Weather, Feeding During . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

House Clean-out Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47-49

House Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17-21, 47-49

House Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Housing Recommendations, Laying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33-35

Housing Recommendations, Rearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17-21

Humidity, see Relative Humidity

Infectious Bronchitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Infectious Larygotracheitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

In-season Flocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Insect Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Leg Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36, 40

Light Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33

Light Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33

Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33, 39

Lighting, Overstimulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33, 38

Litter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Male Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22, 25, 35-38

Male Physical Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Management Progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Marek’s Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Mating Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35, 36

Mating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35-36

Medication in Feed Rations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Metabolizable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39, 50-51