N.S. 157

UNIVERSALIZATION OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN INDIA :

LESSONS OF EXPERIENCE AND POINTERS FOR ACTION

AIDS TO PROGRAMMING UNICEF ASSISTANCE TO EDUCATION

***************** I UPEL 10 I January 1985 * * *****************

By : Sunil Behari Mohanty Head, Department of Education Bhadrak College P. 0. BHADRAK, Dt. BALASORE Orissa 756 100, India

Unit for Co-operation with UNICEF and WFP Unesco, Paris

The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of Unesco.

ET /85 WS./44

UNIVERSALIZATION OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN INDIA:

LESSONS OF EXPERIENCE AND POINTERS FOR ACTION

********************************************************** * * * * * * Education is one of the fundamental necessities * * of man. It is also instrumental in meeting * * other needs. Primary education has been found * * to be positively related to agricultural * * extension and productivity on the farm (World $ * Bank 19803 p. 15). This, truth is being realized * * in an increasing manner. But the level of X * realization varies from nation to nation. X * j , • *

* Attempts' for universalvzatvon of prvmary * * education have not made much of a dent3 X * especially in developing countries, including X * India. X * * **********************************************************

I. INTRODUCTION

The need for universalization of primary education in India was pointed out a century ago by Sri Dadabhai Naoroji. Later, during 1912-14, Sri Gópal Krishna Gokhale took up the cause. His efforts were supported by Sri R. V. Parulekar. The GOKHALE-PARULEKAR MODEL OF PRIMARY EDUCATION was limited to the attainment of universal literacy through four years of compulsory schooling. Towards the end of the colonial rule, the POST-WAR PLAN OF EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF 1944 proposed to provide primary education to all children in the age group 6-14 by the year 1984. The Constitution of free India that came into force in 1950, proposed to achieve the target of universalization within a period of ten years (i.e., by 1960). Although three times the number of targetted years have passed, the goal is not in view.

The country has 22 States and 9 Union territories. Although education' is. under concurrent list, (i.e., legislation pertaining to education could bé made by both the Union and the State legislatures), school education is mostly controlled by the States and Union territories. The Central Government only advises and provides grants for specific purposes. Therefore, provisions vary from one part to another part of the country.

There is no minimum age level for admission into Class I in three States. The said age level is 6+ in seven States and two Union territories and is 5+ in all other States and Union territories. Throughout the country education is free from classes I to V in schools run by the governments and by local bodies. Except for boys of Uttar Pradesh State, it is also free in classes VI-VIII in the above types of schools of the country. Compulsory

- 2 -

education acts have been passed for classes I-VIII in the State of Himachal Pradesh. Such acts are yet to be enforced in six States and six Union territories. However, nowhere have the compulsory education acts been enforced.

II. MAJOR RESEARCH FINDINGS

Researches on various aspects of problems concerning universalization of primary education have been going on since the last three decades.

PARULEKAR (1939) studied the problem and suggested two-shift schools, each shift working for three hours a day—alternate day schools and part-time education.

NAIK (1941) found various types of economic, social and educational causes. Economic causes included the work of children at home or elsewhere, social causes included child-marriage etc. and educational causes included lack of provision of school mid­day meals and of school health facilities, unattractive and incomplete schools and lack of educational awareness among parents.

GADGIL and LANDEKAR (1955) found that reasons for wastage were mostly socio-economic in nature.

CHICKERMANE (1962) found that causes of wastage in schools consisted of stagnation in the schools, domestic work by children and poverty of families.

CHOWDHURY (1965) found that causes of wastage and stagnation were poverty, indifference of parents towards education and irregular attendance of school children.

NAIK (1966) suggested the provision of mid-day meals to each child by 1975-76. He also recommended free provision of textbooks, reading and writing materials to all students, free provision of clothing to poor students and improvement of programmes of school health services. He also suggested three months of training for every five years of service by a school teacher.

NCERT (1967) found that wastage and stagnation in Delhi schools were more a case of :

(a) schools having double shift system, lower paid teachers, teachers residing away from schools and schools with inadequate provision for co-curricular activities;

- 3 -

(b) students who have lower percentage of attendance and who belong to lower or higher age groups than the age prescribed for the class;

(c) students who belong to scheduled caste and scheduled tribe families and to families having agriculture, artisan work and daily labour as profession as well as belonging to parents having low educational background or belonging to lower income groups.

SHARMA and SHARPA (1969) found eight causes related to students, six causes related to schools and fourteen causes related to homes which gave rise to wastage and stangnation.

REGE (1971) arrived at socio-economic, educational and miscellaneous causes of wastage in schools.

RAWAT and GOEL (1974) arrived at causes such as non-availability of reading and writing materials, high teacher-pupil ratio, defective school curricula, ineffective inspection and supervision, lack of instructional materials, incompetence of teachers, inadequate and inappropriate co-curricular activities at school level and parental indifference towards education.

NAIK (1976) arrived at various factors that negatively affected the progress of universalization. These were shortage of resources, imbalance between resources for primary and secondary education, single point entry, sequential promotion system, full-time instruction and full-time professional teachers., .

KUNDU and CHAKRAVARTY (1977) found that the majority of drop­outs were engaged either in domestic work or in income-generating activities. Their parents had low literacy abilities.

MOHANTY (1981a) reported that in December 1976, 25 per cent of the children in the age-group 6 to 14 residing in Sambalpur Municipality area did not attend schools.

GUJARAT RESEARCH SOCIETY (1983) found that the drop-out rate among students of Greater Bombay was highest at Class I regardless of sex. The study recommended reduction of school hours to three and a half or to four hours a day so that the children could earn to supplement the income of their families.

SHARMA (1983) studied" the effect of non-detention on scholastic achievement and found that it increased for classes I and II and decreased from classes III onwards. During the period of non-detention, there was deterioration in quality and standard of education.

_ 4 - -

III. CONSTRAINTS TO UNIVERSALIZATION OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

Universal!zation of primary education in India is beset with constraints such as:

1. inadequacy of financial provision;

2. poverty among parents;

3. indiferrence of parents;

4. alienation of schools;

5. inappropriateness of curricula;

6. ineffectiveness of teachers;

7. inertia in administrative and supervisory machinery; and

8- multitude of languages and dialects.

1. Inadequacy of Financial Provision

Since independence, India has been forced to devote a substantial amount of funds for meeting threats to its territories and natural calamities such as cyclones, floods and droughts.

************************************************ *

According to the World Bank (1980), * •it is one of the low income countries * of the world having an annual . per * capita income in 19?'5 less than US * $265.00. Hence, adequate resources * have not been made available for * education. Out of the available * resources, a substantial amount has * been devoted to higher education, * which is necessary for scientific * and technological development of * the nation. *

* ************************************************

The handicap posed by the inadequacy of financial provision by the State is aggravated by the poverty of parents.

2. Poverty Among Parents:

A large number of Indian parents suffer from poverty. According to the draft five-year plan 1978-1983, in 1977-78, 46.33 per cent of the population were below the poverty line. This figure might go down to 27.04 per cent by the year 1987-88 (Patel 1981). Such poverty has forced

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

- 5 -

nearly 40 per cent of the children in the age group 6-11 to work full time to supplement the family income. There are many dropouts and repeaters among such population. However, there are also a number of children who do not attend schools due to the indifference of their parents towards education.

Indifference of Parents

An illiterate parent is generally averse to education. According to a recent Census report (Government of India 1982), 68.33 per cent of the people are illiterate. Again, children from educated families climb the educational ladder more successfully than those from uneducated families (Coombs 1977). This develops antipathy in uneducated parents towards education. This also gets accentuated by alienation of schools from society.

Alienation of Schools

After independence, there was a decrease in the number of chatasalis (privately-managed indigenous schools) and an increase in the number of State-managed or assisted primary schools. Unfortunately, the alienation of State-supported schools, seen during the colonial period, continues. Schools neither use the resources available in the community nor make their own resources available for community use. Such utilization of resources are found even in a developed country like the United Kingdom in the form of Community- Schools (Mohanty 1981b). The necessity for such community schools is yet to be realized in India, inspite of the fact that curricula of such community schools are more suitable for India.

Inappropriateness of Curricula

The primary school curricula vary from State to State. The school curriculum in each of the States is almost centrally-controlled. There are prescribed syllabi, textbooks etc., irrespective of diversities in languages and dialects spoken by the people and geographical differences. Besides, such curricula do not give independence to teachers to make variations depending on local needs, which makes them ineffective.

Ineffectiveness of Teachers

Lack of effectiveness among teachers takes root at the time of teacher training. Inspite of the known effects of teacher training on efficiency of teachers, most developing countries have poor teacher training programmes. Such training programmes in India are also farcical in nature. (Mohanty 1982).

- 6 -

*********************************************** * * * J Most of the staff members of the * training institutions do not have * continued school teaching experience * and most of their suggestions are *

* not based on field experiences. * * *

Facilities for in-service education * * of these poorly-trained teachers *

* *

are meagre. *

At the time of recruitment of teachers^ * the needs of each school are not *

j * * Î taken into consideration. *

* * * * * * * * Î remain without teachers or have * % temporary teachers who are engaged *

The system of transfer makes schools * situated in deprived areas either *

* * * * * * * in their transfer to schools situated *

* in better areas and not in teaching. * * ************************************************

Such ineffectiveness among teachers gets further accentuated by the inertia prevailing in the administrative and inspecting machinery.

Inertia in Administrative and Supervisory Machinery

The intertia prevailing among administrators and supervisors has its origin in a faulty recruitment system.

+***********************************************

* Î * . * * While appointing such personnel in * $ many cases3 experience in primary * * school teaching is not taken into * * consideration. In some parts of * * the country such personnel are * $ transferable to secondary schools *

* * *

and vice versa. * * * * Provision for pre-service training * * of such personnel does not exist * * in many States. The personnel so * i appointed also spend more time on * * day-to-day maintenance and on personnel * * administration than on providing * * guidance to teachers and delivering $ * model lessons. * * * * * * * ***********************************************

- 7 -

The inertia prevailing in the system is responsible for ill-distribution of available resources. Such problems get further accentuated because of the multitude of languages and dialects.

8. Multitude of Languages and Dialects

There are nearly 900 languages and dialects spoken by the people of the country, whereas there are only fifteen languages in which instruction is provided in various parts of the country.

************************************************ * * •f. JL

* The ahilaren whose mother tongues * * are not these official languages * * generally face more difficulty in * * learning than theiv counterparts * * whose mother tongues are the official * * languages. The former also fail * * to get adequate feedback from their * * homes. * * * * * ************************************************

IV. RECOMMENDATIONS MADE BY VARIOUS BODIES

The constraints mentioned above are to a very great extent responsible for the slow progress in the attempt for universalization of primary education. Various committees and conferences have discussed these problems and have given several suggestions for their solutions. A few important recommendations are as follows:

The National Seminar on Compulsory Primary Education (Ministry of Education 1961) recommended:

(a) completing all formalities concerning posting of teachers at least one month before the commencement of each session;

(b) posting of husband and wife at the same station;

(c) relaxing age rules for women teachers;

(d) providing not more than 40 schools for an inspector;

(e) opening extension service centres in each of the primary teacher training institutions; and

(f) making provision for in-service training of teachers within every three to five years of block period.

- 8 -

The PATEL Committee (Ministry of Education 1978) recommended:

(a) facility of multiple entry;

(b) flexibility in syllabi, school working days and timetable;

(c) provision of supervised study;

(d) reduction in school working hours to two and a half hours per day;

(e) abolition of homework; and

(f) emphasis on physical education, drama and music.

The Conference of Education Ministers of States and union Territories (Ministry of Education) recommended:

(a) enrolment of 90 per cent of the children in the age group 6-14 by 1983;

(b) planning of enrolment at district, block and school levels;

(c) allocation of 50 per cent of educational budget for primary education;

(d) flexibility in school working days;

(e) provision of mid-day meals and clothing;

(f) qualitative improvement of.teacher training programmes;

(g) establishment of more schools; and

(h) periodical monitoring of universalization programmes.

The recommendations mentioned above have been instrumental in various attempts for achieving universalization.

V. STEPS TAKEN

The various steps taken to accelerate the universalization programme are as follows:

1. renewed political commitment;

2. increased allocation of funds;

3. priority to backward states and areas;

4. provision of non-formal education;

- 9 -

5. provision of compensatory pre-school education;

6. provision of mid-day meals;

7. provision of free supply of clothing and reading and writing materials;

8. improvement of physical facilities in schools;

9. Unesco/UNICEF-assisted projects;

10. improvement of teacher competence;

11. improvement of administrative and supervisory machinery; and

12. education of parents.

1. Renewed Political Commitment

The political commitment for universalization of primary education has been renewed. The Revised 20-Point Programme of the Prime Minister includes universalization of primary education. The State Master Plans have been drawn up to achieve the target. The Sixth Five Year Plan has an enrolment target of 95 per cent of the children in the age group 6-14 by the year 1984-85 and of universal coverage by the year 1989-90.

2. Increased Allocation of Funds

The Sixth Plan (1980-85) has laid high priority on primary education. It has earmarked 36 per cent of the total outlay of 25,240 million Rupees for primary education. For the first time, primary education has got such an increased proportion of funds.

3. Priority to Backward States and Areas

Nine States have been identified as backward states. These are Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The Central Government has been providing extra funds to these States. Backward areas/pockets have been identified by 16 States and 2 Union territories. The sizes of the non-enrolled scheduled caste and scheduled tribe children also have been quantified by 19 States and 7 Union territories so that more attention can be paid to the disadvantaged groups.

- 10 -

Provision of Non-formal Education

A large number of non-formal education centres have been established to cater to the educational needs of non-school going children. The process is continuing. The working hours of these centres are comparatively less than those of formal schools. These are managed by part-time teachers. These teachers try to fit the non-school going children to the main stream of formal education. This scheme was started in the last quarter of 1979-80 and its cost is being equally shared by the Central and State Governments. The scheme is in operation directly through government agencies and indirectly through private (voluntary) agencies, which receive grants from the Government for the purpose.

Provision of Compensatory Pre-school Education

Compensatory pre-school education programmes have been initiated in some parts of the country. The areas covered under Integrated Child Development Scheme of the Centre have such pre-school education facilities. Pre-school education programme implemented in certain schools of low literacy and tribal blocks of the country paid much dividend. In States like Orissa preference given to wives of primary school teachers for appointment as pre-school guides in the centres attached to their schools and construction of pre-primary sheds have checked truancy of many teachers.

Provision of Mid-day Meals:

Mid-day meals programmes are in operation in selected areas and in selected schools of the country through C.A.R.E. and through various governmental agencies. The largest programme is in operation in Tamil Nadu State. The State of Andhra Pradesh has started a similar programme in a smaller scale. Besides, there are a few residential schools meant for tribal children and physically handicapped children where mid-day meals are provided.

Provision of Free Supply of Clothing, Reading and Writing Materials

Clothing, reading and writing materials are being provided freely to the children from disadvantaged sections of the society. Besides tribal children, these facilities are also being extended to girls in many parts of the country.

- 11 -

Improvement of Physical Facilities in Schools

With the inclusion of primary education under the Revised 20-Point Programme of the Prime Minister, there have been efforts to improve the physical facilities in schools that includes construction of durable accommodations.

Unesco/UNICEF Assisted Projects

Five experimental Unesco/UNICEF-assisted projects are going on in selected schools and in selected parts of the country. These projects are being co-ordinated centrally by the National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi and are being implemented- through the State Councils of Educational Research and Training, State Institutes of Education of various States and Union territories.

The Primary Education Curriculum Renewal Project, initiated in 1975-76 has been developing innovative formal school curricula relevant to the educational needs of various groups including disadvantaged ones. Its programmes include development of detailed syllabi, development of instructional materials, evolving teaching learning strategies and development of methods for evaluation of pupil development.

The Comprehensive Access to Primary Education Project has been developing programmes for the age group 9-14 as part of non-formal education. Its programmes include development of decent learning materials (episodes and instructional modules) through teacher training programmes both at pre-service and at in-service levels.

The Developmental Activities in Community Education and Participation Project, started in 1976, has been developing and testing new types of educational activities as feasible means of meeting the minimum educational needs of large groups that are currently partially or totally deprived of any form of education. It covers children and adults up to the age of 35.

The Early Childhood Education Project has been imparting training to teachers, evaluating on-going activities and developing indigenous materials such as toys, pictures, books and. audio tapes etc. A forerunner of this project was the Children's Media Laboratory Programme of the Central Government.

- 12 -

The Nutrition, Health Education and Environmental Sanitation Project has been developing curricula for health education, nutrition and • environmental sanitation and has been trying them out in selected schools.

The experimental projects mentioned above have covered only a few schools of the country. Due to the Hawthorne effect, the programme of these schools nonetheless may be better than the majority of the primary schools. But whether these programmes can be equally effective when implemented universally is to be seen. However, these programmes also suffer from various lacunae and they still require improvement.

Improvement of Teacher Competence

With the setting up of the National Council on Teacher Education at the Central and the State Boards of Teacher Education in States, some improvements have been noticed in pre-service teacher training programmes. The teacher training curricula have been modified in many States. The trainees have been exposed to various nonformal education strategies.

Improvement of Administrative and Supervisory Machinery

The National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi, and the State Councils of Educational Research and Training, State Institutes of Education of various States have been imparting in-service training programmes to educational administrators and supervisors, which have resulted in improvement of the administrative and supervisory machinery in certain parts of the country.

Education of Parents

The education of parents has been increasingly achieved through adult education programmes that help to develop the skills of awareness, functionality and literacy in adults. The Sixth Five Year Plan envisages making all persons in the age group 15-35 literate. The programmes are in operation through the government agencies, the universities and through private (voluntary) agencies. The second and third categories receive grants from the Central Government and the concerned State Governments for the purpose. There are various schemes such as the National Adult Education Programme, Rural Functional Literacy Scheme and Functional Literacy for Adult Women.

- 13 -

The stress on specific aspects vary. The areas in which these schemes operate also vary. Besides adult education programmes, parents are also getting educated through mass media—radio and television—about the utility of providing education to children.

The steps mentioned above have not covered all children in age group 6-14. The existing resources are yet to be utilized

a better way.

SUGGESTIONS FOR STEPPING UP UNIVERSALIZATION OF PRIMARY EDUCATION PROGRAMME

The Following suggestions are made for stepping up the progress universalization of primary education:

1. Provision of mid-day meals, reading and writing materials and clothing for children from poor families.

2. Freedom of teachers to develop school curricula including school working days and school timetable.

3. Provision of compensatory pre-school education facility in each village/urban slum having more than 15 children from disadvantaged communities and giving preference to educated wives of concerned primary school teachers for appointment as pre-school teachers.

4. Appointment of teachers for specific schools and abolition of the transfer system from one school to another.

5. Improvement of the quality of pre-service training programmes by making teaching in schools part of the duty of staff members and by providing experiences to trainees in various situations including visits to ideal educational institutions such as the Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education at Pondicherry.

6. Provision for in-service training of teachers by establishing such a centre in every district so as to provide training to each teacher who has completed five years of service.

7. Improvement of the quality of administration and supervision by making teaching in schools for a few periods every week part of the duty of such personnel and providing them pre-service training as well as in-service training.

8. Provision of a non-formal teacher or a teaching assistant in each single-teacher school and giving preference to educated wives of teachers for such appointments.

9. Conversion of primary into community schools.

- 14 -

10. Provision of reading material for neo-literates in primary schools.

VII. CONCLUSION

Universalization of primary education is intimately connected with the development of living conditions of the people. When a significant number of citizens are below the poverty line, the attempts made to provide free and compulsory education to children in the age group 6-14 cannot be successful in the near future. There are, in addition, certain educational and administrative bottlenecks that have been decelerating the process. This paper attempts to throw a certain amount of light on the removal of these bottlenecks and on revamping the existing educational system so that the rate of universalization of primary education can be increased.

R E F E R E N C E S

1 Chickermane, D. V. (1962), "A Study of the Wastage in Primary Education in India", Education and Psychology Review, 2, 1, 19-23, January.

2 Chowdhury, P. (1965), Report of an Investigation into the Problem of Wastage and Stagnation in the Primary Schools in the District of 24 Praganas, Calcutta: Directorate of Education, Government of West Bengal.

3 Coombs, P. H. (1977), "A Fresh Look at the World Educational Crisis in Commonwealth Secretariat", Report of the Seventh Commonwealth Conference, London: The Commonwealth Secretariat.

4 Gadgil, D. R. and Dandekar, V. M. (1955), Primary Education in Satara District: Report of an Investigation, Poona: Gokhale Institute. ' .

5 Government of India (1982) Census 1981, New Delhi: Government of India.

6 Gujarat Research Society (1983), "Report of the Project on a Study of the Incidence and Factors Responsible for Dropping Out of Children from Municipal and Local Authority Schools in Greater Bombay and Thana District from Standard I to VII during 1973-77", Journal of the Gujarat Research Society, 45,1,1-233, January.

7 Kundu, R. and Chakravarty, P. K. (1977), "Wastage in Primary Schools: A Psychological Study", Indian Educational Review, 12,2,87-94, April.

8 Ministry of Education (1961) Report of the National Seminar on Primary Education, New Delhi: Government of India.

9 Ministry of Education (1978), Report of the Review Committee on the Ten Year School, New Delhi: Government of India.

10 Ministry of Education (1979) Report of the Conference of Education Ministers of States and Union Territories, New Delhi : Government of India.

11 Mohanty, S. B. (1981a), "How to Make an Initial Multidisciplinary Survey for Starting a Non-formal Education Centre for Drop­outs and Non-starters", Education Quarterly (India), 33,2, 13-15, April.

12 Mohanty, S. B. (1981b), "Adapting Educational Models-India and Britain", Educational Review (India), 87,10,196-198, October.

13 Mohanty, S. B. (1982), "Teacher Training: A Farce or a Necessity?", The Hindu, 21.9.1982.P.19.

14 Naik, J. P. (1941), Report on Wastage and Stagnation in Primary Schools, Bombay: Provincial Board of Education.

(i)

15 Naik, J. P. (1966), Elementary Education in India: The Unfinished Business, Delhi: Asia Publishing House.

16 Naik, J. P. (1976), Elementary Education in India: A Promise to Keep, New Delhi: Allied Publishers.

17 National Council of Educational Research and Training (1967), Wastage and Stagnation in Primary and Middle Schools in India, New Delhi: NCERT.

18 Parulekar, R. V. (1939), Literacy in India, Bombay: Macmillan.

19 Pátel, A. R. (1981), "An Action Plan for Weaker Sections", Kurukshetra, 24,1,12-32, February.

20 Rawat, D. S. and Goyal, B. R. (1974), Educational Wastage at Primary Level-A Handbook of Suggestions, New Delhi: NCERT. .

21 Rege, K. B. (1971), Multitude of Illiteracy in India, New Delhi: NCERT.

22 Sharma, R. C. (1983), "Impact of Non-detention on Scholastic Achievement", EPA Bulletin, 6,1,23-28, April.

23 Sharma, R. C. and Shapra, C. L. (1969), Wastage and Stagnation in Primary and Middle Schools in India, New Delhi: NCERT.

24 World Bank (1980), Education-Sector Policy Paper, Washington, D.C.:

(ii)