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ROCARE / ERNWACA • Tel: (223) 20 21 16 12, Fax: (223) 20 21 21 15 • BP E 1854, Bamako, MALI Bénin • Burkina Faso • Cameroun• Congo • Côte d’Ivoire • Gambia • Ghana • Guinée •
Mali • Mauritanie • Nigeria • Niger • Sénégal • Sierra Leone • République Centrafricaine • Togo www.rocare.org/ www.ernwaca.org
ERNWACA Research Grants Programme
2009 edition
UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROSPECTS OF THE GIRL-CHILD IN SOUTH-SOUTH NIGERIA
Researchers
Mrs Imaikop Virgilius Ekpo
Mr Paulinus S. Ibok
Mr Effiong Jacob Eminimoh
Mr Virgilius Peter Udo-Ekpo
Mentor: Dr. I. E. Emah University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State.
Country
Nigeria
Research Financed by
Education Research Network for West and Central Africa (ERNWACA) With project support from UEMOA regional Centre of Excellence
and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands
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Mali • Mauritanie • Nigeria • Niger • Sénégal • Sierra Leone • République Centrafricaine • Togo www.rocare.org/ www.ernwaca.org
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to acknowledge the Regional Management of ERNWACA, the UEMOA Regional
Centre of Excellence and the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands for the financial support
to beneficiaries of their small grant for research. We thank ERNWACA National Co-ordination officials
in Nigeria, Prof. K. A. Adegoke and Dr. D.Odukoya for directing and encouraging the group till now.
We are also grateful to the research group mentor, Dr. I. E. Emah for his unalloyed support and
inputs. We have not forgotten Dr. (Mrs) G. K. Etuk, our zonal co-ordinator, for her encouragement
and professional advice. Also worthy of appreciation are the research assistants for a job well done,
and our individual family members for their understanding, patience and support throughout the
duration of this research.
Our special thanks go to Miss Amaofon-Abasi Ekpo, Miss Nsisong Peter and Idongesit
Umenge whose typing skill and finger dexterity turned our manuscript into a readable form. Above all,
we give God the glory for good health, wisdom, ability and divine protection endowed on us to
complete this research.
Imaikop V. Ekpo
Paulinus S. Ibok
Effiong J. Eminimoh
Virgilius P. Udo-Ekpo.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cover Page - - - - - - - - - i
Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - - ii
Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - iii
Executive Summary - - - - - - - - - v
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study - - - - - - - 1
1.2 Statement of Problem - - - - - - - 2
1.3 Statement of Purpose - - - - - - - 3
1.4 Significance of the Study - - - - - - - 3
1.5 Research Questions - - - - - - - 3
1.6 Research Hypotheses - - - - - - - 4
1.7 Scope of the Study - - - - - - - 4
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms - - - - - - 4
CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF L ITERATURE
2.1 Theoretical Framework/ Conceptual Clarification - - - - 5
2.2 Universal Basic Education and the Girl-Child - - - - 6
2.3 Parents’ Willingness to Educate the Girl-Child - - - - 7
2.4 Vocational Content of Universal Basic Education - - - - 9
2.5 Summary of Literature Review - - - - - - 13
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD
3.1 Research Area - - - - - - - - 15
3.2 Research Design - - - - - - - - 15
3.3 Definition and Description of Variables - - - - - 16
3.4 Research Population - - - - - - - 16
3.5 Sample and Sampling Technique - - - - - - 16
3.6 Instrumentation - - - - - - - - 17
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3.7 Validation and Reliability of Instrument - - - - - 17
3.8 Procedure for Data Collection - - - - - - 18
3.9 Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - 18
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
• Answers to Research Questions - - - - - - 19
• Analysis of Hypotheses - - - - - - 22
• Qualitative Analysis - - - - - - 24
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEN DATIONS
• Discussion of Findings - - - - - - 25
• Conclusions - - - - - - 27
• Recommendations - - - - - - 28
Suggestion for Further Study - - - - - - 28
• Limitations of the Study - - - - - - 28
• Problems Encountered - - - - - - 29
REFERENCES - - - - - - 30
APPENDICES - - - - - - 33
1. Parents Willingness to Retain Girl-Child in School Questionnaire - - 33
2. Universal Basic Education and Socio-Economic Prospects
of the Girl-Child Questionnaire - - - - - - 34
3 . Information on Facilities and Equipment Available in Schools for Vocational
Training from Principals - - - - - - - 35
LIST OF TABLES
1. Sample Distribution - - - - - - - - 17
2. Extent of Parents’ Willingness to Retain their Female Children in UBE - 19
3. Occupations of the Female Students Prior to Enrolment in UBE - - 19
4. Percentage of Female Children still maintaining their Occupations in
UBE Programme - - - - - - - 20
5. Facilities and Equipment Available for the Vocational Training of the Girl-Child 20
6. Students-Equipment Ratio - - - - - - - 21
7. t-test Comparison of Men Scores or Rich and Poor Parents’ Willingness
to Retain Female Children in UBE - - - - - - 22
8. t-test Comparison of Men Scores or Literate and Illiterate Parents’ Willingness
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to Retain Female Children in UBE - - - - - - 22
9. Chi-Square Analysis of the Influence of UBE on the future Socio-Economic
Prospects of the Girl-Child. - - - - - - - 23
Executive Summary
This study assessed the influence of Universal Basic Education on Socio-Economic
Prospects of the girl-child in South-South Nigeria. The study was necessitated by the high rate of
girls dropping out of school to become housemaids and hawkers due to parental level of poverty.
Universal Basic Education was perceived as the only instrument that would help the female children
acquire knowledge and skills for future socio-economic prospects and become emancipated from
the bondage of poverty, servitude, early marriage, house-help services and forceful exposure to
prostitution.
Four research questions and three null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The
ex-post facto research design was used in the study. A sample of 1500 female students was drawn
from a population of 15000 from six schools in South-South Nigeria. The sample was drawn using
proportional stratified random sampling technique. The instruments for data collection were Parents
Willingness to Retain Girl-Child in Schools Questionnaire (PWRGSQ), and Universal Basic
Education and Socio-Economic Prospects of the Girl-Child Questionnaire (UBESPGQ).
The instruments (PWRGSQ and UBESPGQ) were validated by a team of six research
experts, and tested for reliability using 50 respondents in each category (parents and female
students in UBE programme) who did not participate in the main study. Reliability coefficients of
0.86 and 0.77 were obtained for PWRGSQ and UBESPGQ respectively using the Cronbach alpha.
One thousand five hundred copies of the PWRGSQ and UBESPGQ each were administered
to parents and the female students in JS 2 and 3 of the UBE. The same number of copies of
questionnaire were completed and returned by subjects in both groups and used for analysis. The
result indicated that parents were willing to retain their female children in UBE programme. The
female children were engaging in hawking (40.33%), housemaids (33.80%) and other forms of child
labour (25.87%) prior to enrolling in UBE programme of the 1500 female students assessed in the
study 973 are still maintaining their occupations while in UBE. Facilities and equipment needed for
effective vocational training were inadequate resulting in very low students-equipment ratio. There
existed significant difference between rich/poor, literate and illiterate parents in their willingness to
retain female children in the 9-years UBE programme. It was perceived that UBE would exert
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significant influence on the future socio-economic prospects of the female children in South-South
Nigeria.
However, if adequate facilities and equipment are not provided, the influence of the
Universal Basic Education on the girl-child’s anticipated future socio-economic prospects will likely
remain a huge mirage.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study The socio-economic integration of the Nigerian women would be difficult to achieve where
the girl-child is not intellectually empowered. Education is the key factor in the eradication of poverty
and ignorance. It is also a sine qua non for development. Dimson (2006) asserted that education is
the only instrument to emancipate female children from the bondage of servitude, early marriage,
hawking, house-help services and forceful exposure to prostitution. The conference on the
Economic Rights of Nigerian women held in 2001 recommends that education of the girl-child is the
key to economic and intellectual empowerment of the Nigerian woman. In consonance with
convention on the rights of the child, the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria is recognized as a laudable intervention to women’s economic and
intellectual deficits.
Moreover, the Jomtien Declaration on Education for All as cited in Education Today (2000),
acknowledged that Universal Basic Education (UBE) provides knowledge needed by people to
achieve higher standard of living and to cope more effectively with the challenges of a constantly
changing society. UBE is defined as a nine-year free and compulsory education received at the
primary and junior secondary school levels (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). According to
Nigerian Demographic and Health Survey (2005) children aged 0-15years account for 40-45 percent
of Nigerian total population. In all the states in South-South Nigeria (Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross
River, Delta, Edo, and Rivers), the records of female pupils enrolment in UBE programme between
1999 – 2008 have shown a continuous steady increase over the boys enrolment figures (Dimson,
2006).
Despite this enrolment status, the 2008 school census report indicates that about 10 million
school age children are out of the formal school system, relapsing into illiteracy with over 68% of the
figure being girls (Adenipekun, 2009). Of particular concern is the fact that many girls drop out of
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UBE programme to become housemaids and hawkers particularly in some states in the South-
South due to poverty or parents apathy to education. The actual number of children involved in
exploitative or hazardous work in Nigeria are not known, owing to the wide dispersion of child
workers in the informal sector and Agriculture. However the recent assessment puts the figure at 8
million. The Nigerian child is the direct victim of the poverty level of his/her parent (Aliyu 2006).
According to Olagunju (2007), the UBE programme in Nigeria is concerned with the education of
both children and adults, adding that educating the parents will have a multiplier effect in the girl-
child school enrolment, retention and completion. It appears also that if the parents give their
consent in respect of their female children’s education, they would sacrifice their all to support their
stay in school.
Given this fact, it becomes imperative to assess possible variables associated with both
parents and Universal Basic Education (UBE) that could support the girl-child’s education and socio-
economic development. On the part of parents, one may ask would parents with poor socio-
economic status be willing to retain/allow their female children attend and complete their education
at least at the UBE level? Empirical findings indicated that in Nigeria generally, culture does not
favour girls’ formal education to the same extent as the boys(Jatau,2008). While the parents with
high level of education allow their female children to go to school, the illiterate parents do not seem
to understand the reason for such decision(Fant,2008). For the illiterates(marked groups of poor
people), poverty is the principal implicating factor for their refusal to allow female children to receive
formal education(Igbineweka & Aghenta, 2005). The illiterate parents do not seem to understand
that investment in girl-child education. can enhance the child’s future productivity, thus supporting
the theories of social change (Hagen,2009).
To salvage the girls’ situation with regards to the impact of poverty, the Federal Republic of Nigeria
(2004) declared a-nine-year Universal Basic Education which allows Nigerian children(including
girls) free access to primary and junior secondary school education. The vocational content of the
UBE programme include core vocational subjects(Agriculture, Business Studies, Home Economics,
Local Crafts, Computer Education, Fine Arts and Music), that can support self-reliance in the
informal sector of the nation’s economy. How well these subjects are taught is the concern of
educational experts. Previous investigation showed that teachers of vocational subjects in the UBE
programme should be good and competent(Udoh, 2009). Umoh (2000) found that the teaching of
most vocational subjects at the Junior Secondary School level do not incorporate laboratory
practicals and practical training. The obvious reason might rest on lack of laboratory equipment and
facilities for teaching. This deficiency affects the utilization of students-centered and inquiry methods
of teaching vocational courses in class activities.
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1.2 Statement of the Problem
In almost all communities in Nigeria the girl-child faces a number of disadvantages relative to
the boys. There has been persistent hues and cries over the years for the emancipation of females
from the shackles of male domination and the Nigerian girl has been suppressed by gender biased
stereotypes and prejudices arising from culture, religion and politics (Obasi 2006). However, Jatta
(2009) maintained that literacy is a fundamental right for all girls and women and central to the quest
for poverty reduction and sustainable development, which is essential for building peaceful and
stable societies. Literacy enhances the capacity for the participation of people in economic, social,
political and cultural activities in a rapidly changing world. According to Jatta, two-thirds of those
who have none or inadequate literacy skills and competencies are girls and women, adding that
there is an urgent need to dismantle the mindsets of the marginalize groups who do not place a high
premium on education of the girl-child. Therefore, this study seeks to determine the influence of
Universal Basic Education on Socio-economic prospects of the girl-child in South-South Nigeria.
1.3 Statement of Purpose
The aim of this study was to ascertain the influence of Universal Basic Education on the
Socio-economic prospects of the girl-child in South-South Nigeria.
The objectives therefore were to:
1. Determine whether the socioeconomic status of parents(rich/poor, literate/illiterate) has any
significant influence on their willingness to retain their female children in the nine-year
Universal Basic Education.
2. Identify the occupations of the female students prior to enrolling in Universal Basic
Education.
3. Establish the availability of facilities and equipment in secondary schools for the vocational
training of the girl-child in Universal Basic Education.
4. Establish the students-equipment ratio in the vocational training of the girl-child in Universal
Basic Education.
5. Determine the extent to which the Universal Basic Education Programme prepares the girl-
child for future socio-economic life in South-South Nigeria.
1.4 Significance of the Study
It is envisaged that this study will inform the government, women organizations and other
stakeholders on the willingness of parents to get the female children enrolled and retained through
the nine years of Universal Basic Education Programme. It will inform the extent to which the
Universal Basic Education Programme prepares the girl-child for future socio-economic life. The
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study would motivate the government to initiate strategic action that will ensure the basic education
of the girl-child.
1.5 Research Questions:
The research attempted to answer the following questions:
1. What is the extent of parents willingness to retain their female children in the 9-year
Universal Basic Education?
2. What were the occupations of the female students prior to enrolling in Universal Basic
Education at the Junior Secondary level?
3. What are the facilities and equipments available in schools for the vocational training of the
girl-child in Universal Basic Education?
4. What is the students-equipment ratio in the vocational training of the girl-child in the
Universal Basic Education?
1.6 Research Hypotheses:
The following null hypotheses were formulated to guide this study:
1. There is no significant difference between the rich and poor parents in their willingness to
retain their female children in the 9-year Universal Basic Education.
2. There is no significant difference between literate and illiterate parents in their willingness to
retain female children in the nine-year Universal Basic Education .
3. There is no significant influence of the 9-year Universal Basic Education programme on the
future socio-economic prospects of the girl-child in South-South Nigeria.
1.7 Scope of the Study
The study was delimited to all the six states of the south-south geo-political zone of Nigeria.
The study used parents’ willingness and the vocational content of the Universal Basic Education
curriculum as independent variable. While socio-economic prospects of the girl-child is the
dependent variable. The independent variables consist of all subjects studied under the Universal
Basic Education programme which aim at influencing the socio-economic prospects of the girl-child
(that is, providing wage and employment) for the girls at the end of the UBE programme. The year
of study was 2008/2009 academic session.
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms
To avoid ambiguity some terms were clarified in the context of usage in this study. The terms
include ‘Universal Basic Education’, girl-child, and socioeconomic prospect.
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Parents’ willingness as used here refers to parent’s eagerness to co-operatively allow their
female children access to Universal Basic Education.
Universal Basic Education is the free and compulsory education children receive for nine
years duration from primary school to Junior Secondary school (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004).
Vocational content refers to the different vocational subjects (agriculture, business studies,
computer studies, music, home economics, fine art, local craft and introductory technology)taught in
the Junior Secondary under the Universal Basic Education.
The girl-child refers to a female child between 6-14years who though still in the formative
years and dependent on parents should be receiving primary and junior secondary education.
The term socio-economic prospect refers to the economic, social and political empowerment
of the girl-child after receiving universal basic education especially in the area of earning a
sustainable means of living.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The review of related literature is done under the following sub-headings:
- Conceptual Clarification/Theoretical Framework
- Parents’ Willingness for Girl-Child formal education
- Vocational Contents of Universal Basic Education
2.1 Theoretical Framework/Conceptual Clarification :
This study was backed up by the Human Capital Theory and the Theory of social change.
The human capital theory was first formulated by Theodore Schultz in 1960 and later developed by
Gary S. Becker in 1962 (Obasi, 2000). The concept of the Human Capital Theory is the idea that
people spend on themselves in various ways not only for the sake of present enjoyments but also
for the sake of future pecuniary and non-pecuniary returns. They may purchase health care, acquire
additional education, search for jobs and may purchase information about job opportunities. All
being a conscious investment activity in anticipation of future returns. Moreover, human capital in
the form of knowledge and skills acquired through education makes the individual more productive.
Being more productive makes them more employable and guarantees them more future incomes.
The theory tries to explain the demand for education by arguing that since investment in human
capital improves productivity and more productivity means more future incomes, individuals will
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seek to invest in human capital by demanding education so as to earn more future income. This
theory was used to explain and predict the demand for and supply of education at all levels.
The theory of Social Change maintains that the level of development is associated with
achievement motivation. According to Hagen (2009) this achievement motivation varies between
societies and their classes and strata. He argues that in traditional societies the status of individuals
is fixed. Children learn to act according to established norms, and deviations (initiative!) are
punished. If by external influences a new group gains power, the status of the old elite is challenged
and weakened. The insecurity and frustration leads to changed behaviour, which has consequences
on the family structure. Children tend to become dissatisfied with the society and readily accept new
values. In time, they become innovative personalities. If these persons become dominant groups in
the society, this causes economic development. Similar phenomena may happen as far as the
changing situation of marginal groups or minorities is concerned. Therefore, this theory was adopted
to explain the change in behaviour (if any) of the girl-child that may result from the acquisition of
Universal Basic Education.
2.2 Universal Basic Education and the Girl-Chil d
The girl-child education is crucial to women empowerment. The more girls are educated at
the UBE level, the more knowledge and skills they will acquire for sustainable economic
development. Education opens the door for every individual to participate in development activities
and, when people are denied education, they are excluded from the development process.
Education is an index of development of any society. It satisfies the basic human need for
knowledge, provides a means of meeting other basic needs, and helps sustain as well as accelerate
overall development. Education helps determine the distribution of employment and income for both
present and future generations. It influences social welfare through its indirect effects on health,
fertility and life expectancy (Oke, 2005).
The deprivation of the girl-child from gaining access to education and prospective economic
development has been the concern of many researchers. Obasi (2006) asserted that female
subjugation and lower self-esteem in a male dominated society is economic powerlessness and
posited that 65.4% of males are economically active compared to only 32% females. According to
Aniche (2000), countries that have raised the status of their women starting from educating the girl-
child, generally enjoy a higher standard of living, than the countries where women remain largely
illiterate. Thus in 1995 the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) decided to include in
its measurement of development in countries Human Development Index (HDI) the measurement of
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gender inequality. Two indices according to Aniche (2000) were used. They are the Gender-related
Development Index (GDI), and Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM). Nigeria ranked very low in
all the indices with the following rankings in 1992:
HDI – 141 out of 172 countries
GDI – 100 out of 130 countries
GEM – 108 out of 116 countries
Okiy (2004) also maintained that Nigeria was given a very low rating in human development
by the UNDP for the year 2002, adding that fewer educated women than men are available to
contribute to national development activities. Thus, the recent introduction of the Universal Basic
Education (UBE) programme by the Federal Government could be seen as a catalyst that will result
in greater female participation in national development especially as it seeks to redress the gender
imbalance, which has been evident in the Nigerian educational landscape (Imoukhuede, 2007).
Basic education has specific goals for each segment. For instance, at the primary level, the
goals include inculcating permanent literacy, numeracy, and ability to communicate effectively;
developing in the child the ability to adapt to the child’s changing environment; giving the child
opportunities to develop manipulative skills that will enable the child function effectively in the
society within the limits of his capacity and providing the child with basic tools for further educational
advancement, preparation for trades and crafts of the locality among others (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 2004). Consequently, the primary school curriculum includes subjects like Agriculture,
Home Economics, Social Studies, Citizenship Education, Cultural and Creative Art, and Computer
Education to ensure attainment of the stated goals. At the secondary level, the broad goals among
others include providing technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agriculture,
industrial, commercial and economic development. The junior secondary according to the Federal
Republic of Nigeria ‘shall be both pre-vocational and academic’ (p.19). To this end therefore,
Introductory Technology, Agriculture, Local Crafts, Home Economics, Business Studies, Computer
Education and Music form part of the curriculum such that at the end of the three years a child who
cannot continue to the senior secondary can go into an out-of-school vocational training center or
an apprenticeship scheme where she will be useful to herself and the society. Therefore, the
aforegoing motivated the researchers to investigate the influence of Universal Basic Education on
the socio-economic prospects of the girl-child in South-South Nigeria.
2.3 Parents’ Willingness to Educate the Girl-Ch ild
Education provides skills and knowledge for its beneficiaries to function effectively in society.
It is viewed as both a public or private good depending on where its benefits accrue most. It is a
public good if its consumption results in positive externalities that benefit the society and a private
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good if the benefit is only for the individual alone. Developing individuals to their fullest potential has
often been argued as the antithesis of educating the individual to serve the state in the platonic
scheme of things. Durkheim(2006) maintained that in cities of Greece and Rome, education trained
individuals to become the creature of society. Bista(2004) reported that social and cultural beliefs,
practices and attitudes often do not favour girls in their pursuit of education to the same extent as
boys.
According to Waldman(2009) strong attachments to traditional gender role limit female
access to education and occupations. Culturally, the expectations regarding the total benefits of
schooling for parents’ investments impose parental biases to female formal education. Parents
expect a higher rate of return from boys to support them in their old age. To overcome the gender
gap in education and achieve economic justice for the girl-child, education provides the immediate
answer.
The factors that block access to girl-child education range from culture bias towards boys,
lack of financial resources, parents perceived return on the educational investment and gender role
in the society. A large number of girls have dropped out of school. This mitigates the lack of power
for women(UNICEF, 2001). Different cultures construct gender categories differently and symbolize
male, female and their relations differently, there is little doubt that distinctions on gender lines are
universally made. The particular cultural instances of gender ideology may diverge, but the function
of this ideology universally is to distinguish and rank the sexes. Cultures across the globe value their
gender differently. Fant (2008) maintained that within the social organization and cultural beliefs of a
society, the gender complex is made up of propositions which when applied to individuals may
bestow on them social approval and power, dignity and prestige; or may have the opposite effect. It
may imply that the person is unworthy or second class. Fant cited Pauline and Tembon (1999) as
saying that socio-cultural attitudes and traditions often determine the status of girls and women in
society.
Culturally, the place of a woman is in the home(kitchen). It is expected that the girl-child will
eventually marry and become housewives. Consequently, parents consider that what the girl child
learns at home is as important as what the boys learn at school. Therefore, the norm remains that
girls stay closer to their mothers to learn domestic chores as they grow up and to learn household
skills and behaviours that prepare them for their future roles as wives and mothers. These socio-
cultural beliefs cause parents to see the formal education of the girl child as a deviation from
accepted societal norms and practices. Formal education is therefore, sometimes not perceived as
appropriate for girls and is consequently not valued.
The belief by most parents that the girl child is only prepared for another family to benefit
from, undermines the education of the girl child. According to Fant (2008), the Bimobas (a tribe in
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Ghana) have a common philosophy in question form: ‘why invest in a resource that will soon be
someone else’s? He also recorded this response from a parent during an interview ‘I assessed the
benefits of education for only boys and I felt it a waste of time and funds educating girls who on
completion would go to marry and become part of a different family, leaving us with no material
benefits’(Fant,2008, p.41). Jatau (2008) identified poor parental support for girls’ education,
society’s poor attitude towards girl child education, poverty, economic issues, cultural and religious
biases as factors responsible for the participation of the girl child in formal education. Yet another
factor that can possibly determine the willingness of parents to register and retain their female
children in school is the parents’ level of education. Fant (2008) observed that the level of
education of parents play a crucial role in the decision-making process as to which of their children
will be allowed to attend school. Any educated parent ensures that their children, whether boy or girl
gets basic education. Educated mothers often enforce the education of their female children even
when the fathers have contrary views/opinions.
This not withstanding, people in Nigeria, the 13th poorest nation in the world as assessed by
Transparency International (2004) in Igbineweka & Aghenta (2005), express willingness to assist
government in financing education. The willingness is outstanding according to Igbineweka and
Aghenta (2005) because some parents especially at the first nine years of free and compulsory
schooling sacrifice money to assist in financing education. They maintained that parents in Nigeria
sell off personal possession and even go to the extent of borrowing money to send their children to
school. They provide school uniforms, books and other learning materials for their children and
wards. They also found that there is no significant association between socioeconomic status and
location of residence with expressed willingness by parents to finance education of their children in
Edo state. The researchers concluded that parents in Edo state have the same expressed
willingness to finance basic education whether in free-tuition public schools or fee-paying private
schools.
2.4 Vocational Content of Universal Basic Educ ation
Vocational skills are imparted to students through vocational education. Vocational
education is regarded as education which provides the recipient with the basic knowledge and
practical skills needed for entry into workforce (Oni,2007). Vocational education nurtures skills that
focus on building a self reliant society. Vocational education as part of a general education
programme, constitutes any form of education with the primary purpose of preparing people for
useful employment in a recognized occupation. Today, most of the vocational-technical education
programmes involve the use of tools, machines and computers. Many vocational practitioners who
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have no knowledge of tool handling, machines and computer operations may be left behind in their
later professional practices. It is the realization of this fact that led to the introduction of subjects rich
in vocational skills into the Universal Basic Education(UBE) programme. These subjects as outlined
by Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN,2004) in the National Policy on Education(NPE) and termed
pre-vocational electives include agriculture, business studies, home economics, local crafts,
computer education, fine arts and music.
The past two decades have witnessed considerable exploratory innovations of computer
application in the classroom. With the increase in business activities and advancement in
technology, the need for students to have computer knowledge became more glaring(Aliyu,2006).
As such, the content of computer training should be enriched, integrated and taught in the different
vocational education subjects areas to the students. Thus, computer education according to Oni
(2007) should take the form of vocational specialization (that is teaching computer as a discrete
subject) and also a permeated approach(introducing and integrating some components of computer
studies into subjects such as local crafts, home economics, business studies and agriculture). But
when computers are the objects of instruction, students are concerned with learning about
computers and data processing. According to Umoh & Inyang (2005), the course in computer falls
into two categories:
- appreciation of units, which teach the potential, the power and danger of computers and
- the ‘how-to’ courses, which teach how to use computers for problem-solving and how to operate
the equipment in business settings. CAI already mentioned assists students in the learning
process and imparts to them skills and knowledge that they can use outside the classroom in later
life making them fit to exist in a fast growing technological society and globalized world.
Business Studies
In the Junior Secondary school curriculum, business studies is broken into six components.
These are office practice, book-keeping, typewriting, shorthand, commerce and computer
appreciation. Its objectives as highlighted in the National Policy on Education by the Federal
Republic of Nigeria (2004) include:
- Acquisition of basic knowledge of business studies;
- Development of the basic skills in office occupation;
- Preparation of students for further training in business studies;
- Provision of orientation and skills for those who may not undergo further training in order
to enable them start a life of work; and
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- Relating the knowledge and skills to the national economy.
The emphasis is the acquisition of skills as business studies has found numerous applications in all
human endeavours and is relevant for sustainable national development. According to Udo (2009),
the major goal of vocational competence and skills among youths is for them to contribute
maximally to the national economic growth in their various occupational endeavours. Eduok (2000)
asserted that the challenge of imparting the skills to students can be met by developing in students
psychomotive skills in addition to the cognitive and affective skills in business studies with which
they can settle effectively in an occupation of their choice on graduation.
Olavinoye (2006) maintained that children learnt trade and skills from their parents and older
relations by observation, demonstration and imitation before the advent of formal education in
Nigeria. The skills he added were passed from one generation to another by similar methods and
noted that Business Studies as an occupational studies is learnt in the same manner. Suffice it to
say that the inclusion of business studies in the UBE curriculum is an attempt to promote career
choice in students, in addition to encouraging skill acquisition and developing students’ interest in
business ventures. Skills connote the mastery of logically linked series of activities that can be
easily learnt, and does not depend upon the students’ innate capacities but through training,
practice and experience. A significant relationship has been found to exist between availability of
studio equipment and students’ acquisition of skills in typing(Udo,2009).
Aliyu (2006) posited that students need to be trained in the realities of the business world
beyond the formal classrooms, and the link between the classroom and the business office is very
necessary to give those who will enter the world of work the meaningful and useful experience they
will need to shape their careers. He also revealed for instance the importance of keyboard mastery
in enhancing the efficiency of computers operations. Thus, students who learn typewriting while in
the junior secondary school can do well in computer operations, and if they do not further their
education, can earn a living by typing.
Fine Arts
Art is the expression of thoughts and emotions communicable to others through skillful
manipulation medium/media(Ekwere,2003). Human beings whether male or female have the
propensity to create things so that he or she can represent, express and communicate his or her
ideas, thoughts and feelings, experience and values. The power to create is best expressed in art.
Thus, art can be said to be the making of things with form. It is the personal experience of self
interacting with the environment and not just a subject to be taught in the school.
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In education, art allows the child to have a full and satisfying life by satisfying his basic
needs to understand and control his world, his needs, to be intellectually creative and adventurous
by thinking and expressing his own thoughts in his own ways and his need to share in social life by
communicating in many ways with other children and adults(Ekwere,2004). Therefore, a good fine
art programme for JS III students could encourage individual growth and allow for free development
of imaginative and observational power.
Fine arts curriculum covers a vast area of study which include drawing and painting of still
life, nature study, figure drawing and composition. Other areas include sculpture which has to do
with modeling and carving; ceramics (moulding, throwing and casting); graphics design (lettering,
simple printing techniques, designs for information, advertisements, posters, greeting cards,
handbills and book covers); as well as textile design. Textile design involves designing of fabrics by
simple techniques like embroidery, printing, weaving, dyeing(tie and dye/Batik).
These areas according to Ekwere (2004) are taught in a bid to provide opportunities for students to
learn the proper use of art tools, equipment and materials, have adequate skill and competence in
art, gain knowledge and develop intellectually, physically and culturally through art as well as see
the usefulness of art in other subject areas and the society. Whether the current curriculum used for
the 9-year Basic Education provides enough opportunities, knowledge and skills for students as
specified is a fact to be established by research.
Home economics is a multi-disciplinary course aimed at integrating many disciplines of study for
the purpose of making the environment conducive to live in. Students have to study different skills
so as to become useful not only to themselves but also to the community. It comprises areas like
needlework, clothing and textile, foods and nutrition and home management. Each of them aimed at
imparting life coping and employability to the students. People who have not had the patience to
find out what Home Economics is about say ‘Home Economics is cooking and sewing’(Ike,2006).
But the subject is more than that as it is a course that integrates all facts of the home and society in
order to bring up a useful human person into an environment made for him or her. It is a vocational
subject which demands high quality skill development.
Home economics studies the relationship of people and aspects of their environment such
as clothing, housing and finance. It is a skill oriented field of study expected to equip learners with
saleable skills that make for self-reliance or self employment and paid employment as well as
prepare individuals towards meaningful contribution to the solution of societal problems(Ajala,2002).
The children are taught to use their hands in sewing, cooking and textile designing. This way, they
develop skills that would be useful not only to the learner but the society at large.
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Practical Agriculture
The advent of Junior Secondary School(JSS) education in Nigeria in 1982 was accompanied
with the introduction of agricultural education as one of the core-subjects at this level of education.
Practical Agriculture is taught as a pre-vocational subject to all junior secondary school
students(Federal Republic of Nigeria,2004). The students are expected to graduate from the junior
secondary school(the terminal point of the Universal Basic Education) with adequate practical
agricultural skills and knowledge. They are also expected to acquire on completion of their 9-year
UBE programme the right attitudes needed for agricultural activities. The acquisition of the
necessary practical skills, knowledge and attitudes by students are the pre-requisites for entry into
agricultural occupations. According to Umoh (2000), those who leave school after the JSS stage,
can go on to establishing business or be employed into agricultural industries.
The curriculum contents of Practical Agriculture cover production agriculture, agricultural
protection and agricultural economics. It is emphasized that schools mounting Practical Agriculture
programme must keep school farms where crops are grown and at least one specie of livestock
from the groups of ruminants and non-ruminants. The study of Practical Agriculture is usually
supplemented by visits to well-established government and private experimental and commercial
farms. Practical or field notebooks containing records of individual activities based on laboratory
work, individual observations in the school farms, field trips and records of specimens collected by
the students should be kept as well. Nevertheless, Umoh(2000) who evaluated practical agricultural
programmes of Junior Secondary Schools in Akwa Ibom State using one thousand JSS lll students
and a positive mean score of 3.50 as agreed discovered that the teaching of practical agriculture did
not incorporate laboratory practicals and practical training on livestock management. The study also
showed that the JSS III students had acquired sufficient academic knowledge of the subject that
equips them for future life. Results of the study further indicated that schools did not keep livestock
for effective practical training of students in animal agriculture and facilities like laboratories, farm
tools for practical work on the school farm, specimens for the teaching of agriculture, and textbooks
for junior secondary agriculture were not available in schools.
Music
The music curriculum is rich in contents and has specific objectives that aim at exposing the
students to rudiments of music that can make the learner able to fend for self at the end of basic
education. The first objective bothers on enjoyment, and aims at teaching the students to sing in
tune, sing independently to gain confidence, foster international aspect of music by singing in
various languages, and enhance the teaching of Nigerian languages through singing songs from
other parts of the country. The other objectives which deal with the theory of music is concerned
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with being able to reads music, understanding of musical alphabets, identification of musical
instruments(indigenous and foreign), learning to play the instruments as well as identify them
visually and aurally and being able to care for the instruments. Finally, it is expected that the
students learn the rhythm by beating simple rhythm patterns after hearing, being able to read
rhythm from notes and to feel the pulse of music(Federal Ministry of Education,2009). The skills if
properly harnessed can earn one a living in either performing or maintenance; and if the girl child
learns this skill she can be better off than the one who did not go to school.
Introductory Technology helps students at the Junior Secondary School to explore the world of
work, make intelligent career choices and develop informed patterns of consumption. It exposes
students at the Junior Secondary School level to technology through exploratory activities and helps
develop good attitudes in the students towards technology and industry. Thus it supports
achievement of Nigeria’s quest to build individuals who will:
adjust to the changing environment, deal with forces which influence the future and participate
in controlling his/her own destiny.
Introductory technology is one of the pre-vocational subjects at the Junior Secondary School level in
Nigeria which is capable of providing students with a process of orientation in production and
consumption through experiences in planning, producing, testing, servicing and evaluating types of
consumer and industrial goods. Helps students develop a broader understanding of industrial
processes as they explore their individual interests and develop aptitudes, exposes students to
various opportunities available in the world of work and are thus oriented, in many occupational
areas, to see the need for school continuity at the Secondary School level and beyond. It gives
students the ability to apply principles of planning and design, construction techniques, and
scientific principles, to the solution of problems.
In order to reduce ignorance about technology and lay a solid foundation for true national
development, introductory technology is offered as a key subject like mathematics and science. The
Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Technology(1985) stated the three(3) main objectives of
introductory technology to:
1. Provide pre-vocational orientation for further training in technology;
2. Provide basic technological literacy for everyday living, and;
3. Stimulate creativity.
To achieve this goal, teaching of this subject must be predicated on teaching that seeks to make the
learning of introductory technology functional.
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2.5 Summary of Literature Review
This chapter reviewed works done by other researchers which are related to the study. First,
it highlighted the two theories adopted for the study – the Human Capital Theory and the Theory of
Social Change. The human capital theory posited that people spend on themselves not only for
sake of present enjoyment but also for the sake of future percuniary and non-percuniary returns and
added that the knowledge and skills acquired through education makes the individual more
productive, more employable and guarantees them more future incomes. The theory of social
change on its part maintained that the level of development is correlated with achievement
motivation which varies between societies, their classes and strata. Children learn to act according
to societal norms and if by external influences a new group gains power (as often seen when
people are highly educated), the status of the old elite is challenged and weakened leading to a
change in behaviour, innovative personalities and enhanced economic development.
The reviewed literature showed that some parents were unwilling to send their female
children to school due to cultural biases and prejudices that favour the education of male children.
They feel the girl’s place is in the home. As such allowing them access to education of any kind is
viewed as a waste of resources as the educated girl will marry and take the skill and knowledge to a
different family. Besides poverty also has a role to play as poor parents cannot retain their
daughters in school but often withdraw them to assist in economic ventures like hawking and house-
maids that brings more income to the family.
Education of the girl child was seen to be crucial to women empowerment and the more the
girls are educated, the more skills and knowledge will they acquire for sustainable development. To
this end, the introduction of UBE in Nigeria was seen as a catalyst that will result in greater female
participation in national development which will redress the gender imbalance evident in the
educational landscape. The vocational subjects in the UBE curriculum enhances skills and
knowledge acquisition necessary for future socio economic prospects of the students. The subjects
included computer studies, business studies, home economics, fine arts, local craft, music, practical
agriculture and introductory technology. However, the works reviewed did not show any relationship
between the subjects taught and their influence or otherwise on the girl-child’s socio-economic
prospects. Hence the need for this study.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter presents the study area, research design, population, sample and sampling
technique, instrumentation and procedure for data collection and analysis.
3.1 Research Area
The study area was the South-South Geo-political Zone of Nigeria comprising Akwa Ibom,
Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo and Rivers States and 185 Local Government Areas. This region
has a population of about 21million people (National Population Commission, 2007). There are
about 40 different ethnic groups, speaking about 250 dialects spread across 5000 communities
and covering a land mass of about 10,000 square kilometers (Nigerian Embassy, 2009). According
to the source, the south-south zone of Nigeria has the third largest wetlands in the world after
Mississippi and Panatela. At present, it accounts for more than 90 percent of Nigeria’s crude oil
and has about 14 Universities and over 1000 secondary schools. The region is endowed with a
very rich cultural heritage and tourist attractions. Examples are the Ibeno beach in Akwa Ibom
State, and Obudu Cattle Ranch in Cross River State.
A bulk of the population are peasant farmers and petty traders with large family sizes of
about five to eight children on the average. These families are unable to adequately cater for this
large size and are compelled to either give out their children especially the girls as domestic
servants to well-to-do citizens, or send them out to hawk some wares just to earn some money to
complement the family earnings and sustain the family economically.
3.2 Research Design :
The ex-post facto research design was used. Ali (2006) viewed the ex-post facto research
design as a systematic inquiry in which the researcher does not have direct control of independent
variables because the manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not
manipulatable. This design is considered most appropriate as it allows the researcher to collect first
hand primary information from a large population of respondents in their natural setting for the
purpose of giving detailed descriptions (Onwioduokit, 2000). Similarly Osuala (2001) stated that the
method involves collection of data based on questionnaire, and it also helps the researcher to
identify, study and analyze occurrences and conditions as they exist.
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The independent variables in this study are phenomena which had already occurred, consequently
no attempt will be made to manipulate or control them. The dependent variable (socio-economic
prospect of the girl child) will be measured against the possible effects of the independent variables
(parents willingness, and vocational content of the UBE). The research design had been used
successfully by previous researchers including Aliyu (2006), Fant (2008) and Udo (2009).
3.3 Definition and Description of Variables
The variables included parents’ willingness, vocational contents of Universal Basic
Education, as well as socio-economic prospects of the girl-child.
Universal Basic Education is the free and compulsory education children receive for 9 years
duration from primary school through junior secondary school.
The term socio-economic prospects of the girl-child refer to the economic, social and political
empowerment of the girl-child after receiving universal basic education (that is the wage and
employment prospects). While the vocational content of Universal Basic Education was the
independent variable, socio-economic prospects of the girl-child was the dependent variable.
3.4 Research Population:
The population consisted of about 15,000 female students in junior secondary two and three
classes already enrolled for the Universal Basic Education in 2008/2009 academic session from
three States in South-South Nigeria (Akwa Ibom-4,500 female students; Cross River-3,813 and
Rivers- 6687) (Federal Ministry of Education,2009). Their parents were also part of the study. The
female students in JSS one were excluded from the study because they are yet to be adequately
exposed to the vocational contents of the UBE. Where a parent had more than one female child in
the school, only one was accepted for the study. Hence, 1500 female students also matched 1500
parents that participated in the study.
3.5 Sample and Sampling Techniques:
A sample of 1500 female students (representing 10 percent of the entire population of
15,000) participated in the study. The multi-stage sampling technique was used for sample
selection. Simple balloting method was used to select three out of the six States in South-South
Nigeria for the study. The same method was used to select two schools from each of the three
states. A total of six secondary schools were used in the study. In each of these schools
proportional stratified random sampling technique was used to select female students in junior
secondary two and three classes and their parents. Two different groups participated in the study.
These were 1500 female students in JS 2 and 3 as well as 1500 parents of the selected students.
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Each of the groups was utilized independently for their role in the study. Table 1 below presents the
sample.
Table 1: Sample Distribution
Number of Number of Total Students Total
States Schools selected Respondents per State parents
JS 2 JS 3
Akwa Ibom 2 220 230 450 450
Cross River 2 185 196 381 381
Rivers 2 275 394 669 669
Total 6 680 820 1500 1500
3.6 Instrumentation:
Two instruments were used to collect data. These were ‘Parents Willingness to Retain Girl-
Child in School Questionnaire, (PWRGSQ) and, UBE and Socio-Economic Preparation of the Girl-
Child Questionnaire (UBESPGQ). The PWRGSQ consisting of three sections A, B and C were
administered on parents to assess their willingness to retain the female children in the UBE
Programme. Section A gathered demographic information from parents, B collected data on
parents’ willingness to retain the girl child in the UBE programme while Section C elicited data on
poverty level of parents.
Section B of the PWRGSQ had 10 items rated on a 4-points scale of Very Willing, Willing, Less
Willing and Not-Willing. Section C had five items using a 4-points scale to determine parental level
of poverty or otherwise. The point rating for options in Sections B and Care shown below:
Strongly Agree (SA) - 4 points. - Very Willing (VW)
Agree (A) - 3 points. - Willing (W)
Disagree (D) - 2 points. - Less Willing (LW)
Strongly Disagree (SD) - 1 point. - Not Willing (NW)
For convenience in analysis, the point options of very willing and willing were collapsed and termed
‘willing’, while less willing and not willing were collapsed and referred to as ‘not willing’.
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The UBESPGQ consisted of two sections A and B. Section A collected demographic information on
the girl-child. Section B which was designed to give the frequency of the girl-child’s ability to
undertake specified occupations elicited information about the skills acquired through UBE and how
the UBE Programme is preparing the girl-child for future socio-economic life. In addition, school
heads or individual vocational subject teachers were given the form –Information on Facilities and
Equipment Available for Vocational Training to fill and interviewed to ascertain facilities and
equipment available in the schools surveyed.
3.7 Validation and Reliability of the Instrume nts:
The group mentor, ERNWACA coordinator in Uyo, ERNWACA national secretary and three other
research experts including ERNWACA resource on gender assessed the face and content validity of
the research instruments. A reliability testing was carried out using 50 respondents from each
category who will not be involved in the actual study. Reliability of the instruments was ascertained
using the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient and coefficients of 0.86 and 0.77 were obtained.
3.8 Procedure for Data Collection:
The researchers and trained research assistants administered the instruments on
respondents. Good public relations was applied on the heads of the schools selected for use, their
staff as well as the respondents to enhance effective administration and collection of data. The
female students from junior secondary two and three were exposed to an unstructured interview in
order to find out those that have been housemaids and hawkers as well as those who were still
serving housemaids and hawkers. Besides, some of the girls in JSS 2 and 3 were asked to say how
they have benefited so far and what they hope to do with what they have learnt at the end of the
UBE programme in a focus group discussion. Some parents were also engaged in a focus group
discussion at their own level. The discussions at each level was recorded.
3.9 Method of Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics were employed to answer the research questions. An independent t-test was
used to determine the difference in the willingness of literate and illiterate parents to retain their
daughters in the nine years programme and enrolment of urban and rural girls in UBE while Chi-
square Statistic was used to determine the influence of UBE programme on the girl-child’s future
socio-economic prospects.
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CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS.
The result will be analyzed based on the research questions and null hypotheses formulated
for the study.
Answers to research questions
Question 1: What is the extent of parents’ willingness to retain their female children in the nine-year
Universal Basic Education?
Table 2: Extent of Parents’ Willingness To Retain Their Female Children in the Nine-Year Universal
Basic Education.
[N=1500 Parents]
Level of willingness Frequency Percentage
Willing 1305 87
Not Willing 195 13
Total 1500 100
Data in Table 2 indicated that 87 percent of parents are willing to retain their female children in the
Universal Basic Education while 13 percent were not willing.
Question 2: What were the occupations of the female students prior to enrolling in Universal Basic
Education?
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Table 3: Occupations of the Female Students Prior to Enrollment in Universal Basic Education.
[N=1500]
Occupations Frequency Percentage
Hawking 605 40.33
Housemaid 507 33.80
Other jobs 388 25.87
Total 1500 100
Table 3 showed that 40.33 percent of the female students were engaged in hawking and
33.80 percent were housemaids while 25.87 percent engaged in other child labour jobs prior to
enrolling in Universal Basic Education.
Table 4: Percentage of female children still maintaining their occupation while in UBE Programme
(N = 973)
Occupation Frequency Percentage
Hawking 356 36.59
Housemaid 465 47.79
Other Child labour job 152 15.62
Total 973 100
As in Table 4, 973 out of 1500 female students still maintained their occupations while in
UBE Programme. They still continued as hawkers (36.59%), housemaids (47.79%) and other child
labour jobs (15.62%).
Question 3: What are the facilities and equipment available in schools for the vocational training of
the girl-child in the Universal Basic Education?
Table 5: Facilities and Equipment Available in the Schools for the Vocational Training of the
Girl-Child.
Equipment
Number
Available
Number in Working
Condition
Average Age of Equipment in
Years
Frequency of Usage Per
Week
Average Frequency of Maintenance Per Session
Manual Typewriters 160 120 20 Daily Twice Computer Sets 20 12 5 Daily When need
arises
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Printer 6 6 2 ” ” Generating Sets 6 6 5 ” ”
Gas Cooker/ Oven 6 2 15 4 ” Stoves 15 6 3 5 “
Refrigerators 4 2 15 NQ “ Electric Iron 6 4 7 Used only
when needed When need
arises Box Iron 4 4 10 ” ”
Sewing Machine 8 6 20 3 ” Flutes 60 40 10 - - Drums 80 70 10 - -
Tambourines 4 4 8 - - Wheelbarrows 6 6 10 1 1
Spades 18 12 7 1 - Matchets 26 17 6 2 1
Watering Cans 7 6 15 1 - Knapsack sprayers 6 6 10 1 -
Clamps 10 8 5 NRA - Files 70 50 20 “ -
Hammer 60 60 20 “ - Planes 20 15 20 “ - Chisel 40 40 20 “ - Saw 50 40 20 “ -
Screw driver 60 60 20 “ - NQ = not quantifiable , NRA = not readily available. Table 5 presents data concerning facilities and equipment available in the school for the vocational
training of the girl-children. The data showed that there were 120 functional manual typewriters in
the six schools surveyed in South-South, Nigeria. The average age of the typewriters was 20 years.
Twelve functional computers with average age of five years. Other equipment in working condition
were two gas cookers (average age, 15 years), six sewing machines (average age, 20 years),
twelve spades, 17 matchets, 60 hammers, 15 planes, 40 chisels, 40 saws and 60 screw drivers.
These equipment were aged 20 years on the average.
Table 6: Student-Equipment Ratio as a Reflection of the Effectiveness of Vocational Training in
Universal Basic Education.
Facility or Equipment
Number in Working Condition
Number of Students Student-Equipment Ratio
Manual Typewriters 120 1500 13:1 Computer Sets 12 1500 125:5 Printer 6 1500 250:1 Generating Sets 6 1500 250:1 Gas Cooker/Oven 2 1500 750:1 Stoves 6 1500 250:1 Refrigerator 2 1500 750:1 Electric Iron 4 1500 375:1 Box Iron 4 1500 375:1 Sewing Machines 6 1500 250:1
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Flutes 40 1500 38:1 Drums 70 1500 21:1 Tambourines 4 1500 375:1 Wheel Barrows 6 1500 250:1 Spades 12 1500 125:1 Matchets 17 1500 88:1 Watering Cans 6 1500 250:1 Knapsack Sprayers 6 1500 250:1 Clamps 8 1500 188:1 Files 50 1500 30:1 Hammer 60 1500 25:1 Planes 15 1500 100:1 Chisel 40 1500 38:1 Saw 40 1500 38:1 Screw Driver 60 1500 25:1
Table 6 presents data on student-equipment ratio. Using the sample of 1500 female students, the
120 manual typewriters had a student-equipment ratio of 13:1, twelve computers had the ratio of
125:1, two gas cookers/oven – 750:1, six sewing machines – 250:1, 12 spades – 125:1; 17
matchets – 88:1, 60 hammers – 25:1; 15 planes – 100:1. On the whole, the student-equipment ratio
is not encouraging.
Analysis of Hypothesis
H01: There is no significant difference between rich and poor parents in their willingness to retain
their female children in the 9-year UBE.
Table 7: t-test Comparison of Mean Scores on Rich and Poor Parents’ Willingness to Retain Female
Children in Universal Basic Education.
[N=1500]
Variable N X SD df tcal tcrit
Rich Parents 679 42.6 5.54
1498 72.36* 1.96
Poor Parents 821 27.1 2.39
*Significant at .05 Alpha level.
Table 7 showed that the calculated t-value of 72.36 is greater than the critical t-value of 1.96 at .05
alpha level, under 1498 degree of freedom. This implies that there existed significant difference
between rich and poor parents in their willingness to retain female children in the 9-year
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Universal Basic Education (UBE), hence, hypothesis one stated above was rejected, and the
alternative statement upheld.
H02: There is no significant difference between literate and illiterate parents in their willingness to
retain female children in the 9-year Universal Basic Education.
Table 8: t-test Companion of Mean Scores of Literate and Illiterate Parents’ Willingness to Retain
their Female Children in Universal Basic Education.
[N=1500]
Variable N X SD df tcal tcrit
Literate Parents 632 40.1 4.46
1498 38.59* 1.96
Illiterate Parents 868 32.3 3.28
*Significant at 0.05 Alpha level.
As in Table 8, the t-test calculated value of 38.50 is greater than the critical value of 1.96 at .05
alpha level, and 1498 degree of freedom. This means that there existed significance difference
between literate and illiterate parents in their willingness to retain their female in the 9-year
Universal Basic Education. Therefore, null hypothesis 2 stated above was rejected, and the
alternative statement upheld.
H03: There is no significant influence of the 9-year Universal Basic Education on the future socio-
economic prospects of the girl-child in South-South Nigeria.
Table 9: Chi square (χ2) analysis of the influence of Universal Basic Education on the future socio-
economic prospects of the girl-child.
Perceived
Occupation
Resulting
from UBE
Former
Hawkers
Former
Housemaids
Other unspecified
child-labour
activities
χχχχ2
Snacks making 52 (28.2)
18 (23.7)
0 (45)
39.6**
Music 55 (48.4)
20 (40.6)
45 (31)
34.0*
Computer operation 61 (87.5)
110 (73.3)
46 (56.1)
28.2
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Crop farming 10 (25.4)
10 (21.3)
43 (16.3)
59.0**
Advance to Senior Secondary School
122 (133.9)
173 (112.2)
37 (85.9)
61.8
Sewing 41 (67.8)
82 (56.8)
45 (43.5)
21.9
Typing 41 (18.9)
6 (15.9)
0 (19.9)
44.2**
Trading 101 (75.8)
37 (63.5)
50 (48.6)
49.6**
Poultry farmer 60 (50.4)
20 (42.3)
45 (32.3)
38.6**
Artist 0 (3.6)
0 (3.0)
9 (2.3)
26.1
Knitting 30 (23.4)
7 (19.6)
21 (15.0)
34.1*
Cookery 32 (41.5)
24 (34.8)
47 (26.6)
21.2
458.3
χ2cal = 458.3; χ2 crit =33.92, df = 22, p> . 05, * figures in parenthesis represent expected frequencies.
Data in Table 9 indicated that Universal Basic Education exerts significant influence on the
perceived future occupation of the girl-children in areas of snacks-making (χ2=39.6), music
(χ2=34.0), crop farming (χ2=59.0), typing (χ2=44.2), trading (χ2=49.6), poultry farming (χ2=38.6),
knitting (χ=34.1) and advancement to Senior Secondary School (χ2=61-8). Universal Basic
Education did not perceivably influence the girl-children’s future involvement in sewing (χ2=10.42),
computer operation (χ2=22.79), arts(χ2=18.00), and cookery (χ2=32.52). The observed values were
less than the critical chi square value of 33.92. However, the overall chi square value of 458.3 was
greater than the table value. Therefore, null hypothesis 3 stated above was rejected.
Qualitative Analysis
Findings from the unstructured interview conducted indicated that parents now see the need of
educating the girl-child contrary to what was accepted as the norm in the distant past. Even very
poor and illiterate parents spoke in support of the girl-child’s education as a panacea for her future
socio-economic prospects and sustainable development. Culture is dynamic they maintained and
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added that parents who deny their female children access to western education are ignorant of the
benefits of such investment. The realization of these benefits they further said informed their
decision to let girls combine schooling with work so as to support the family with the little income
accruing from such work.
The girls on their part were very happy with government for the free and compulsory Universal
Basic Education. According to them, it has delivered them from the hazards of hawking, being
housemaids to very unfriendly and uncaring households and being forced out of school at very
tender ages. They noted that it was the declaration of the free and compulsory Universal Basic
Education that compelled their parents to withdraw them from their former occupations. Some of
those who are combining work and schooling said they do so to supplement the family income while
others admitted they enjoyed hawking because of the ‘pocket money’ it fetches them.
On what they hope to do on completion of the UBE programme, some of them claimed they will
venture into different aspects of agriculture such as poultry farming, vegetable and crop farming
because they have been taught practical agriculture extensively. Some said they will opt for trading
which they are familiar with, while a good number said they want to complete Secondary education
instead of looking for jobs at the end of junior secondary. On the whole, they were happy for the free
opportunity to be educated.
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Discussion of Findings
The discussion is done under the sub-headings relevant to the research questions and
hypotheses formulated to guide the study.
Parent’s Willingness to Retain Their Female Childre n in the 9-year Universal Basic Education
Programm e.
The result indicated that parents were willing to retain their female children in the 9-year
Universal Basic Education. The parents seem to acknowledge the fact that education will make their
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female children more productive and employable. They also seem to understand that Universal
Basic Education will provide knowledge needed by the female children to achieve higher standard
of living and cope more effectively with the challenges of a constantly changing society.
This finding agrees with Igbineweka & Aghenta (2005) who found that Nigerian parents are
willing to finance their children’s education especially at the Universal Basic Education level. They
also found that many parents go to the extent of selling off personal possessions and even borrow
to send and keep their children in school. This finding therefore suggests that parents in South-
South Nigeria share the view of Waldman (2009) that education provides an immediate answer to
achieving economic justice for the girl-children. It also agreed with the postulate of the Human
Capital Theory that people spend on themselves and acquire additional education as a conscious
investment activity in anticipation of future percuniary and non-percuniary returns.
Occupations of the Female Students Prior to Enrolme nt in Universal Basic Education
The result of findings revealed that 40.33 percent of the female students in Universal Basic
Education programme in South-South Nigeria were involved in hawking, 33.80 percent of them
served as housemaids, and 25.87 percent engaged in other forms of child-labour prior to enrolling in
the Universal Basic Education programme. Many factors informed the female children’s involvement
in these occupations. They include the poverty status of parents, parental apathy to girl-child
education; gender based stereotypes and gender discriminatory prejudice arising from culture,
religion and politics.
Percentage of Female Children Still Maintaining The ir Occupations While in the Universal
Basic Education Programme
Findings revealed that 973 out of 1500 female students sampled were still maintaining their
occupations while in the Universal Basic Education programme. The reasons might be that their
parents are too poor to sponsor them wholly in school. Their contributions to the family purse seem
demanded by parents. Again, it seems that most of these female children now in school had
enjoyed the money they gained from hawking and other child-labour jobs, and, even though they
are being called back for Universal Basic Education, they still enjoy continuing their occupations
while in school. The present result agrees with UNICEF (2001) and Jatau (2008) who found that
poverty level of parents or inadequate family financial resources greatly affect girl-child education.
Facilities and Equipment Available in Schools for t he Vocational Training of the Girl-Child
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The survey revealed that schools lack necessary facilities and equipment needed for
effective vocational training of female students. Practical classes are rarely held in vocational
subjects such as Home Economics, Computer Studies Fine Arts. They depend on theory presented
entirely by lecture method to the students. This result was expected because the student-equipment
ratio shown Table 6 demonstrates the evidence. The implication might be that the female children
undergoing Universal Basic Education programme are half-baked and are consequently not able to
practice the vocational skills taught in schools for a living.
Parent’s Socio-Economic Status and Willingness to R etain Female Children in Universal
Basic Education Programme
The results of findings indicated that there existed significant difference between rich and
poor parents in their willingness to retain female children in the universal Basic Education for
complete nine years. The rich parents seem to be more willing to retain their female children wholly
in school than the poor parents. The result of the present finding seem to explain the reason for
some female children continuing in their occupations while in the Universal Basic Education
programme.
A previous investigation had pointed out that in South-South Nigeria majority of the parents
are peasant farmers and petty traders with large family sizes of about seven or eight children on the
average (Usen, 2003). These families seem unable to adequately cater for their members and are
often compelled to either give out their female children as domestic servants, or send out to hawk
wares to complement the family economy. UNESCO (2001) had identified lack of financial
resources as one of the factors that block access to the girl-child education. To make up for this
deficiency, the poor parents in South-South Nigeria therefore encourage their female children to
combine Universal Basic Education with their previous occupations to support themselves
financially.
Parent’s Educational Status and Their Willingness t o Retain Female Children in Universal
Basic Education
Findings revealed that there existed significant difference between literate and illiterate
parents in their willingness to retain female children in the nine year Universal Basic Education. This
result was expected because the literate parents are fully aware of the importance of children’s
education and so do not hesitate to send their female children to school, but illiterates do. Illiterate
parents do not seem to understand that investment in girl-child education can enhance their
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productivity. The parent’s level of education according to Fant (2008) play a crucial role in the
decision to allow female children to attend school. The findings that literate parents are more willing
to send and retain their female children in school concurred Olagunju (2007) who posited that
educating the parents will have a multiplier effect in the girl-child enrollment, retention and
completion.
Universal Basic Education and the Future Socio-Econ omic Prospects of the Girl-Child
The result of the present study indicated that Universal Basic Education exerts significant
influence on the future occupation of the female children specifically in the areas of crop farming,
poultry farming, snack- making, music, typing and trading. The reason for the observed result is not
far-fetched. Most of the vocational trainings received by the female students in Universal Basic
Education programme are in the areas of Agriculture and Business Studies. Their prospective
involvement in snack-making is engendered partly from the crude training in the Home Management
aspect of Home Economics.
The result also showed that Universal Basic Education does not influence the female
children’s future involvement in sewing, computer operation, arts and cookery. This may have been
due to inadequate facilities and equipment for training in those areas. Thus, the female children
tend to be incapacitated by lack of facilities and equipment and limited in access to occupational
skills, which could otherwise be provided through Universal Basic Education. Previous study by Oni
(2007) that vocational education provides the recipient with basic knowledge and practical skills
needed for entry into the workforce, and prepares people for useful employment in a recognized
occupation seem unattainable based on the present findings.
Facilities and equipment are necessary for effective vocational skill acquisition. As reported
by Oni (2007), vocational practitioners who have no knowledge of tool handling and machines
operations may be left behind in their later professional practices. The findings that schools lack
functional facilities and equipment with which to impart skills relevant to the listed fields of vocational
education for the girl-child seem challenging. However, Udo (2009) who found a significant
relationship between availability of studio equipment and students’ acquisition of typing skills is
supported by result of this study.
Conclusions
Based on the findings of this study, it was evident that:
1. Parents in South-South Nigeria are willing to retain their female children in the 9-years
Universal Basic Education. It was further found that the rich/poor as well as the
literate/illiterate parents differ in the extent of their willingness to retain female children in the
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UBE programme. The poor and the illiterates parents compelled their female children to
combine their occupation (hawking, housemaid) with schooling. Whereas the rich and the
educated parents do not allow their children to continue in their occupation prior to
enrollment in UBE programme.
2. The occupations of the female children prior to enrolling in UBE were hawking, house help
jobs, and other specified child labour jobs.
3. The facilities and equipment available in the six schools surveyed in South-South Nigeria
were 120 manual typewriters with average age of 20 years, twelve functional computers, two
gas cookers (average age, 15 years), six sewing machines (aged 20 years) and few
workshop tools with average age of 20 years.
4. The student – equipment ratio using a sample of 1500 female students from six schools is
South-South Nigeria were 13:1 for manual typewriters, 125:1 for computers, 750:1 for gas
cookers, and 250:1 for sewing machines.
5. UBE exerts significant influence on the future occupation of the female children in areas of
crop farming, poultry farming, music, typing and trading. UBE was not found to contribute to
the female children, future involvement in sewing, computer operation, arts and cookery
because of inadequate equipment for skill trading in the area.
Recommendations
1. The Ministry of Women Affairs in collaboration with National Agency for Prohibition of
trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) should educate the poor and illiterate parents against
compelling their female children to combine child labour and commercial activities with
schooling. This will help to enhance the female children’s concentration on vocational skills
taught in schools.
2. The state and Federal Ministry of Education should provide sufficient facilities and
equipment to enhance effective vocational skills training to female students in UBE. This
would help to increase the students-equipment ratio and facilitate acquisition of vocational
skills by the female students.
3. The Universal Basic Education commission should ensure that female students in UBE
programme are better taught skills in sewing, computer operation and cooking to ensure
utilization in their future occupation.
Suggestions for further Research
1. This study should be replicated in the other five geo-political zones in Nigeria to enhance
comparability and generalization of results.
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2. A comparative study should be conducted on the socio-economic prospects of female
children exposed to Universal Basic Education and those who are not.
Limitations of the Study
The researchers encountered some limitation in the course of this study. The absence of a
standardized research instrument for a study of this magnitude resulted in the use of researcher-
made instruments whose content and face validility had to be ascertained by research experts. The
rating scales adopted by the researchers may have had inherent weaknesses arising from the
sample size used by the researchers. Judging from the sensitive nature of the study, the items of
the questionnaires and the rating scales may be prone to response bias. That is, respondents
limiting their judgments to what they feel will make them accepted in society.
To offset the limitations, the researchers and research assistants were to keep their ears
open for comments by members of the research population sampled and to initiate conversations to
elicit more information. Therefore, unstructured interview approaches supplemented the use of the
rating scale.
Problems Encountered
Some problems were encountered in the course of this research. They included the inability
of the researchers to get the approval of the heads of the schools originally selected for the study.
Thus, the researchers had to look for schools with similar characteristics where the school heads
were willing to permit the female students participate in the study. This delayed the work pace,
wasted time and the limited resources available for the research. It was also difficult getting the girls
together for discussions because the school heads felt we were asking too much and at the same
time prying into the girls private lives. According to them they had the rights to protect their students’
privacy. It was also difficult getting information about availability of facilities as those involved
thought we were Government’s agents who have come again to deceive them. This obstacle was
however overcome with explanations about our objectives.
REFERENCES
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Federal Ministry of Education (2007). 9-years basic education curriculum-music. Abuja: NERDC PRESS. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC PRESS. Hagen (2009). Causes of underdevelopment: Theory of social change. http://www.professor-frithjof-kuhnen.de/publications/causes-of-underdevelopment/1-3-2htm/e-book. Available at Digital Library [Accessed 9 March 2009]. Hallman, P. J. (2009). Teaching basic academic skills in secondary vocational classes. http://47.125. 155.132/search?q=cache:MRgeNcAck2QJ:www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWeb/Portal/recordDetail%3Faccno%3DED267233. Available at Digital Library. [Accessed 10 August 2009). Igbineweka, V.O. & Aghenta, J. A. (2005) Analysis of parents willingness to demand basic education for children in public/private schools in Edo State. In Nigeria Journal of Educational Administration and Planning 5 (3) pp.129-134) Ike, E. (2006). Preparing home economics teachers for the 21st century. In Journal of Educational Research and Development. 1(3) pp.168-172. Imoukhuede, N. (2007). Communiqué of the 1st Nigeria internet interaction conference on the economic rights of Nigerian women. http://lists.kabissa.org/lists/archives/public/womenseconomic rights-conference/msg00047.html. Available at Digital Library [Accessed 2 March 2009] Jatau, P. (2008). The relevance of ethnographic approach to issues regarding women and literacy and how this approach relates to research on girl-child education in Northern Nigeria. http://108cgpublishers.com/proposals/38/index-html. Available at Digital Library[Accessed 12 August 2009]. Jatta, N. (2009). United nations girl’s education initiatives. http://www.ungei.org/Beijing/Dir BAS.html. Available at Digital Library [Accessed 2 March 2009]. Jegede, P. O. & Owolabi J. A. (2005). Effect of professional status subject discipline and computer attitudes among teacher educators in Nigerian colleges of education. In Information technology Journal 4.pp158-162. Jegede, P. O. (2006).A study on the predictors of teacher educators behaviour towards information and communication technology in south western Nigeria. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Karin, G. (2000). Prespectives on team-teaching: A semester 1 independent inquiry. In A peer Reviewed Journal 1(1). Ndagana, J. M. & Onifade, S. (2000). Strategies for motivating students in introductory technology in Nigerian junior secondary schools: the case study of Obokun Local Government Area, Osun State. Nigeria Journal of Education and Technology (1). 169-179. Nigerian Embassy (2009). Geo-political zones in Nigeria. http:// www.nigerianembassy.org/ government/zone html. Available at Digital Library[Accessed August 19, 2009] Obasi, E. (2000). The economics of education in Nigeria. Mbaise: New vision publishers.
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Mali • Mauritanie • Nigeria • Niger • Sénégal • Sierra Leone • République Centrafricaine • Togo www.rocare.org/ www.ernwaca.org
Obasi V. A. (2006). Gender: Education, inequality and women empowerment. In Iwuchukwu, R. ed. The NAWACS journal of women academics. 1(1), pp.11-23. Owerri: National Association of Women Academics. Oke, L (2005) Education, millenium development goals and challenges of gender equity in the 21st century in Nigeria. In Okene, V. C., Orji, E. C. ed. International Journals of gender and health studies. 3(1)(2), pp.169-184. Ikot Ekpene: Development Universal Consortia. Okiy, R. B. (2004). The universal basic education (UBE) programme and the development of school library in Nigeria: A catalyst for greater female participation in national development. Retrieved on March 2, 2004 from http://ifl.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/32/4/325/e-book. Available at Digital Library [Accessed 2 March 2009]. Olagunju, B. (2009). Effective implementation of basic education. http://www.ube.edu. Available at Digital Library [Accessed 3 March 2009]. Oni, C. S. (2009). Development vocational education through computer literacy in Nigeria. Junior secondary school curriculum. http://www.nc.su.edu/meridian/Sum2007/one/print.html. Available at Digital Library [Accessed September 1, 2009]. Onwioduokit, F. A. (2000). Educational research methodology and statistics. Uyo: Dorand Publishers. Osuala, E. C. (2001). Introduction to research methodology. Onitsha: Africana FEP Publishers. Shalangwa, A. S. (2006). Problems of teaching and learning home economics. In Journal of educational research and development 1(3) pp.155-157. Udo, G. S. (2009). Resource inputs and students’ acquisition of skills in business studies in public secondary schools in Ikot Ekpene senatorial district. Unpublished project presented to Department of vocational education faculty of education, University of Uyo. Umoh, M. (2000). Education of practical agricultural programme of junior secondary schools in Akwa Ibom State. In Journal of Education and society. 3 (1) pp.65-71. Umoh, U. A. & Inyang, U. G. (2005). Basics of modern computing. Uyo: EMSEL. Uwameiye, R. & Rukayat, A. O. (2008). Effect of team teaching on the academic achievement of students in Introductory Technology. http://www.itall.org/Journal/Oct.08/articles.htm. Available at Digital Library [Accessed September 1, 2009]. Waldman, D, K. (2009). II Review of literature. http://www.tolovechildren.org/community/review literature.htm. Available at Digital Library [Accessed September 1, 2009]. World Education (2009). Projects by sector - Girls and women education initiative. http://www.worlded.org/WEIInternet/gwe/index.cfm. Available at Digital Library [Accessed 19 August, 2009].
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APPENDIX
INSTRUMENT ONE
Parents’ Willingness to Retain Girl-Child in School Questionnaire (PWRGSQ) Dear Respondent,
This study is conducted to access the parents’ willingness to retain their female children in the
Universal Basic Education for nine years so as to gain future prospect of socio-economic
empowerment. Your candid response to the under listed items will be highly appreciated and treated
in strict confidence.
Section A: Demographic Data
Education Status: Literate Illiterate
Section B: Parents’ Willingness
Please tick (√) the column that best express your opinion on the items provided.
Key: VW=Very Willing; W=Willing; LW=Less Willing and NW=Not Willing.
S/N ITEMS VW W LW NW 1 I would encourage my daughter to abandon hawking and go to school. 2 I would support my daughter throughout the nine-year compulsory education. 3 My daughter would continue hawking to support the family with money. 4 I am ready to withdraw my daughter from house help eventhough the master
always supports our family
5 My daughter would go to school when I finish repaying the loan I received. 6 I do support the girl-child education. 7 Female education should be encouraged. 8 Government is investing money on the girl-child education. 9 The girls should learn to keep the home and should not go to school 10 Girls should enjoy Universal Basic Education eventhough they will marry and
go to rear children.
Section C: Poverty Rating items Key SA=strongly agree; A = agree; D = disagree; SD = strongly disagree. Tick only one response per item.
S/N ITEMS SA A D SD
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1 I earn more than four thousand naira (N4,000.00) a month. 2 I am able to provide clothing to every member of my family 3 I have a house to shelter my family 4 I do not rely on my children for financial support 5 I borrow money to buy food for my family
INSTRUMENT TWO
UBE and Socio-economic Preparation of the Girl-chil d Questionnaire (UBESPGQ)
Dear Respondent
This study is conducted to ascertain the extent to which UBE prepares the girl-child for future
socio-economic life. Your candid response to under listed items will be highly appreciated and
treated confidentially.
SECTION A – PERSONAL DATA
1. Class:……………………………………
2. Type of job engaged in previously: Hawking Housemaid Other jobs
SECTION B: FUTURE SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROSPECTS
Which of these socio-economic activities would you like to undertake after Universal Basic
Education (Tick only one).
1
After Universal Basic Education, I will:
Open a snack shop.
2 Become a musician. 3 Become a computer operator. 4 Go into crop farming. 5 go further to the Senior Secondary School 6 Become a seamstress. 7 Become a roadside typist. 8 Become a trader. 9 Open a poultry farm. 10 open and run an art studio. 11 open a knitting shop. 12 cook and sell fast foods.
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Information on Facilities and Equipment Available f or Vocational Training Form for Principals
Dear Sir/Madam, Please kindly list facilities and equipment available in your school for vocational subjects practical in the format below:
Name of Facility or Equipment
Number
Available
Number in Working
Condition
Average Age of Equipment
in Years
Frequency of Usage Per Week
Average Frequency of Maintenance Per Session
ROCARE / ERNWACA • Tel: (223) 20 21 16 12, Fax: (223) 20 21 21 15 • BP E 1854, Bamako, MALI Bénin • Burkina Faso • Cameroun• Congo • Côte d’Ivoire • Gambia • Ghana • Guinée •
Mali • Mauritanie • Nigeria • Niger • Sénégal • Sierra Leone • République Centrafricaine • Togo www.rocare.org/ www.ernwaca.org