Urban Transportation, Land Use, and the Environment in Latin America: A Case Study Approach

Urban Transportation Land Use and Urban Transportation Land Use and the Environment in Latin America the Environment in Latin America

A Case Study ApproachA Case Study Approach

Lecture 2

1Urban Transport and City Development in Latin America (Contrsquod from Lecture 1)

2 Urban Transportation and Sustainability ndashndash the Three Ersquos

Urban Transportrsquos ldquoVicious or Viciousrdquo Cycle

Transportation ndash Providing Access

bull Facilitate movement of goods and services

bull Improves accessibility to work education etc

Development bull Increase in IndustrialCommercial Activities

bull Increase in Personal Incomes

EconomicEnvironmental Impacts bull Congestion bull Infrastructure Costs bull Resource Degradation (ie energy air land)

TransportUrban Effects bull Growth in Trip Rates bull Motorization bull Changes in Mode Share bull Urban Expansion

Automobility amp the Forces Against the Bus

Increased Income

Increased Attractiveness of Autos


Reduced Frequencies

Fare Increases ampor Reductions in Service Quality

Motorization

Reduced Demand for Bus Trips

Suburbanization

Greater Trip Complexity (Chaining etc)

Growth in Road CongestionIncrease in Bus

Operating Costs

Bus vs Auto ndashndash Travel Speeds

Growth of the ldquoInformalrdquo Sector

Minibuses shared sedans vans etc illegal or licensed but with little regulatory effort or power ―Mexico City Lima Recife (Brazil) San Jose (Costa Ric

a) etc Combination of initiating factors

―Liberalization of the public transport market scarce alternative employment opportunities public sector employment restructuring (Peru) institutional weakness 1048698

Positive Impacts ―Employment fill demand with ldquodoor to doorrdquo service 1048698

Negative Impacts―System-wide effects (congestion pollution) political clout

unsafe on-road competition

ldquoInformalrdquo Sector

Rio ―Kombis complementary service in inaccessible areas―14-seater ldquoluxuryrdquo vehicles competing express

service―Fares 2 to 3 times equivalent bus fare―Early 1990s 600 vehicles today 6000 to 9000―Buses have responded to competition diversifying

operations and adding amenities (ie AC)

The Rise of the ldquoInformalrdquo Sector in Mexico City

of All public

Transport Trips

Colectivo

Urban Rail Transit

Metros suburban rail light rail 1048698Typically the exception in developing cities inclu

ding Latin America―High capital costs lack of flexibility in adapting to cha

nging travel patterns long construction times―Still often highly prized as visible ldquomodernrdquo solutions

to transport problems

Suburban Rail in Latin America

Suburban Rail in Buenos Aires Santiago Satildeo Paulo Rioand several other Brazilian cities

Buenos Aires ―7 lines 840 kms 8 of trips

Rio―264 kms 2 of trips

Satildeo Paulo―6 lines 270 kms 2 of trips

Santiago―1 line 85 kms ltlt03 of trips

Metros in Latin America

LinesLines KmsKms StationStation TripsTrips

BouenosAiBouenosAiresres

55 4444 6767 55

CaracasCaracas 33 4646 4040 NaNa

Mexico Mexico CityCity

1010 180180 167167 ~13~13

Rio (incl Rio (incl LR)LR)

22 3535 3030 ~3~3

Sao PaulosSao Paulos 33 4949 4646 55

SantiagoSantiago 33 4040 5151 ~7~7

Metros

High Capacity ndash 60 PassengersHrDirection High Capacity ndash 60 PassengersHrDirection High Cost -$40-$150 mnKm High Cost -$40-$150 mnKm Capital Costs rarely if ever recovered Capital Costs rarely if ever recovered Operating RevenuesOperating costsOperating RevenuesOperating costs ndash ldquo ndash ldquoFarebox Ratiordquo (in 1990) ndash Mexico City Farebox Ratiordquo (in 1990) ndash Mexico City Rio Satildeo Paulo lt 1Rio Satildeo Paulo lt 1 ndash ndash Santiago gt 15 Santiago gt 15 ndash ndash Policy outcome planning outcome Policy outcome planning outcome

operations operations outcomeoutcome

Approaches to Sustainability

The Three ldquoErsquosrdquo (or the Three Pillars Three Dimensions etc)―Economics Environment Equity

Can Economic Growth (development) be achieved with Ecological Balance and Social Progress 1048698 WBCSD Mo

bility 2001 adds to the Three Ersquos

―Operational SustainabilityCan our transportation systems continueoperating

Others have suggested additional elements ―Particularly Institutions or Governance

The Three Ersquos Compatible or Contradictory

Sustainability amp Transportation

Can the transportation system itself be sustainable 1048698

Can a sustainable transportation system exist but contribute to a larger unsustainable global economic system 1048698

What do we mean by sustainable

The Three Ersquos as Guiding Principles in Urban Development and Transportin EconomicFinancial SustainabilityEconomicFinancial Sustainability

―Ensure that cities continue to support Ensure that cities continue to support economic development 1048698 economic development 1048698

EnvironmentalEcological SustainabilityEnvironmentalEcological Sustainability― Generate an overall improvement in Generate an overall improvement in

quality of lifequality of life Social Sustainability (Equity)Social Sustainability (Equity)

― The benefits should be shared equitably by The benefits should be shared equitably by society How Can These Principles Help Guide society How Can These Principles Help Guide Policies Strategies DecisionsPolicies Strategies Decisions

Social Sustainability

Mobility (providing accessibility to jobs education recreation etc) serves as key ldquolubricantrdquo to sustaining our basic social systems 1048698

Mobility ldquoopportunitiesrdquo are unequally distributed across countries and within countriescities―Trip possibilities trip rates trip times travel condition

s―Income gender age raceethnicity 1048698

Mobility and its infrastructures produce disparate negative impacts across different groups ―Accidents noise ldquobarrierrdquo effect pollution etc

Equity ndashndash Travel Times

Equity --Expenditures

Accidents ndashndash Social amp Economic Impacts

Traffic Risk (fatalities per vehicle) ― typically 2 to 10 times higher in developing countries

Causes Lack of institutional engineering infrastructure interventions―High degree of mixedconflicting road users ndash Poor driver trainin

g enforcement low penalties health care system 1048698Poorest typically suffer the greatest burden

―Most vulnerable road users 1048698Social Impact

―pain suffering lossEconomic Impact

―Lost productivity material costs resource allocation

Comparative Traffic Fatalities

Equity --Accidents

EconomicFinancial Sustainability

Mobility serves as key ldquolubricantrdquo(providing accessibility) to sustaining oureconomic systems

Limited resources available to dedicate to mobility demands

ndash Individuals and Firms have limited time amp budgets ndash Financing for infrastructure and necessary institutio

ns competes with other public needs ndash Space for infrastructure is limited ndash Energy resources are finite

Congestion and The Three Ersquos

Economically ndash lost time for travellersfreight lost resources (fuel) and often distorted investment decisions reduced urban agglomeration economies

Socially ndash poor are most often disproportionately burdened (public transport suffers) social networks (families) hampered

Environmentally ndash air pollutant emissions increased fuel consumption increased urban expansion (sprawl) accelerated

Congestion ConditionsReflected in slow travel speeds and ndash at least partially ndash i

n high total travel times in developing country cities ndash Avg peak-period travel speed in Bangkok Manila Mexico City 10 kmhr ndash Avg trip time in Manila 120 minutes Jakarta 82 minutes ndash Not necessarily increasing in intensity but almost certainly in time and space 1048698Anecdotal ldquoevidencerdquo abounds but accurately comparing

congestion levels across developing country cities is difficult due to lack of relevant data

Congestion Perspectives

User ndash speed reduced due to other road users Engineers ndash when traffic density reaches point where flow goes below design capacity

Administrators ndash when a relatively arbitrary threshold (ie level of service) is exceeded 1048698

Economists ndash individual average private cost exceeds the social marginal costs (externality)

Physicists ndash non-linear chaotic system in which small random fluctuations can cause extended flow breakdowns (httpwwwtheatlanticcomissues200012budianskyhtm)

Congestion ndashndash the Engineerrsquos Perspective

Congestion ndashndash the Economistrsquos Perspective

Economic Sustainability ndashndash Infrastructure and Finance

Infrastructurersquos Dueling Pressures―Maintenance and management to make best

use of existing infrastructure ―Expansion to satisfy growth in motorized vehi

cles travel demand urban outgrowth

Infrastructure ldquoopportunity costsrdquo―Of urban land―Of financial resources

Economic Sustainability and Finance

Relevant Expenditures―Construction Maintenance Management Planning Service Pr

ovision Relevant Revenue Sources

―Vehicle Registrations Fees (buoyant due to motorization) Dedicated Fuel Taxes Fares Property Taxes Other Taxes

Challenges―Other public policy objectives ie Income Redistribution―Multi-level authorities national regional local ―Unclear financing principles ―Lack of marginal cost pricing fees not matched with costs

ldquoexcessrdquo demand inability to plan ldquorationallyrdquo

EnvironmentalEcological Sustainability

Airwaterland pollutionAirwaterland pollution ndash ndash A major source of local air pollution amp most rapidly growingA major source of local air pollution amp most rapidly growing source of global air pollutionsource of global air pollution ndash ndash Groundwater run-off hydrologic impacts of pavingGroundwater run-off hydrologic impacts of paving Noise pollutionvibration amp aestheticsNoise pollutionvibration amp aesthetics ndash ndash Disruption and damage in urbansuburban areas and rural amp ldquowildrdquoDisruption and damage in urbansuburban areas and rural amp ldquowildrdquo settingssettings ndash ndash Visual ldquointrusionrdquoVisual ldquointrusionrdquo Depletion of natural resources and ecosystem changDepletion of natural resources and ecosystem chang

eses ndash ndash Loss of wetlands infrastructure-induced land use changesLoss of wetlands infrastructure-induced land use changes partition of habitats etcpartition of habitats etc

Vehicle and parts disposalVehicle and parts disposal

Environment ndashndash Local Air Pollution

Transportation Contribution to Local Air Pollutants

Pollution ConcentrationsExposure

Determine ultimate health impacts 1048698

Influenced by

ndash Meteorology ndash wind sunshine precipitation temperatures (thermal inversion) ndash Physical characteristics ndash altitude (combustion) topographical (valleys) buildings (ldquoman-made valleys) ndash Population and activity locations and densitie

s

Environment ndashndash Global Pollution Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions amp Climate Change ndash Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Methane Nitrous Oxides CFCs ndash Worldwide transportation accounts for 26 of CO2 (17

road sector) ndash Transport most rapidly growing anthropogenic source ndash Transport nearly completely dependent on fossil fuels ndash Developing countries currently 25 of transportation G

HGs but growing rapidly

Transport Emissions Determinants

Relative Contribution by Vehicle Type


Index of Pollutant Contribution per Index of Pollutant Contribution per Vehicle -SantiagoVehicle -Santiago

Index of Pollutant Contribution per Index of Pollutant Contribution per Vehicle ndashMexico CityVehicle ndashMexico City

Index of Pollutant Contribution per Index of Pollutant Contribution per Vehicle ndashInterpretationVehicle ndashInterpretation

Santiago and Mexico City ―Poor emissions characteristics of buses taxis

and trucks andor―their relatively intensive use (high VKT)

Index of Relative ldquoWork Index of Efficiencyrdquo ndashndash Mexico City

Index of Relative ldquoWork Index of Efficiencyrdquo ndashndash Interpretations

Colectivos ndash Despite their large number these vehicles exhibit

a very low index of pollution per passenger trip share suggesting high passenger utilization rates

Taxis ndash High relative pollution likely derives from their re

latively low occupancy rates and the fact that they spend much time driving without any passengers

Cars ndash High relative pollution index comes from their rel

atively low occupancy rates

Noise PollutionNoise PollutionTransportation often major source

ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s

ndash 80 of population living or working on major transport

arteries suffered risk of hearing loss

Lima mid-1990s

ndash On principal avenues noise levels 2 times higher than

norms

Affects property values may accelerate decentralization

ndash Policy dilemma buses often a major culprit

Other Environmental Impacts

Induced consumption of open space ―Again ldquodoes transport cause sprawlrdquo 1048698

Infrastructure destruction of delicate ecosystems

Runoff from highway pavement 1048698 Vehicle disposal fuel leakage etc

Urban Transport Sustainability Some Key Issues

Energy Systems ―Petroleum accounts for 96 of transportation energy use likely t

o remain dominant in medium term ―Price fluctuations OPEC dominance add considerable uncertai

ntyinstability to supply conditions ― Imports pose significant hard currency costs on poorer countries ―Projected growth in road transport fuels 37-42 in developing

world 13-15 in industrialized 1048698Environmental Impacts

― Technology has shown to significantly reduce per unit local air pollution impacts ndash at what cost especially among the poorer

― global air pollution problem more elusive due to petroleum dependency― additional ecological impacts are less well-understood due to complexit

y but likely significant


Financial Systems ―Mechanisms proven for ldquosustainablerdquo infrastructure fin

ancing (including via privatization)―Institutional Barriers to implementing effective financin

g systems―Persistently difficult issues related to financing public t

ransport operations (and rail transit development) ―Ongoing challenge of charging external costs

Broader Social Issues―Can mobility strategies be deployed to improve equity

in distribution of opportunities (accessibility ―Accidents still major public health threat

How Would You ldquoMeasurerdquo the Principles

Assignment 2

In class and in the readings we have seen the broad-range of impacts of urban transportation and their implications for sustainability We have also been introduced to some of the possible interventions for improving transportation system performance as it relates to sustainability

Identify two of the most pressing needs related to urban sustainability in the Latin America context Justify your selection of these relative to others What interventions would you recommend to address these needs Why

No lengthy introductions or conclusions are necessary rather Pressing Need Why Based on What criteria Thoughts on Intervention

This can be done in 4 paragraphs 15 pages Max

Urban Transportrsquos ldquoVicious or Viciousrdquo Cycle

Transportation ndash Providing Access

bull Facilitate movement of goods and services

bull Improves accessibility to work education etc

Development bull Increase in IndustrialCommercial Activities

bull Increase in Personal Incomes

EconomicEnvironmental Impacts bull Congestion bull Infrastructure Costs bull Resource Degradation (ie energy air land)

TransportUrban Effects bull Growth in Trip Rates bull Motorization bull Changes in Mode Share bull Urban Expansion


Increased Income



Reduced Frequencies


Motorization


Suburbanization



Operating Costs














of All public

Transport Trips

Colectivo

Urban Rail Transit














55 4444 6767 55



1010 180180 167167 ~13~13


22 3535 3030 ~3~3



Metros


































Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2






Increased Income



Reduced Frequencies


Motorization


Suburbanization



Operating Costs














of All public

Transport Trips

Colectivo

Urban Rail Transit














55 4444 6767 55



1010 180180 167167 ~13~13


22 3535 3030 ~3~3



Metros


































Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2


















of All public

Transport Trips

Colectivo

Urban Rail Transit














55 4444 6767 55



1010 180180 167167 ~13~13


22 3535 3030 ~3~3



Metros


































Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2

















of All public

Transport Trips

Colectivo

Urban Rail Transit














55 4444 6767 55



1010 180180 167167 ~13~13


22 3535 3030 ~3~3



Metros


































Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2










of All public

Transport Trips

Colectivo

Urban Rail Transit














55 4444 6767 55



1010 180180 167167 ~13~13


22 3535 3030 ~3~3



Metros


































Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2






of All public

Transport Trips

Colectivo

Urban Rail Transit














55 4444 6767 55



1010 180180 167167 ~13~13


22 3535 3030 ~3~3



Metros


































Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2





Urban Rail Transit














55 4444 6767 55



1010 180180 167167 ~13~13


22 3535 3030 ~3~3



Metros


































Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2














55 4444 6767 55



1010 180180 167167 ~13~13


22 3535 3030 ~3~3



Metros


































Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2








55 4444 6767 55



1010 180180 167167 ~13~13


22 3535 3030 ~3~3



Metros


































Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2





Metros


































Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2




































Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2






























Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2





























Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2

























Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2




















Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2















Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2














Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2













Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2






Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2





Equity --Accidents







































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2











































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2






































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2


































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2































Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2


























Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2

























Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2
























Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2



















Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2













Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2









Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2








Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2







Influenced by


s





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2

























ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2






















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2





















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2




















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2



















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2


















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2

















ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2














ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2













ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2






ndash Scarce data

Santiago late 1980s



Lima mid-1990s


norms























Assignment 2

























Assignment 2





















Assignment 2













Assignment 2






Assignment 2





Assignment 2





Documents

Urban Transportation, Land Use, and the Environment in Latin America: A Case Study Approach