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6The United StatesTransformed

See pages 968–969 forprimary source readingsthat accompany Unit 6.

&HISTORYYOU

Historic America Electronic Field TripsThe entire crew of the U.S.S. Arizona lost their lives when a 1,760 poundJapanese bomb slammed through the ship’s deck and ignited onboardammunition. To honor those who died in the attack on Pearl Harbor, theUnited States government approved construction in 1958 of a memorialover the Arizona’s sunken hull. To learn more about the emotional impactof Pearl Harbor on American public opinion, view video Chapter 8: TheU.S.S. Arizona Memorial in Historic America Electronic Field Trips.

While the Great Depression threatened the nation’s economic system,the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan threatened the future of global democracy. American resistance to intervening in a second

world war melted with the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, onDecember 7, 1941. The American people committed themselves to the

Allied victory, waging a two-front war in Europe and Asia.Mobilization ended the Depression and established the United States

as the leading world power.

1933–1945

UNITED STATES

THE WORLD

1933

1935

Prohibition is repealed.

Italian forces invade Ethiopia.

1936 Spanish civil war begins.

1938 Hitler invades Czechoslovakia; European powers meet at the Munich Conference.

1939 Germany invades Poland; World War II begins in Europe.

1940 Battle of Britain begins.

1938 Fair Labor Standards Act passes.

1939 Film GoneWith the Windis released.

1940 Roosevelt is electedto third term as President;Columbia BroadcastingSystem demonstrates colortelevision.

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1941

1941

Japanese bomb Pearl Harbor; Lend-Lease bill signed.

Hideki Tojo becomes prime minister of Japan; Nazis order the mass killing of Jews.

1942

1942

U.S. joins Allies in World War II; Japanese Americans are moved to internment camps.

Allied offensive begins in North Africa.

1943

1944

Navajo soldiers develop unbreakable radio code.

Allies invade Normandy.

1944

1945

Roosevelt wins fourth term.

Atomic bombs devastate Hiroshima and Nagasaki; World War II ends.

1945 Roosevelt dies; Truman becomes President.

1941 19451943

Two United States planes that proved effective against the Japanese Zero fighters were theWildcat (above foreground) and the Hellcat (above rear).

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In Normandy, July 17,1944——Tank Commander Mar-tin Kennelly wanted to showme just where his tank hadbeen hit. As a matter of fact hehadn’t seen it for himself yet,for he came running up thestreet the moment he jumpedout of the tank.

So when the firing dieddown a little we sneaked upthe street until we were almosteven with the disabled tank. But we were careful not to get our heads around the corner of the sidestreet, for that was where the Germans had fired from.

The first shell had hit the heavy steel brace thatthe tread runs on, and then plunged on through theside of the tank, very low.

“Say!” Kennelly said in amazement. “It went right through our lower ammunition storage box!

I don’t know what kept theammunition from going off.We’d have been a mess if it had. Boy, it sure wouldhave got hot in there in ahurry!”

The street was still emp-ty. Beyond the tank abouttwo blocks was a Germantruck, sitting all alone in themiddle of the street. It hadbeen blown up, and its tires

had burned off. This truck was the only thing youcould see. There wasn’t a human being in sight any-where.

Then an American soldier came running up thestreet shouting for somebody to send up a medic. Hesaid a man was badly wounded just ahead. He wasextremely excited, yelling, and getting madder be-cause there was no medic in sight.

DispatchesFrom the Front

P e r s o n a l i z i n g t h e W a r

B Y E R N I E P Y L E

Popular World War II correspondent Ernie Pyle brought the war home by writing about the experiences, thoughts, and feelings of army soldiers at the front

lines of combat. The following excerpt from one of Pyle’s columns recounts theNinth Infantry Division’s fight to recapture a French town from the Germans.

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At the Front Ernie Pyle accompanied Alliedforces in the invasions of North Africa, Italy, andOkinawa, in addition to Normandy.

Word was passed down the line, and pretty soona medic came out of a doorway and started up thestreet. The excited soldier yelled at him and begancussing, and the medic broke into a run. They ran pastthe tanks together, and up the street a way theyducked into a doorway.

On the corner just across the street from wherewe were standing was a smashed pillbox. It was in acut-away corner like the entrances to some of our cor-ner drugstores at home, except that instead of therebeing a door there was a pillbox of reinforced concrete,with gun slits.

The tank boyshad shot it to extinc-tion and then movedtheir tank up evenwith it to get the rangeof the next pillbox.That one was about ablock ahead, set in aniche in the wall of a building. That’s what the boyshad been shooting at when their tank was hit. Theyknocked it out, however, before being knocked outthemselves.

For an hour there was a lull in the fighting. No-body did anything about a third pillbox, around thecorner. Our second tank pulled back a little and justwaited. Infantrymen worked their way up to second-story windows and fired their rifles up the side streetwithout actually seeing anything to shoot at.

Now and then blasts from a 20-mm gun wouldsplatter the buildings around us. Then our secondtank would blast back in that general direction, overthe low roofs, with its machine gun. There was a lotof dangerous-sounding noise, but I don’t think any-body on either side got hit.

Then we saw coming up the street, past thewrecked German truck I spoke of, a group of Germansoldiers. An officer walked in front, carrying a RedCross flag on a stick. Bob Capa, the photographer,braved the dangerous funnel at the end of the sidestreet where the damaged tank stood, leapfroggingpast it and on down the street to meet the Germans.

First he snapped some pictures of them. Then,since he speaks German, he led them on back to our side of the invisible fence of battle. Eight of them were carrying two litters bearing two woundedGerman soldiers. The others walked behind with theirhands up. They went on past us to the hospital. Weassumed they were from the second knocked-out pillbox.

I didn’t stay to see how the remaining pillbox wasknocked out. But I suppose our second tank eventu-ally pulled up to the corner, turned, and let the pill-

box have it. After thatthe area would beclear of everything butsnipers.

The infantry, whoup till then had beenforced to keep in door-ways, would now con-tinue up the street and

poke into the side streets into the houses until every-thing was clear.

That’s how a strong point in a city is taken. Atleast that’s how ours was taken. You don’t alwayshave tanks to help, and you don’t always do it withso little shedding of blood.

But the city was already crumbling when we start-ed in on this strong point, which was one of the last,and they didn’t hold on too bitterly. But we didn’tknow that when we started.

I hope this has given you a faint idea of whatstreet fighting is like. If you got out of it much morethan a headful of confusion, then you’ve got out of itexactly the same thing as the soldiers who do it.

1. If you had been a teenager during WorldWar II, how might Ernie Pyle’s dispatchesfrom the front have influenced you?

2. Does Pyle’s writing make you feel as ifyou are an eyewitness to the war? Explain.

Responding to Literature

NOW AND TH EN B LASTS FROM A

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“Several German divisions are deep in Polishterritory, and fighting is heavy. Tony said there werereports of bombers over the city. Then he was cutoff.”

“Well, Bill,” Roosevelt said, “it’s come at last.God help us all.”

“It” was war in Europe. Only 21 years after theend of World War I, war had begun again. In re-sponse to Germany’s invasion of Poland, GreatBritain began mobilizing troops. Two days laterGreat Britain and France declared war on Germany.

Bringing the United States out of the GreatDepression was Roosevelt’s most pressing con-

cern, but growing political unrest in Europe andAsia also demanded his attention. The invasion of Poland was only the latest international crisis ofthe 1930s.

Looking back, Roosevelt could see the rootsof the crisis in Europe in the rise to power of Be-nito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. He had also watchedas Japan flexed its military might. It was clear to himthat these events could hurl the United States intoglobal conflict. He could not know that the war tocome would be the most devastating in history, orthat it would make the United States the richest andmost powerful nation in the world. �

President Franklin Roosevelt was awakened by a telephone call at 2:30 A.M. on September 1, 1939. Bill Bullitt, United States ambassador to France, reported an urgent call from Tony Biddle in Warsaw.

World War IISEPTEMBER 1 , 1939 : GERMANY INVADES POLAND

C H A P T E R

15

Chapter OverviewVisit the American Odyssey Web site at americanodyssey.glencoe.com and click onChapter 15—Chapter Overview to previewthe chapter.

HISTORY

Using the picture on page 491 and your own

knowledge of history, write down all that you

know about World War II. Speculate on major

topics in this chapter.

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u p g r o u p s o f P o l i s h J e w s i n K r a k ó w .

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Adolf hitler recognizedand made use of the powerof the spoken word. “Everygreat movement on this globeowes its rise to the great speak-ers,” he had said. As he stood be-fore the Reichstag, the Germanhouse of representatives, on July13, 1934, Hitler sensed that themoment for a powerful speechwas at hand. Two weeks before,he had ruthlessly eliminatedthose members of his own polit-ical party who stood in the wayof his rise to absolute power. Ina night of blood and terror,Hitler’s storm troopers had shotor stabbed hundreds of Hitler’spolitical enemies.

Though he began speaking in a hoarse whisper,Hitler’s voice soon rose to a screech. Stabbing the air withhis hands, he spat out words such as traitor, poison, andblood. As Reichstag members sat in stunned silence,Hitler took full responsibility for the murders. He had

killed, he declared, from thehighest of motives––his love forthe German people and the Ger-man state:

Igave the order to shoot thosewho were the ringleaders in

this treason, and I further gavethe order to burn out down to theraw flesh the ulcers of this poi-soning of the wells in our domes-tic life and of the poisoning ofthe outside world. And I furtherordered that if any of the muti-neers should attempt to resistarrest, they were immediately tobe struck down with armedforce. . . . I am ready to under-take the responsibility at the bar

of history for the twenty-four hours in which the bit-terest decisions of my life were made . . . to hold fastto the dearest thing that has been given us in thisworld—the German people and the German Reich!

—Adolf Hitler, 1934

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The Road to WarJULY 13, 1934: HITLER ADDRESSES THE REICHSTAG

HitlerSpeaking with power and emotion, Hitler tried to

sway the minds of his people.

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� how acts of aggression threatenedworld peace and why the UnitedStates at first adopted a policy ofneutrality.

Vocabulary Read to Find Out . . .Main IdeaAlthough memories of WorldWar I and the suffering of theGreat Depression led mostAmericans to support a policyof neutrality, they found itincreasingly impossible toignore aggression overseas.

Hitler’s bold justification of the murders swept mil-lions of Germans off their feet and united them behindhis government. It also frightened into silence those Ger-mans who still opposed his rule. Hitler’s speech warnedthe rest of the world that this new German Reich was aforce not to be ignored.

The Rise of DictatorsMussolini and Hitler on the Move

Before 1934 Americans had been too preoccupiedwith their own problems to take Hitler's emotionalspeeches seriously. The suffering the Great Depressioncaused convinced most people in the United States thattheir first priority lay at home, not overseas. The enor-mous cost of victory in World War I——both in moneyand in lives——convinced many that the nation should stayout of Europe’s troubles.

Keeping with public sentiment, President Roosevelt’sforeign policy concentrated at first on making the Unit-ed States a “good neighbor” to the countries in this hemi-sphere. At his inauguration in 1933, he announced theGood Neighbor policy. This policy supported the ideaof nonintervention among nations. Roosevelt pledgedthat the United States would not interfere in the internalaffairs of its Latin American neighbors. Events in Italy andGermany, however, would soon make it impossible forthe United States to avoid intervention in Europe.

Mussolini’s Rise in ItalyThe events that brought Italy to the center of the

world stage began after World War I. Although Italy hadfought on the victorious Allied side, the war had left thecountry in economic chaos. Thousands of soldiers re-turning to civilian life could not find jobs.

A wounded veteran himself, Benito Mussolini burstonto the Italian political scene with a threat and a

promise of change. Painting himself as a modernizerand as a champion of order and efficiency, Il Duce (theleader), as he called himself, challenged Italians to joinwith him in rebuilding their shattered economy and inrestoring Italy’s power in the Mediterranean region.Mussolini gained a following of political demonstrators

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1929 Hitler denounces Treatyof Versailles.

1934 Hitler abolish-es office of president,declares himself theführer.

1939 Germany and Sovi-et Union sign nonagressionpact. Hitler invades Poland.

1933 Hitler becomeschancellor of the Naziparty. Hitler empow-ered to make laws.

1935 Mussolini’stroops invade Ethiopia.

1936 Mussolini andHitler both send troops toSpain to fight for GeneralFranco.

1932 Nazi partybecomes most pow-erful in Germany.

1938 Hitler occu-pies Austria and theSudetenland inCzechoslovakia.

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Il Duce on Horseback Mussolini, shown here in 1933 review-ing troops in Rome, ruled Italy for almost 21 years. How dideconomic conditions in Italy after World War I make his rise topower easier?

who became known as fascists, followers of a politicalphilosophy that preached that the nation and the racewere more important than the individual. Fascists wonelections by frightening people into supporting them.Black-shirted gangs roamed the streets smashing theoffices of opposing political parties and breaking up theirmeetings. As the leader of the Fascist party, Mussolinibecame a totalitarian dictator, completely controllingall aspects of Italian life.

In spite of these ruthless tactics, many Italians, and evensome Americans, saw Mussolini as a model of strength anddetermination. Once in power, he succeeded in bringingenergy and discipline to Italian society with a flood of newgovernment economic and social programs. Under Mus-solini, for example, Italian trains ran on time, and engineersbuilt 400 new bridges and 4,000 miles (6,436 km) of roads.

Mussolini also kept his promise to restore Italy’spower in the Mediterranean. In October 1935, his armiesinvaded the African nation of Ethiopia. Ethiopian soldiers on horseback, armed with outdated guns and

spears, were no match for the bombers and machine gunsof the modern Italian army. By May 1936, Mussolinicontrolled Ethiopia.

Hitler Founds the Nazi PartyAs Mussolini did, Adolf Hitler rose to power in Ger-

many during the troubled times after World War I.Wounded and gassed during the war, Hitler nursed hisbitterness by transforming a tiny workers’ party into themighty National Socialist German Workers’ party, whichbecame known as the Nazi party. In a series of speech-es during the 1920s, Hitler spelled out the Nazi program.The German people, he said, had been divided into war-ring social classes for too long. By eliminating the dif-ferences between rich and poor, the Nazis would makethe German people strong and united. Moreover, Hitlersaid, Jews and others who were not blond, blue-eyedmembers of what he called the “Aryan” or Germanic racehad betrayed Germany in World War I. The Jews, Hitlersaid, were to blame for Germany’s economic problems.

494 C H A P T E R 1 5 W O R L D W A R I I

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Once in power, the totalitarian regimes of Mussolini and Hitler moved across Europe and parts of Africa, conquering every smalland weak country in their paths. When did Germany take over Austria?

Building the Third ReichWhen the Depression struck Germany in 1929, the

German government was unable to find jobs for 6 mil-lion unemployed workers. Hitler took advantage of thediscontent to appeal to the German people to rebuildtheir economy and to revive their honor by bringinghim to power. He denounced the Treaty of Versailles,which dismantled the German military and requiredGermany to pay huge sums of money to the Allies. Inan election held in July 1932, the Nazi party became themost powerful in Germany, though it failed to win a clearmajority. Nevertheless, Hitler held out for full powers aschancellor, which he got in January 1933.

Once in power Hitler moved to eliminate opposition.In February 1933, he persuaded German president Paulvon Hindenburg to suspend most German civil rights.A month later, by false promises and threats of violence,Hitler convinced the Reichstag to give him the powerto make laws without its consent. In June 1934, Hitlerdemanded that members of the military swear person-al allegiance to him. After Hindenburg’s death in August1934, Hitler abolished the office of president and declaredhimself the führer, or supreme leader of the Third Re-ich, the German Empire. Thus, Hitler also became a to-talitarian dictator.

With all power concentrated in his hands, Hitlerdefied the Treaty of Versailles by rebuilding the Germanmilitary. In 1936 he took his defiance a step further andsent troops into Germany’s Rhineland. This put Germansoldiers on the eastern border of France. When GreatBritain and France did not resist the action, Hitler’splans grew even more ambitious.

The Axis Tests Its StrengthMussolini and Hitler Join Forces

Hitler and Mussolini were two powerful leaders whohad dreams of expanding their borders, and both werebuilding armies mighty enough to seize new lands at will.When these two dictators formed an alliance in 1936,dubbed the Axis Powers, fear struck the hearts of manyEuropeans, including the Soviets whose communismclashed with fascism.

Fighting the Spanish Civil WarThe outbreak of a bitter and bloody civil war in Spain

complicated the situation in Europe. In 1931 a parliamen-tary government under a democratic constitution replacedthe Spanish monarchy. Led by Spanish army GeneralFrancisco Franco, conservative and pro-monarchy rebeltroops attempted to overthrow the Spanish governmentin 1936. The war quickly grew into an international strug-gle. Because Franco, like Mussolini, strongly opposed com-munism, Mussolini felt compelled to aid Franco’s cause.He sent airplanes and thousands of soldiers from the Ital-ian army. Hitler also sent Franco bombers and troops.

On the other side, the Soviet Union supported theRepublicans who fought for their elected government.Though the governments of Great Britain, France, andthe United States were officially neutral, many citizensin these countries backed the Republicans. Some 3,000Americans who opposed Franco’s facism formed theAbraham Lincoln Brigade and fought in Spain for

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Protest Through Art Pablo Picasso’s famous painting Guernica is a masterpiece of protest against the bombing of the town ofGuernica during the Spanish civil war. How does his unconventional portrayal of this event contribute to its overall effect as a proteststatement against war?

the Republican cause. Many belonged to the AmericanCommunist Party. Other volunteers were socialists, lib-erals, trade-unionists, and even zionists. All were unitedby a hatred of facism and a belief that if Germany andItaly could help overturn a democracy in Spain, noth-ing would stop them from moving on to France. “Andafter France?” many asked. In the end, Franco’s fascistforces prevailed.

Appeasing Hitler in MunichIntervening in the Spanish civil war did not satisfy

Hitler’s drive for power. In March 1938, he proclaimedthat Austria was part of Germany and sent Germantanks into the Austrian capital Vienna to seal the deal.Six months later Hitler’s armies occupied the Sudeten-land region of Czechoslovakia, an area with a large eth-nic German population. To justify his aggression, Hitlerexplained that he had taken the Sudetenland to satisfythe wish of Germans living there to become part of Ger-many. His only goal, he said, was to defend the German-speaking people of Czechoslovakia against politicaloppression by the Czechs.

Eager to avoid another war, the leaders of GreatBritain and France adopted a policy of appeasementtoward Hitler, in which they gave in to his demands inan attempt to keep the peace. At a conference in Mu-nich in September 1938, British Prime Minister NevilleChamberlain and French Premier Edouard Daladieragreed not to oppose Hitler’s move against the Sude-tenland. Hitler in turn promised to respect the rest ofCzechoslovakia and to make no new territorial demandsin Europe. A joyful Chamberlain, supported by PresidentRoosevelt, told a jittery world that the Munich Pact en-sured “peace for our time.” Not all British politiciansagreed. Winston Churchill, who would soon replaceChamberlain as prime minister, remarked, “Britain andFrance had to choose between war and dishonor. Theychose dishonor. They will have war.”

Invading Poland Leads to WarWhen Hitler seized the rest of Czechoslovakia just

five and a half months later, Churchill’s words provedprophetic. Any remaining hope that Hitler could bestopped short of waging all-out war was shattered on August 23, 1939, when Germany signed a nonaggres-sion pact with the Soviet Union. The agreement pledgedthat neither country would attack the other. By secur-ing his eastern border against Soviet attack, Hitler freedhimself to direct his forces against the rest of Europe.

The suspense concerning where Hitler would strikenext was short-lived. Poland, a country historically be-set by its stronger neighbors, was once again the fuse ig-niting the powder keg. In a secret section of theirnonaggression treaty, Germany and the Soviet Union

had already agreed to divide Poland between them. WithSoviet approval, Hitler’s tanks rumbled across the bor-der into Poland at dawn on September 1, 1939, while hisLuftwaffe (air force) bombarded Polish cities. This swift,all-out style of attack, known as blitzkrieg (lightningwar), was devastatingly effective. Two days later, GreatBritain and France, who had pledged to defend Polandagainst outside aggression, declared war on Germany.World War II had begun.

The Rise of MilitarismJapan Flexes Its Muscles

Japan was as aggressive a nation in Asia as Hitler’sGermany was in Europe. During the 1930s ambitiousJapanese military leaders began a policy of territorial ex-pansion. Confined to a chain of small islands and Korea,Japan’s growing population strained its resources.Though rich in industrial know-how, Japan was poor inland for agriculture and in raw materials for its indus-tries. It depended on imports from the United States andother countries for such essential commodities as wheat,petroleum, rubber, coal, iron, and timber. Japanese mil-itary leaders resented this dependence on foreign sup-pliers, which made them vulnerable to economic andmilitary pressure from abroad. To make Japan secure andself-sufficient, these leaders pushed to expand Japan’s bor-ders beyond its home islands onto the Asian mainland.

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Returning to London On September 30, 1938, Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain, home from the Munich Conference,speaks to a crowd. What did he believe he had accomplished?

Military leaders occupied a special place in Japanesesociety. The chiefs of the Imperial Army and Navy wereindependent of the civilian government and answeredonly to the emperor in matters of national defense. Theseleaders regarded foreign conquest as a badge of personalhonor. They had already savored the sweetness of vic-tory when Japan won the large and potentially produc-tive island of Taiwan in a war with China in 1895. Tenyears later, they tasted conquest again when Japan wonfootholds in Manchuria and Korea on the Asian main-land by defeating Russia in the Russo-Japanese War in1904 and 1905. Now they looked to the rest of Manchuriaand East Asia for new lands to add to their empire.

Japan Invades ManchuriaThe most tempting target for Japanese expansion

was Manchuria, in northern China. This vast region waspoorly defended, and it had abundant resources. Japan-ese military leaders hoped that Manchuria would provideliving space for Japan’s surplus population and enoughraw materials, food, and manufactured goods to makeJapan self-sufficient. In September 1931, Japan launchedan attack on Manchuria. Within a few months, the Jap-anese army had overpowered the province. In Septem-ber 1932, Japan installed a Japanese-controlled puppetgovernment and renamed the region “Manchukuo.”

The League of Nations, of which Japan was a keymember, condemned Japan for its aggression. In con-tempt, Japan merely withdrew from the League. Mean-while, Japan argued that its military actions in Manchuriawere essential to its long-term security. The world re-mained unconvinced.

Shutting the Open DoorThe United States protested Japan’s expansion into

China but did little more. Roosevelt refused to recognizeJapan’s puppet government in Manchuria. Later, whenJapan used its base in Manchuria to launch a full-scaleassault on China, Roosevelt authorized small loans to thegovernment of China to help them buy military supplies.He also urged Americans to boycott Japanese silk.

Perhaps the strongest critics of Japanese aggressionagainst China were the American people. Many Ameri-cans felt a special sympathy and kinship with the Chinese.Fiction such as The Good Earth by Pearl Buck painted apicture of Chinese peasants as noble and long-suffering.Chiang Kai-shek ( Jiang Jieshi), the leader of China, andSoong Meiling, his American-educated wife, were popu-lar figures in the United States, even appearing on the cov-er of Time magazine. American missionaries had long beenactive in China, and many Americans saw themselves asChina’s protectors. Some Americans even believed that,in time, China would come to resemble the United States.

The most important reason for Americans’ alarm atthe invasion of China, however, was economic. TheAmerican business community saw China as a bound-less market for American goods. To protect this market,the United States had long asserted its Open Door pol-icy, assuring all countries equal access to China’s mar-kets. If Japan succeeded in conquering China and inclosing that open door, the United States stood to loseclose to $100 million in annual cotton sales. As Japan grewstronger and gained control of more natural resources,its industries would be better able to compete with Amer-ican businesses for world sales. For these reasons, manyfeared Japan’s continued aggression in China.

The “China Incident”By 1937 Japanese forces moved south from Manchuria

against Shanghai and Nanjing, major Chinese cities. Japanese soldiers killed tens of thousands of Chinese civil-ians. Leaders in Tokyo tried to play down the military ac-tions in China, referring to them as the “China Incident.”In reality the “China Incident” was a full-scale war.

The Japanese attacks on Shanghai and Nanjingalarmed already anxious Americans. Even such a strongopponent of American involvement in foreign conflicts asSenator George Norris condemned the Japanese actionsas “disgraceful” and “barbarous.” The United States, how-ever, leveled nothing stronger than words at the Japanese.

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Symbol of Power Emperor Hirohito, shown above right in1934, was emperor of Japan from 1926 until he died in 1989.Why was the Japanese military so powerful?

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Nonneutral NeutralityResistance to Another War

With hostilities spreading in Europe and Asia, Con-gress tried to block American involvement. After Italy’sinvasion of Ethiopia in 1935, and again after the outbreakof the Spanish civil war in 1936, Congress passed the so-called Neutrality Acts. These laws prohibited the sale ofweapons to nations at war and tried to keep American cit-izens from traveling on ships belonging to warring coun-tries. The laws also required that countries at war pay cashfor nonmilitary trade goods like cotton or wheat.

Roosevelt reluctantly signed the Neutrality Acts. Indoing so he bowed to a strong anti-war sentiment. A 1937Gallup poll found that nearly two-thirds of Americansthought that the nation’s participation in World War Ihad been a mistake. Although Roosevelt regarded bothGermany and Japan as serious threats to the nation’s se-curity, he faced an uphill battle in preparing the UnitedStates for the possibility of another war.

Roosevelt knew that to fight a war, the United Stateswould need tanks, planes, guns, and other supplies. Tothis end, he asked Congress in 1938 for $300 million inadditional spending. By 1939 Roosevelt was asking Congress for a $1.3 billion military budget. He had decided that Hitler and Mussolini were “two madmen,”who “respect force and force alone.” History would prove Roosevelt correct.

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Assault on Nanjing Japanese invaders march behind one of their tanks in 1937 during the violent assault on the Chinese capitalthat claimed the lives of about 200,000 citizens. What was the American sentiment toward the Chinese?

S e c t i o n A s s e s s m e n t

Main Idea1. Use a diagram like this one to summarize causes

of United States neutrality and the foreignthreats that made that policy hard to follow.

Vocabulary2. Define: fascist, totalitarian, appeasement,

blitzkrieg.

Checking Facts 3. What similarities existed between the rise of to-

talitarianism in Italy under Mussolini and in Ger-many under Hitler?

4. Why were Americans alarmed by Japan’s ag-gressiveness in China?

Critical Thinking 5. Recognizing Ideologies Many Americans con-

demned the “China Incident,” which in realitywas a full-scale war. Why did the United Statesrespond with only words?

Threat

Threat

Threat

Threat

CausesAmericanNeutrality

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G S K I L L 499

Critical Thinking SkillR E C O G N I Z I N G I D E O L O G I E S

Practicing the SkillRead the following passage by Adolf Hitler and

use what you have learned about recognizing ideologies to answer the questions.

There must be no decisions by majority, butonly responsible persons, and the word

council is once more reduced to its originalmeaning. At every man’s side there standcouncilors, indeed, but one man decides.

1. What does “no decisions by majority” mean?

2. State the main idea of the passage in your ownwords.

3. Note the key words and important ideas in thepassage.

4. What do you think are the unstated ideas orbeliefs in this passage?

5. In your opinion, what political ideology doesthis passage reflect? Explain your answer.

Applying the SkillFind a passage from a political statement

or speech. Analyze the passage and write what it tells you about the author’s political ideology.

Learning the SkillIdeology is a basic set of beliefs about

freedom and equality, life, culture, and the de-sired role of the state and government. Rec-ognizing ideology in a speech or statement canhelp you to identify a person’s political beliefs.

The lists below show the ideologies char-acteristic of a totalitarian dictatorship and ofa democracy.

Totalitarian Dictatorship

• The leader has total and absolute power.

• People have no power to limit their leaders.

• Government is not accountable for its actions.

• Power is gained by military force.

Democracy

• People hold the power to rule.

• People have individual liberty and equal opportunity.

• Majority rule combines with respect for minority rights.

• People choose their leaders.

How to Recognize IdeologiesTo recognize ideologies in written passages, follow

these steps:

a. Read the passage and state it in your own words.

b. Identify the important or key words in the passage.

c. Identify unstated beliefs, ideas, facts, or opinions.

d. Compare this to what you know about the character-istics of specific ideologies.

Read this sentence once spoken by John F. Kennedy:

Ask not what your country can do for you; askwhat you can do for your country.

The first step is to restate the sentence in your ownwords; for example, “People should help their country in-stead of expecting the country to do things for them.”

Next, identify key words such as “what you can do.”Then look for any unstated ideas, such as, “people havea responsibility to make changes in their country.”

Finally, use what you know about political ideologiesto make a statement about the author’s political beliefs;for example, “In this statement, the author wants peo-ple to take action, so the passage reflects a democraticideology.”

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Political Rally Hitler staged spectacular political shows to highlighthis speeches, such as at this rally at Bückeberg in 1934. How doesthis scene reflect the ideology behind Hitler’s rise to power as a dictator?

The Glencoe Skillbuilder InteractiveWorkbook, Level 2 CD-ROM providesmore practice in key social studies skills.

Paris was silent and omi-nously deserted as dawnbroke on Friday, June 14,1940. The shutters over houseand shop windows were closedand barred. The Metro wasnot running. No cars, trucks,or bicycles moved down themagnificent boulevards oralong the narrow, twistingstreets. Three million of thenearly 5 million people wholived in Paris and its sur-rounding neighborhoods hadalready fled. The rest stayedindoors and waited.

The night before, under aflag of truce, French officershad met with German offi-cials near Paris. The Frenchknew Paris would fall under aGerman assault. Rather than see their beautiful city de-stroyed, they handed it over to the Germans.

By 5 A.M. on Friday morning, columns of Germaninfantry were marching three abreast toward rail-

road stations and other keypoints inside Paris. RogerLangeron, chief of the Parispolice, watched as Germansoldiers entered the city. Writ-ing in his diary for that fate-ful Friday, Langeron de-scribed the “terrible thing”that had befallen France. Hemourned the “interminabledefile of motorized troops”that made its way throughParis from Saint-Denis to-ward Montrouge. He record-ed in his diary the dark parade of leather-clad motor-cyclists and armored tanksthat moved down emptystreets before “shuttered”houses.

In the midafternoon,Langeron was summoned to meet the new Germanmilitary governor at the Crillon Hotel. By then swasti-ka flags were already flying over the public buildings ofParis.

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The War BeginsJUNE 14, 1940: GERMAN TROOPS OCCUPY PARIS

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Surrender of ParisThe French surrender Paris to the Germans.

G u i d e t o R e a d i n g

� interventionism� isolationism

� the events that led to the outbreak ofwar in Europe and the response ofAmericans to the idea of UnitedStates intervention.

� the link between United Statesembargoes against Japan and theattack on Pearl Harbor.

Vocabulary Read to Find Out . . .Main IdeaAs Europe once againplunged into war, Americansdebated United States inter-vention, while PresidentRoosevelt cautiously tooksteps to aid the Allies.

Hitler Crushes EuropeThe Continent Gives Up

The unopposed German occupa-tion of Paris was a triumph for Hitler’sforces, which in two months had con-quered most of Western Europe. OnApril 9, 1940, more than seven monthsafter invading Poland, Hitler unleashedan air and sea assault against Denmarkand Norway. A few weeks later, Germantanks and bombers drove the Nether-lands, Belgium, and Luxembourg to theirknees. “The small countriesare smashed up, one by one,like matchwood,” England’snew prime minister, Win-ston Churchill, complained.

France SurrendersDespite Germany’s vic-

tories, the French had pre-pared to make a stand.About a million French sol-diers held positions alongthe Maginot Line, a system of heavily armed steel andconcrete bunkers built after World War I and stretchinghundreds of miles along the German border, from Bel-gium to Switzerland. In addition, England had senttroops and supplies to aid in the defense of France.

In early May 1940, German tanks stormed across theFrench border from Belgium, swept around the northend of the Maginot Line, and attacked French positionsfrom the rear. Fixed firmly in concrete and pointing to-ward Germany, the heavy artillery pieces of the Mag-inot Line were never fired.

France had placed its faith in the strength of theMaginot Line, and its failure demoralized the French.Within a few short weeks, France’s fate was sealed. Thepulverizing attacks of the German tank corps, supportedby massive air power, sent the French and British armiesreeling backward. By the end of May, French soldierswere throwing down their weapons in the face of theGerman advance, and the British forces had retreated tothe French seacoast town of Dunkirk on the EnglishChannel. A fleet of military and private vessels saved theBritish army from destruction by evacuating 338,000French and British troops from Dunkirk between May28 and June 4, 1940. French forces were left to face theGerman invaders alone.

French resistance lasted only a few weeks more. OnJune 3, German bombers had attacked Paris airports. Aweek later Italy declared war on France, and Mussoli-ni’s forces attacked from the south. On June 14, Germantroops marched into Paris. Finally, in a railway car onJune 22, a jubilant Hitler personally accepted the Frenchsurrender.

The Battle of BritainWith France secure, Hitler began an all-out attack

on Great Britain in the summer of 1940. Great Britain,however, was not as easily conquered. Although badlyoutnumbered, Britain’s Royal Air Force had excellentfighter planes and highly dedicated pilots. So many Ger-man planes were shot down by British fighter pilots thatGermany had to abandon daylight attacks. A proudPrime Minister Churchill declared that “never in thefield of human conflict was so much owed by so manyto so few.”

Hoping to avoid further defeat, Hitler sought thecover of darkness. From September 1940 to May 1941,German aircraft dropped tons of bombs on London al-most every night. The blitz, as the British called thebombing raids, killed more than 20,000 Londoners alone.The entire city of Coventry and large parts of London

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Britain in the War In the photo above,British destroyers loaded with troops thathad been stranded at Dunkirk arrive safelyat a British port. The photo at the left showscivilians huddled in a cramped subway tun-nel during the London blitz. Why did Ger-many begin to strike Great Britain after dark?

were reduced to smoking rubble. In the face of thisassault, Churchill pleaded for more American aid. Thefuture course of the United States at this point, how-ever, was far from clear.

The Americans RespondA Conflict of Attitudes

The rapid fall of France stunned people in the Unit-ed States, but Americans still disagreed about whatshould be done. Some who supported interventionismbelieved the United States should give all possible sup-port to Britain short of declaring war on Germany. Oth-ers who supported isolationism thought the UnitedStates should stay out of the war.

One influential interventionist was William AllenWhite, a Kansas City journalist. He formed the Com-mittee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies. Withmore than 600 local branches, the group promoted vig-orous American support of Britain, short of active par-ticipation in the war.

Isolationists banded together to form the Commit-tee to Defend America First. Its members thought theUnited States should keep out of Europe’s business.America First drew support from a broad range of Amer-icans, including pacifists and socialists, Democrats andRepublicans. Former President Herbert Hoover, unionactivist John L. Lewis, and architect Frank Lloyd Wrightbelonged, as did representatives from German and Ital-ian ethnic groups. Robert E. Wood, the chairman ofSears, Roebuck and Co., headed the governing com-mittee. The most famous speaker for the group was avi-ator Charles Lindbergh. He argued that the United Stateswas strong enough to stand alone, despite Hitler’s vic-tories. Within a few months of its founding, America Firsthad about 60,000 members.

Selective ServiceAware of the split in public opinion and mindful of

the upcoming presidential election, Roosevelt cau-tiously aided the Allies while refraining from a strongpublic attack on facism. In September 1940, he arrangedthe transfer of 50 overage American destroyers to Britain. In return, the United States won the right to establish naval and air bases on British territory in Newfoundland, Bermuda, and British Guiana (nowGuyana). The same month the President signed the Selective Training and Service Act, establishing the nation’s first peace-time draft. The law applied to allmen between 21 and 35. More than 1 million men wereto serve in the military for 1 year, but only within the

Western Hemisphere. The Selective Service Act laid thegroundwork for a United States military capable of fight-ing a global war.

On the surface, these moves brought the UnitedStates closer to involvement. Yet Roosevelt explainedthem as strengthening United States defenses and keep-ing the nation out of the war. Roosevelt took a similarstance during the 1940 election campaign: “Your Presi-dent says this country is not going to war!” Approvingvoters returned him to the presidency for a third term.

Lend-LeaseWith the election won, Roosevelt moved to sup-

port the Allies openly. In January 1941, he proposed the Lend-Lease bill. This bill gave the President the right to sell, lend, or lease military supplies to any nationdeemed “vital to the defense of the United States.” Roosevelt defended this plan by explaining that Britaindid not have the money to purchase arms. If a neigh-bor’s house were on fire, Roosevelt argued, you wouldloan that person your garden hose without worryingabout the price. The United States, the President de-clared, must become the “great arsenal of democracy.”

Polls indicated that most Americans agreed withRoosevelt. Nearly 80 percent of those questioned in onepoll favored the Lend-Lease plan. Given these results,

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To Help or Not to Help Many Americans were indecisiveabout involvement in World War II. Does this cartoon supportinterventionism or isolationism?

Congress approved the Lend-Lease Act in March 1941,providing an initial budget of $7 billion. Before Lend-Lease ended, more than $50 billion in weapons, vehicles,and other supplies would go to support the Allied wareffort. Shipments to Britain began at once. Economically,at least, the United States was at war with Germany.

Lend-Lease heated up the United States’s involve-ment in the war in another way. During the spring andsummer of 1941, German submarines patrolling in “wolfpacks” sent tens of thousands of tons of British andAmerican supply ships to the bottom of the Atlanticevery week. To make sure that Lend-Lease supplies ar-rived safely in Britain, in April Roosevelt ordered theUnited States Navy to help the British track German U-boats. By summer the navy had orders to guard Brit-ish ships as they traveled across the Atlantic and to de-stroy enemy submarines that threatened their passage.

The undeclared war between German and Ameri-can ships worsened in the fall of 1941. In September aGerman submarine fired on the Greer, an American de-stroyer. Calling the Germans “the rattlesnakes of the At-lantic,” Roosevelt ordered the navy to shoot Axis vesselson sight. In October German U-boats torpedoed the de-stroyer Kearny and sank the destroyer Reuben James,

killing about 100 Americans. Congress revised the Neu-trality Acts to allow armed American merchant ships tocarry munitions directly to England.

Though Lend-Lease aid to the Allied Powersseemed to be pulling the United States into the war,most citizens supported it in principle. When Germanysuddenly attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, how-ever, the United States extended Lend-Lease aid to theUSSR. Some people in the United States were outragedat the idea of sending Lend-Lease aid to a Communistcountry. Isolationist Charles Lindbergh said he wouldprefer an alliance with Nazi Germany, with all its faults,to an alliance with “the godlessness and barbarism thatexist in the Soviet Union.”

Churchill, who had criticized the Communists foryears, however, cheered the United States aid to the So-viets. “I have only one purpose,” Churchill remarked, “thedestruction of Hitler. . . . If Hitler invaded Hell I wouldat least make a favorable reference to the Devil in theHouse of Commons.” Churchill was aware that Ger-many’s opening of an eastern front would take somepressure off Britain. Battles against the Soviets in the easttied up 200 German divisions that might otherwise havebeen used in an invasion of Britain.

S E C T I O N T W O 503

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$1,021 million

$1,567 million

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T H E N A T I O N P R E P A R E S F O R W A R

In 1940, with war looming on the horizon, a dramatic surge in military and defense spending began. At the same time, factories continued to convert from domestic to military production to supply anticipated wartime needs.

Some Factory Conversions

• Auto manufacturers began to make tanks and planes.

• A shoe manufacturer began to forge small cannons.

• A burial-vault builder converted to making 100-pound bombs.

• A soft-drink company began to load shells with explosives.

Defense Expenditures

Military Personnel

HelmetTentEntrenching Tool

M1 Rifle

Boots

The Field Soldier

Canteen and Cup

Cartridge Belt

= 200,000 men & women

• Blanket•

Other Contents of Field Pack• Mess Kit• Toi let Kit• Towel• Underwear

First-Aid Pouches

Bayonet

• Raincoat

Supplying and outfitting the best-equipped army in the world had a high price tag. How many United States military personnel wereserving in 1941?

The Atlantic CharterStopping Hitler was not the only goal Roosevelt

and Churchill shared. In August 1941, the two met forfour days on a warship off the coast of Newfoundland.In addition to discussing military strategy, Rooseveltand Churchill agreed on a set of common principles es-tablishing their goals for a postwar world. Their jointpublic statement was known as the Atlantic Charter.Recalling Wilson’s Fourteen Points, the Charter affirmedeach nation’s right to choose its own government, freefrom fear of aggression. To protect this right, the Unit-ed States, Britain, and the 15 others who had signed thecharter by September 24 resolved to create an interna-tional organization to protect the security of all coun-tries. Later, this dream took shape in the founding of theUnited Nations (UN).

The Japanese Threat IncreasesRome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis Formed

In the Pacific, Japan’s continued aggression clearly vi-olated the principles that Roosevelt and Churchill sup-ported in the Atlantic Charter. In July 1940, Japanannounced a plan for the future of Asia called the GreaterEast Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The sphere was in real-ity a Japanese empire, to include much of China, South-east Asia, and the western Pacific. On September 27,Japan made an alliance with Germany and Italy, the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis, which promised that each would de-fend the other if they were attacked by the United States.

The United States RespondsThe United States responded to Japan’s aggressive

stance by applying economic pressure. Roosevelt’s goalwas to limit Japanese expansion by cutting off supplies,without provoking Japan to war. He placed an embargoon the sale of scrap metal to Japan. In September 1940,when Japan occupied French colonial possessions innorthern Indochina, Roosevelt extended the embargo toinclude aviation fuel, all metals, chemicals, machine parts,and other products with military uses to Japan. This gameof check and countercheck continued into 1941. When,in July of that year, Japan seized control of the rest ofIndochina, Roosevelt retaliated by freezing all Japaneseassets in the United States and ending all trade with Japan.

Despite mounting tensions, the United States contin-ued to negotiate with the Japanese. In part, the negotia-tions were an attempt to buy time for the nation to fortifythe Philippines and to build the “two-ocean navy” Con-gress authorized in 1940. Roosevelt’s secretary of state,Cordell Hull, however, did not budge from his principles.He refused to meet with General Hideki Tojo in October

1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942

J A P A N E S E E X P A N S I O N A N D U N I T E D S T A T E S R E S P O N S E , 1 9 3 1 – 1 9 4 1

504 C H A P T E R 1 5 W O R L D W A R I I

1939 Roosevelt asksCongress to increase themilitary budget by 433%,bringing it to $1.3 billion.

1937 Rooseveltsigns United StatesNeutrality Act.

1941 Rooseveltfreezes all Japan-ese assets in theUnited States.

1941 Japanseizes control ofall of Indochina.

1940 Japan forms theRome-Berlin-Tokyo Axiswith Italy and Germany.

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1932 The League of Nations,which did not include the UnitedStates, recommends that Japanreturn Manchuria to China.

1933 Japanwithdraws fromthe League ofNations.

1931Japan invadesManchuria.

1937 Widespreadfighting breaks outbetween Japan andChina.

1940 Roosevelt places anembargo on the sale of avi-ation fuel, iron, steel, andrubber to Japan.

➤➤ ➤ ➤ ➤➤ ➤ ➤ ➤ ➤

Roosevelt and Cordell Hull Cordell Hull, above right, servedas secretary of state from 1933 to 1944. He was a leader inthe drive to create the United Nations. What goal promptedthe formation of the United Nations?

S E C T I O N T W O 505

1941 and insisted that Japan honor the Open Door policywith China and that it stop its expansionism. The UnitedStates would resume trade with Japan, Hull said, only ifJapan withdrew from China and Indochina.

Yamamoto’s PlanBy November 1941, the United States government

knew that war with Japan would come. With negotia-tions deadlocked and its oil supplies dwindling, theJapanese decided to take the offensive. Some Americanssuspected an attack on Malaya or the Philippines. TheJapanese, however, had accepted the plan of AdmiralIsoroku Yamamoto, who advised striking the UnitedStates closer to home. An attack on the American navalbase at Pearl Harbor offered Japan the possibility of de-livering a knockout blow to the American fleet. Yama-moto, however, was far from optimistic about Japan’slong-range prospects. “In the first six months to a yearof war with the United States and England I will runwild,” Yamamoto told his government prophetically. “Iwill show you an uninterrupted succession of victories,but if the war is prolonged for two or three years I haveno confidence in the ultimate victory.”

Japan before 1931

Expansion 1931–1933

Expansion 1933–1941

Expansion 1941–1942

Farthest extent ofJapanese control

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T H E E X PA N S I O N O F T H E J A PA N E S E E M P I R E , 1 9 3 1 – 1 9 4 2

From 1931 to 1941 Japan’s expansionism led to its control of most of East Asia. When Japan decided to attack the United States,Pearl Harbor was the chosen target. Geographically, what might have influenced this decision?

S e c t i o n A s s e s s m e n t

Main Idea1. Use a diagram like this one to show the steps

Roosevelt took to aid the Allied cause.

Vocabulary2. Define: interventionism, isolationism.

Checking Facts 3. What led to the French surrender to Hitler?

4. Why did Roosevelt place embargoes on Japan?

Critical Thinking 5. Making Inferences After war broke out, Roo-

sevelt said, “This nation will remain a neutral na-tion, but I cannot ask that every American remainneutral in thought as well.” What can you inferfrom these words?

StepStep

StepStep

One Day in HistorySunday, December 7, 1941

SPORTS: Ted Williams bats .406 for the season and also has 37 home runs.

MARKET BASKET

Here is where a dollarwill go:Movie ticket . . . . . . . . . . . 40¢Eastman Brownie

camera . . . . . . . . . . . . $2.56Chevrolet

Aerosedan . . . . . . . . $880.00Wool sports jacket . . . $15.00Boy’s haircut. . . . . . . . . . . 50¢Flashlight battery . . . . . . . . 4¢

Coffee (1 lb.) . . . . . . . . . . . 24¢Chicken (1 lb.). . . . . . . . . . 23¢Frozen shrimp (1 lb.) . . . . 15¢Salad dressing (1 qt.) . . . . 33¢Coca-Cola (6-pack) . . . . . 25¢Milk (1 qt.). . . . . . . . . . . . . 14¢

Unprovoked Attack: Set aflame by Japanese bombs, United States battleships burn in theirmoorings at Pearl Harbor. The first attack occurred at 7:55 in the morning, local time, andmost of the damage to the fleet occurred during the first 30 minutes of the sneak attack.

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E Japan Attacks FleetJapanese forces attack the United States Pacific Fleet inPearl Harbor, Hawaii

NEW YORK——Sudden and unexpect-ed attacks by the Japanese air force andnavy on Pearl Harbor, Honolulu, andother United States possessions in thePacific have plunged the nation intoWorld War II.

The initial attack on the UnitedStates Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor,Hawaii, apparently launched by Japan-ese submarines and bombers carryingtorpedoes, caused widespread damageand death. United States military ca-sualties totaled more than 3,400. Of

these, more than 2,300 were killed. Themajor targets of the Pearl Harbor attackwere the 8 United States battleshipsmoored there. The battleship Arizonawas completely destroyed. The Cali-fornia, Nevada, and West Virginia sank,and the Oklahoma capsized. More than180 United States aircraft were also destroyed.

Although radar indicated a largenumber of incoming planes, militarypersonnel thought they were UnitedStates B-17s that were due to arrive.

War Fashions NEW YORK——Reflecting the mili-tary influence of the day, a “SentryDuty” cape is modeled at a benefitfor the British-American Ambu-lance Corps held at the RainbowRoom. The show also previewedair-raid fashion.

First Lady atRadcliffeCAMBRIDGE, MA——On Decem-ber 12, Eleanor Roosevelt will beinitiated into the Radcliffe Collegechapter of Phi Beta Kappa at its an-nual dinner. Her speaking topic willbe “Women——Nazi, Fascist, andDemocratic.”

One Day in History, Sunday, December 7, 1941T

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Martha Graham’s New York Citydance company performs Letter tothe World.

MOVIES• How Green Was My Valley,

starring Walter Pidgeon and Maureen O’Hara

• Citizen Kane, starring Orson Welles• Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, starring

Spencer Tracy and Ingrid Bergman

MUSICHit songs: “Deep in the Heart ofTexas,” “I’ll Remember April,”“The Anniversary Waltz”Top records: “Chattanooga ChooChoo” by Glenn Miller, “Buckle Down,Winsocki” by Benny Goodman

NATION: Yale, Harvard, and PrincetonUniversities cut their programs from four tothree years by staying in session all year.

The Maltese Falcon premieres, star-ring Humphrey Bogart.

“Sentry Duty” Cape

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R E P R I N T E D C O U R T E S Y E A S T M A N K O D A K C O M PA N Y

Color with a miniature cameraAt last—a Kodak thatmakes full-color “stills”When you buy Kodachrome film,the cost of your slides is included.unbelievable at $14.50

O N E D A Y I N H I S T O R Y 507

508 C H A P T E R 1 5 W O R L D W A R I I

Without warning, japanesedive bombers and torpedoplanes swooped out of theclear, blue hawaiian sky andrained death and devasta-tion on american ships an-chored in the harbor andon american planes at near-by air bases. John Garcia, likeothers who witnessed the attackon Pearl Harbor, never forgot it:

Iwas sixteen years old, employed as a pipe fitter

apprentice at Pearl HarborNavy Yard. On December 7,1941, oh, around 8:00 a.m.,my grandmother woke me.She informed me that theJapanese were bombingPearl Harbor. I said, “They’rejust practicing.” She said, no,it was real and the announceris requesting that all Pearl Harbor workers report towork. I went out on the porch and I could see the

anti-aircraft fire up in the sky. . . .I was asked . . . to go into thewater and get sailors out thathad been blown off the ships.Some were unconscious, somewere dead. So I spent the rest ofthe day swimming inside the har-bor, along with some otherHawaiians. . . . We worked allday at that.

—As told to Studs Terkel, “The Good War,” 1984

In less than 3 hours, theJapanese destroyed 19 ships, including 5 battleships, and 188 planes. More than 2,400Americans were killed. It was the worst defeat by a foreignpower in United States militaryhistory. Yet Pearl Harbor arousedand united Americans as nothingelse could have done. It hurled

the nation into war, bent on revenge and committed tovictory.

S E C T I O N

3

The United States atWarDECEMBER 7, 1941: JAPANESE ATTACK PEARL HARBOR

Declaring WarOn December 8, 1941, President Franklin Roose-velt asked for and received a declaration of war

on Japan from a joint session of Congress.

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Vocabulary Read to Find Out . . .Main IdeaAfter mobilizing, the UnitedStates fought a two-front war,first giving priority to thedefeat of Germany whilestaving off Japan, whosedefeat was completed withthe use of the atomic bomb.

Mobilizing at HomeOrganizing the Fighting Forces

On December 8, President Roosevelt asked Congressto declare war on Japan to avenge what he called a “datewhich will live in infamy.” Because the United States hadnot attacked first, the pact between the Axis Powers didnot require Hitler and Mussolini to follow Japan into waragainst the United States. Nevertheless, Germany andItaly declared war a few days later. Now the United Stateshad to prepare quickly for global war on two fronts.

Boosting the Number of TroopsThe Selective Service Act had been in force for more

than a year, but United States armed forces had only 1.8million men when war was declared. Increased draftcalls soon began to fill the ranks.

Reasons for signing up varied. Patriotism, anger to-ward the Axis, a desire for adventure, and joblessness allplayed parts in the decision to enlist. By 1942 nearly 3.9 million Americans were in uniform. The numbermore than doubled by 1943 and more than tripled by1945. When the war ended, more than 15 million menand nearly 216,000 women had served.

Minorities in UniformThe armed forces included about 1 million African

Americans. Like much of the rest of United States so-ciety, the military was officially segregated. WhenAfrican Americans enlisted, they were assigned toall-African American units, usually commanded by whiteofficers. African Americans were often given jobs ascooks or laborers. Many white commanders would notsend African American units into combat.

Those African American units that did fight, how-ever, performed with distinction. In late 1944 GeneralDwight D. Eisenhower called for African Americans tovolunteer for combat in integrated units. Eisenhowerbecame convinced that racially integrated combat unitswere more successful than segregated units.

Other minority groups also enlisted. Nearly 350,000Hispanic Americans served, and they suffered many ofthe same kinds of discrimination as African Americans.Hispanics were the most decorated of American ethnicgroups, while the Japanese American 442nd Regimentwas the most decorated unit. Japanese American soldiersfought loyally during the war in spite of the severe discrimination suffered by their families back home.Many Native Americans also joined the war effort.Navajos in the Marine Signal Corps outwitted the Japanese by sending messages in a code based on theNavajo language.

The European FrontThe Struggle to Defeat Germany

Shortly after Pearl Harbor, Allied political leadersmet to determine their war strategy. Roosevelt andChurchill decided that defeat of Germany would be theirtop priority. Later, in 1943 at the Casablanca Conferencein Morocco, at which Stalin was absent, the Allied lead-ers agreed to wage war until the Axis Powers acceptedan unconditional surrender——a surrender without anyconcessions. The United States would fight a defensivewar against Japan in the Pacific while the Allies con-centrated their joint efforts on defeating the Nazis.

Invasion of the Soviet UnionAlthough the Soviets and the Nazis had signed a

nonaggression pact in 1939, Soviet leader Joseph Stalindistrusted Hitler. The German invasion of the SovietUnion on June 22, 1941, however, shocked the Soviets.

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Combat Skills African American troops in France during1944 proved their skill in field artillery units. By serving incombat, how did African American soldiers begin to alter theUnited States military’s attitude toward minorities?

Student Web Activity 15Visit the American Odyssey Web site atamericanodyssey.glencoe.com and click on Chapter15—Student Web Activities for an activity relating toWorld War II.

HISTORY

Using blitzkrieg tactics on a vast scale now, Germantroops surged north toward Leningrad and south towardthe Crimean peninsula. By November they had begunto encircle Moscow. An unusually severe winter and thedetermination of Soviet troops and civilians drove backthe attackers. In the north, German troops surroundedLeningrad for almost 900 days, starving to death morethan half a million residents.

In the spring of 1942, the Germans launched a newattack on the Soviet oil fields in southwestern Russia. BySeptember, 300,000 Nazi troops had begun a major as-sault on the city of Stalingrad. The battle continued forfive months amid the ruins and rubble of the city, untilthe Germans surrendered in February 1943. As many as250,000 German troops, and many more Soviets, werekilled or they froze to death. The Battle of Stalingradhalted Germany’s eastward advance, but Stalin never forgave the Allies for failing to help defend the Soviets.His country had suffered more casualties at Stalingradthan the United States did during the entire war. Afterthe war, United States General George C. Marshall calledthe refusal of the British and Soviet people to accept de-feat “the great factor in the salvage of our civilization.”

Allied OffensivesRather than face a winter deep within Russia, the

Allies decided on a less risky assault. In November 1942,American and British troops landed in North Africa, ad-vancing into Morocco and Algeria against a German

tank division led by General Erwin Rommel, dubbed “theDesert Fox.” The British gained an important victory inEgypt at El Alamein. This battle, like Stalingrad, markeda turning point in the war. Although 5,000 Americansdied in a German counterattack in Tunisia, the Allieswere victorious in North Africa by May 1943.

The Allies used bases in North Africa to launch aninvasion of southern Europe, landing in Sicily in July1943. They battled German troops for more than amonth before driving them out of Sicily. Meanwhile,Mussolini’s Fascist government fell from power. Britishforces invaded Italy from Sicily. On September 8, Italyannounced its unconditional surrender to the Allies.

Germany, however, was determined to fight theAllies for control of Italy. Some of the most bitter fight-ing of the war occurred at Anzio beach and at CassinoPass in central Italy. It was this kind of fighting——monthsof bombing, destruction, and death——that led cartoon-ist Bill Mauldin to write one of his darker captions:“Look at an infantryman’s eyes and you can tell howmuch war he has seen.” The Allies finally broke throughGerman defenses in May, and Rome was liberated onJune 4, 1944.

D-DayThe spotlight on the victory in Italy quickly shifted

west. On June 6, 1944, General Eisenhower directed thelargest combined land-sea-air invasion in history. Thecode name for the offensive was Operation Overlord, butmost Americans remember the assault as D-Day. TheD-Day invasion was, according to Churchill, “the mostdifficult and complicated that has ever taken place.”Some 175,000 Allied soldiers began to come ashore be-fore dawn along a 60-mile (96.5-km) stretch of the coastof Normandy in France. Once they had established abeachhead, at a cost of 2,245 killed and 1,670 wounded,the Allied forces had a base from which they would tryto sweep the Germans out of France.

The success of D-Day also hinged on American in-dustry. For months before the invasion, United States andBritish planes had dropped thousands of tons of bombson German railroad lines, factories, and cities. Moreover,the huge Allied invasion force had been carried by American transports of all kinds. Without the industrialworkers who had made this equipment, the Allied forcescould not have landed in or retaken France.

The Beginning of the EndAs the war progressed, the Allies gradually proved

their dominance in the skies. Both experienced and newpilots flew fighters, bombers, and spy planes. That done,ground troops could advance cautiously eastward towardGermany. On August 25, 1944, American and Frenchforces liberated Paris to great rejoicing by most inhabi-

510 C H A P T E R 1 5 W O R L D W A R I I

SO

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OAfter the Battle The Soviet defense of Stalingrad gave theAllies an advantage in Europe. Why was Stalin angry with theAllies after the battle of Stalingrad?

tants. In the meantime, Allied forces had launched an in-vasion of France’s Rhône Valley from the south. Bysummer’s end France, Belgium, and Luxembourg werein Allied hands. Soviet troops advanced on Germanyfrom the east.

Sea power was also crucial to Allied planning. Be-fore the United States had entered the war, German U-boats had preyed on North Atlantic shipping, evenbriefly threatening cities on the east coast of the UnitedStates. While at sea sailors faced the triple peril of attackfrom above, from the surface, and from below——fromplanes, battleships, and U-boats. By late 1943 advancesin sonar technology——technology allowing detectionof submerged objects by means of sound waves——hadgiven the Allies an edge in locating and sinking U-boats.More and more Allied naval convoys were safely cross-ing the Atlantic, keeping the Allies’ enormous armies wellprovisioned. This lifeline made possible an offensive, notjust a defensive, strategy.

While the Allies prepared for an invasion of Ger-many itself, Hitler launched a last desperate strike. In

December Germany mounted a counteroffensive in theArdennes Forest of Belgium. Hitler’s tanks drove a bulgeof troops and artillery 80 miles (128.7 km) long and50 miles (80.5 km) deep into the Allied lines. After weeksof heavy fighting, during which 76,000 Allied soldierswere killed or wounded, the Germans were pushed back.The so-called Battle of the Bulge was the final Germanoffensive of the war. The road into Germany, blocked for6 weeks, was now open. As the Allied armies advanced,however, they had to confront the horrors committedby Hitler’s government.

The HolocaustWhen Allied soldiers entered Germany in 1945, they

found the terrible consequences of Hitler’s fanatical ha-tred of Jews and other peoples. In early 1942 Hitler hadput into action what he called “the final solution” to his“Jewish problem.” Nazi soldiers rounded up Jews fromall over Europe and shipped them to concentrationcamps. In these camps Jews were used for slave labor,subjected to medical experiments and other atrocities,

S E C T I O N T H R E E 511

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W O R L D W A R I I I N E U R O P E , 1 9 3 9 – 1 9 4 5

The European phase of World War II lasted five years, eight months, and seven days. Civilians suffered heavy losses in life andproperty from bombings, forced evacuations, and starvation. What countries shown on the map were not directly affected by WorldWar II? Why?

starved, beaten, shot, and put to death in gas chambers.Their bodies were buried in mass graves or incineratedin fiendishly efficient crematoriums.

Reports about these horrors were circulating as earlyas 1942. Only when the Allies liberated the death campsin 1945, however, did the world learn for certain theghastly extent of Hitler’s plan to wipe out the Jews of Europe. Walter Rosenblum, an American soldier, helpedliberate Dachau, a concentration camp in southern Ger-many. He recalled:

The first thing I saw as I went down this road toDachau were about forty boxcars on a railroad

siding. . . . I looked into these boxcars and theywere full of emaciated bodies, loaded all the way tothe top. Forty boxcars full of dead people.

—As told to Studs Terkel, “The Good War,” 1984

Hitler’s henchmen, along with thousands of Nazicollaborators, massacred about 6 million Jewish men,women, and children. More than two-thirds of the totalJewish population in Europe was destroyed. They also

killed some 6 million Slavs, Gypsies, Communists, ho-mosexuals, and others, most of them civilians. This massextermination lives in infamy as the Holocaust, whichhas come to mean the “great destruction.”

Some critics have charged that Roosevelt could havelessened the extent of this tragedy, pointing out that only21,000 Jewish refugees were admitted to the United Statesin the early 1940s. This was a small fraction of the num-ber permitted under existing immigration quotas. More-over, some people thought Roosevelt was indifferent to themass suffering of European Jews. In 1944 the United StatesWar Department resisted proposals to bomb the gas cham-bers at the Auschwitz concentration camp. Roosevelt coun-tered that his policy was to defeat Germany quickly andthus save all Hitler’s victims from further persecution.

Victory in EuropeAfter turning back the Nazi onslaught on their home-

land, Soviet troops moved west. They ousted Nazi gov-ernments or aided anti-German forces throughout easternand central Europe in 1944 and 1945. They encircled Vi-enna and Prague, prize capitals of central Europe, andwarned off the western Allies from challenging their con-trol. Residents of the formerly Nazi-occupied countries,

512 C H A P T E R 1 5 W O R L D W A R I I

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Nazi Atrocities The horror of Nazi persecution is evident in the photo above ofemaciated survivors of one of the concentration camps at Evensee, Austria. Inthe photo at the left, Nazi troops take Jewish people in Warsaw, Poland, fromtheir homes. What other civilian groups in Europe did the Nazis persecute and kill?

fearing new foreign armies, were not always sure whicharmy to surrender to. Already it was clear to the worldthat the Soviet Union and the United States were re-placing Germany as superpowers in Europe.

Allied forces began their final assault on Germanyearly in 1945. Soviet troops crossed Poland, as British andAmerican troops swept into northern Germany from theNetherlands. Crossing rivers was among the gravest dan-gers, as retreating Nazis often tried to mine the bridges.By the end of March, American forces had crossed theRhine River and were advancing steadily toward Berlin,Germany’s capital.

In the midst of Allied successes in Europe a tragedyoccurred in the United States. On April 12, Franklin Roose-velt died, after 12 years in office. Vice President Harry STruman took the oath of office and assumed leadership ofthe country. Roosevelt’s death did not halt the Allied ad-vance. By late April Soviet troops had surrounded the cityof Berlin. On April 30, Hitler committed suicide.

Berlin fell on May 2, and Germany surrendered un-conditionally on May 7. War-weary Allied soldiers couldlook forward to being sent home. Sergeant Harold Mur-phy of Decatur, Illinois, expressed the feelings of thou-sands of other fathers in a postcard mailed to his babydaughter that day: “The War ended today, honey, and Ihope to see you soon.” The Allies declared May 8, 1945,V-E Day, or Victory in Europe Day.

The Pacific FrontTo Japan Through the Islands

The war in Europe was over, but the United Statescontinued to fight a very different kind of war in thePacific. After its brutal attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese army swept to victory after victory. In early 1942 Japanese forces captured the Dutch East Indies,which were rich in oil and other natural resources. Thenthey took Burma, Wake Island, and Guam and forcedthe surrender of 12,000 American soldiers in the Philippines.

By May 1942, United States forces in the Pacific be-gan to reverse the tide that had been flowing againstthem. In the battle of the Coral Sea, American carrier-based planes bombarded the Japanese fleet, stoppingthe Japanese advance toward Australia. A month laterat the Battle of Midway, American planes sank 4 Japan-ese aircraft carriers and destroyed more than 300 planes.This was the first major Japanese defeat, and it greatlyreduced the threat to Hawaii.

Despite these setbacks, Japan still held many forti-fied Pacific islands. To counter this advantage, Ameri-can military planners adopted an “island hopping”

strategy. Hoping to surround Japanese strongholds andcut them off from supplies, United States Marines cap-tured key islands, building bases from which to attackthe Philippines and eventually Japan itself.

GuadalcanalA typical United States offensive in the Pacific was the

attack on Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. During thesummer of 1942, the Japanese began building an airfieldon the island, preparing for an invasion of Australia. Tokeep the Japanese from finishing the airfield, 10,000 ma-rines waded ashore to seize the island on August 7, 1942.

Once on land, the marines battled both the enemyand the steaming jungle environment. Scorching heat,relentless humidity, rotting gear, poisonous insects, andtropical fevers, such as malaria and dysentery, were theeveryday conditions of jungle warfare.

The battle for Guadalcanal continued over six gruel-ing months, as Japanese soldiers were ordered to fightto the death to hold the island. Even after the UnitedStates Navy destroyed Japanese ships in the area, iso-lating the enemy remaining on the island, it took threemonths to drive off the Japanese.

Guadalcanal was the first territory Japan lost in thewar. In their unsuccessful attempt to hold the island, theJapanese lost 25,000 men. Americans learned that everyPacific battle would be bloody and hard fought and thatthe Japanese could be beaten.

Battles for islands like Guadalcanal cost thousandsof American lives from 1942 to 1945. In a 6-week battlefor Iwo Jima in early 1945, for example, the marines

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Mobile Rocket Unit A barrage of explosives are launchedfrom a United States Marine rocket unit during a 1945 assault on the Japanese on an island in the Pacific. What advantage would a unit on wheels provide?

S E C T I O N T H R E E 513

514 C H A P T E R 1 5 W O R L D W A R I I

suffered about 20,000 casualties to secure this tiny is-land 700 miles (1,126.3 km) from Japan. At about thesame time, the United States achieved another objectivewhen General Douglas MacArthur directed the Ameri-can recapture of the Philippines. The strategy of inch-ing island by island toward an eventual invasion of Japanwas working. The United States and its allies agreed,however, that it might take years and up to a milliondeaths to conquer the Japanese home islands.

To step up the pressure on Japan, American long-range B-29 bombers began sustained strikes on the Japan-ese mainland in June 1944. By November they werebombing Tokyo itself. In one raid on Tokyo in March 1945,napalm bombs caused a firestorm in the city, incinerat-ing 83,000 Japanese citizens. Despite casualties like theseand the near total destruction of Japanese sea and airpower, Japanese military leaders refused to accept the un-conditional surrender that the United States demanded.

The Atomic BombWith little hope of forcing a Japanese surrender,

President Truman scheduled an invasion of Japan for late1945 and early 1946. Then on July 16, 1945, American

scientists, led by physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, gaveTruman another choice when they successfully deto-nated the first atomic bomb in the desert near Alamogordo, New Mexico. Truman chose to use thebomb on Japan with the hope of ending the war with-out an invasion. (See page 516.) On August 6, 1945, theEnola Gay, an American B-29, dropped a single atomicbomb code-named Little Boy on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. A Japanese journalist described the bomb’sdevastating effects:

Suddenly a glaring whitish pinkish light appearedin the sky accompanied by an unnatural tremor.

. . . Within a few seconds the thousands of people in the streets . . . and in the gardens in the center of town were scorched by a wave of searing heat. . . .

By the evening the fire began to burn down andthen it went out. There was nothing left to burn.Hiroshima had ceased to exist.

—Barrington Boardman, From Harding to Hiroshima, 1987

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GuadalcanalAug. 1942-Feb. 1943

TarawaNov. 1943

Leyte Oct. 1944

Luzon Jan.-June 1945 Saipan June 1944

Guam July 1944

OkinawaApr.-June 1945

Iwo JimaFeb.-Mar.1945

AttuMay 1943

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T H E A L L I E D A D V A N C E I N T H E PA C I F I C , 1 9 4 2 – 1 9 4 5

Allied forces retook areas in the Pacific captured by the Japanese army between 1942 and 1945. What areas fell to the Japaneseduring these years? What major battles occurred during their recapture?

S E C T I O N T H R E E 515

The atomic blast killed 100,000 people instantly, andanother 100,000 men, women, and children died laterfrom burns, radiation, or other wounds caused by theblast. The bomb destroyed more than 4 square miles ofthe city. On August 8, the Soviet Union entered the waragainst Japan as it had promised. When the Japanese stilldid not surrender, the United States dropped a secondatomic bomb on the city of Nagasaki on August 9. Thebomb killed 40,000 more Japanese citizens. Five dayslater, on August 14, the Japanese government surren-dered. After 6 years of fighting, World War II was over.

The Impact of WarA Changed World

World War II was the most devastating war in his-tory and the first to bring mass civilian deaths. GrigoriBaklanov, who served in the Soviet army, expressed thetragedy: “Of my generation, out of one hundred whowent to fight, three came back. Three percent.” Baklanovnoted with despair, “I was the only one from our classof all the boys who went to the front who remained aliveafter the war. What else is there to say?”

The war devastated thousands of cities and villagesthroughout Europe and Asia, leaving national capitals inruins. Everywhere, transportation systems were mangled,factories were destroyed, and economies were left inshambles.

As the chart on this page indicates, the United Statessuffered fewer deaths than many other nations, and it hadless destruction of property. Fewer than 1 percent of

United States citizens were killed or wounded in the war.By contrast, the Soviet Union lost more than 8 percentof its population. Also, the demand for war suppliespulled the American economy out of the Great De-pression and made it more productive and prosperous.

The war changed the lives of the men and women who served in it. Many left their homes for the first timeto travel across the country and around the world. Theywere exposed to new ideas and opinions. Anne BosankoGreen described life in the WACs (Women’s ArmyCorps):

We suddenly left our humdrum lives, our jobs,and schools and were moved all around the

vast United States or across the Atlantic and Pacificoceans to lands we had never thought we wouldsee. We did not have to worry about our familiesand homelands being destroyed while we were offseeing the world. We were learning new skills, [and]meeting new people. . . .

—Anne Bosanko Green, One Woman’s War, 1989

In addition to its effects on returning servicemen andservicewomen, the war transformed the lives of millionsof Americans on the home front. In all areas of UnitedStates society——business, agriculture, labor, and govern-ment——the war brought varied and lasting changes.

World War II Deaths*

Country Military Deaths Civilian Deaths

United States 405,000 2,000

Great Britain 271,000 60,600

Germany 2,850,000 2,300,000

France 210,700 173,300

USSR 14,500,000 7,000,000

Poland 850,000 5,778,000

Italy 279,800 93,000

China 1,324,000 10,000,000

Japan 1,506,000 300,000

Spain 12,000 10,000*approximate

The United States suffered approximately 2,000 civiliandeaths during World War II. What factors account for this com-paratively low estimate?

S e c t i o n A s s e s s m e n t

Main Idea1. Use a diagram like this one to show key battles

or military actions that were critical in achievingvictory in Europe and in the Pacific.

Vocabulary2. Define: unconditional surrender, sonar

technology.

Checking Facts 3. What was the overall Allied war strategy?

4. What was the social impact on the people andthe countries involved in World War II?

Critical Thinking 5. Determining Cause and Effect How did the

use of advanced technology make World War IIthe most devastating war in history?

Key Battles / Actions

Europe Pacific

Turning Point

516 C A S E S T U D Y

Dropping the BombAUGUST 6, 1945

M E M O R A N D U M

For: The President

Subject: Dropping the Bomb

I think it is very important that

I should have a talk with you as

soon as possible on a highly se-

cret matter.

I mentioned it to you shortly af-

ter you took office, but have not

urged it since on account of the

pressure you have been under.

It, however, has such a bearing

on our present foreign relations

and has such an important ef-

fect upon all my thinking in this

field that I think you ought to

know about it without much fur-

ther delay.

Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson

April 24, 1945

The CaseWhen Truman received Stimson’s note on

April 24, 1945, he had been President for only 12days. Stimson wanted to talk with Truman about theatomic bomb. The war in Europe was drawing to aclose, and the President was turning his attention toending the war with Japan and to the negotiationsthat would shape the postwar world. Truman metwith Stimson the next day, and the informationStimson shared would significantly influence Tru-man’s strategy for ending the war.

Truman faced a critical question: Now that theatomic bomb was almost ready, would the UnitedStates use this fearsome new weapon against Japan?Truman later insisted that he “regarded the bombas a military weapon and never had any doubt thatit should be used.” Some others did have doubts, butthe evidence available today indicates that Trumanand other leading policy makers did not. The deci-sions they made about when and how to use theweapon, however, had major military, political, andethical consequences for the postwar world.

The BackgroundTruman’s meeting with Stimson gave him his

first knowledge of the atomic bomb; Stimson in-formed him that the bomb would probably be readywithin four months. Although Stimson supportedusing the bomb to end the war, he also pointed outserious problems that the bomb would pose for theworld after the war. Chief among these were a pos-sible atomic arms race and the danger of an atomicwar. To address these challenges, Stimson proposedthat Truman appoint a committee to advise him onpolicy regarding atomic weapons. The Presidenttook Stimson’s advice, and the Interim Committee,as it was called, met in Washington on May 31.

The goal of Truman and the Interim Commit-tee appears to have been to find the most effectiveway to use the bomb to shock Japan into surren-dering. Even though the Russians had promised toenter the war against Japan by August 8, manyAmerican military leaders assumed that an am-phibious landing on the Japanese mainland wouldbe necessary to end the war. The cost in Americanlives would be high, and many believed that usingthe bomb could end the war without an invasion.

The OpinionsThe quotes on this page represent the range of

opinions about using the atomic bomb that were ex-pressed during the summer of 1945. Stimson’s state-ment expresses the majority opinion——that the bombhad to be used to end the war quickly and to saveAmerican lives. The other statements question theuse of this new weapon.

The OptionsThe opinions you have read indicate that Tru-

man had these options to consider:1. Drop the bomb on Japanese cities to force an

immediate end to the war.2. Carry out a demonstration of the weapon to per-

suade Japan to surrender.3. Launch an invasion of Japan.4. Rely on Japan’s deteriorating military situation

and the entry of the Soviet Union into the war toforce Japanese surrender.

5. Negotiate surrender terms acceptable to Japanand the United States.

The DecisionThe Interim Committee made its decision and

gave it to Truman on June 1:

The present view of the Committee was that thebomb should be used against Japan as soon

as possible; that it be used on a war plant sur-rounded by workers’ homes; and that it be usedwithout prior warning.

—Recording Secretary R. Gordon Arneson, from minutes taken on May 31

“If the United States were to be the first to release thisnew means of indiscriminatedestruction upon mankind,she would sacrifice publicsupport throughout theworld, precipitate the racefor armaments, and preju-dice the possibility of reach-ing an international agree-ment on the future control ofsuch weapons.”

James FranckUniversity of Chicago

“I told him [Stimson] I wasagainst it on two counts. First,the Japanese were ready tosurrender and it wasn’t neces-sary to hit them with that aw-ful thing. Second, I hated tosee our country be the first touse such a weapon.”

General Dwight D. EisenhowerSupreme Allied Commander

“I have had a feeling that before the bomb is actuallyused against Japan thatJapan should have some pre-liminary warning of say twoor three days in advance. . . .The position of the UnitedStates as a great humanitar-ian nation and the fair playattitude of our people gener-ally is responsible in the mainfor this feeling.”

Ralph A. BardUndersecretary of the Navy

“In the light of the alterna-tives which, on a fair esti-mate, were open to us Ibelieve that no man, in ourposition and subject to ourresponsibilities, holding in hishands a weapon of such pos-sibilities for accomplishingthis purpose and saving thoselives, could have failed to useit and afterwards looked hiscountrymen in the face.”

Henry L. StimsonSecretary of War A

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C A S E S T U D Y 517

Turning Point

518 C A S E S T U D Y

Secretary of State Byrnes informed the Presidentof the Interim Committee’s decision. Later, he saidthat “with reluctance [Truman] had to agree that hecould think of no alternative and found himself in accord with what I told him the Committee wasgoing to recommend.” Why did Truman chooseOption 1?

Apparently Truman rejected Option 2, ademonstration, for reasons offered by the InterimCommittee and its scientific panel. A demonstrationwould not help to end the war. The committee didnot offer evidence to support this judgment. Theyknew, however, that a successful test would not nec-essarily cause the Japanese to surrender uncondi-tionally. An unsuccessful test, they believed, wouldbe worse than none.

Truman placed the highest value on ending thewar with the loss of as few American lives as possi-ble. Both Options 3 and 4 would cost countlessAmerican lives and bring an indefinite extension ofthe war with no certain outcome. The Japanesemight never surrender. They seemed prepared tofight to the end, whatever that would mean, even the

loss of many Japanese lives. Option 4 had an addeddisadvantage. If the Soviets entered the fighting,they would gain an advantage in postwar negotia-tions about new governments in Eastern Europe.Truman and other United States leaders preferrednot to be indebted to the Soviets for any help in end-ing the war with Japan.

Truman probably never viewed Option 5 as areal possibility. The only surrender acceptable toAmerican leaders would be unconditional. The onlysurrender acceptable to the Japanese would includeat least one condition: that they be allowed to keeptheir emperor. Truman saw the bomb as just anotherweapon——legitimate in wartime, when the goal wasto win.

The OutcomeThe bomb was successfully tested on July 16,

1945, at a remote desert site near Alamogordo, NewMexico. On August 6, 1945, the United Statesdropped an atomic bomb carrying more power than 20,000 tons of TNT on Hiroshima, Japan, an

Above, a column of smokebillows 20,000 feet overHiroshima, Japan, after thefirst atomic bomb strike.The aftermath is shown onthe left.

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important military center. The next day PresidentTruman gave a statement that included the follow-ing: “Let there be no mistake: we shall completelydestroy Japan’s power to make war. Only a Japan-ese surrender will stop us.”

Most Americans and their allies breathed a sighof relief, knowing that the war would soon end. Yetthey also recognized that, as the London Daily Express put it, “The world has changed overnight.”

The InterpretationsMore than half a century has passed since that

summer in 1945. The years have brought knowledgeand perspectives unavailable to Truman and otherdecision makers of that time. During these yearsthree main interpretations have emerged.

One is that Truman and Stimson were correctin their idea that the bombings were necessary toend the war and save lives. According to this view,these were the only significant motives of those whoordered the bombing of Hiroshima and, three dayslater, Nagasaki.

Another interpretation is that dropping thebomb was unnecessary, even immoral. People hold-ing this view argued that while Truman and theothers were honest, they were also naive; they failed to take into account the long-term effects ofdropping the bomb, such as the arms race and thecold war.

A third group also saw the bombings as un-necessary and unwise. In addition, they said thatTruman and the other policy makers had ulteriormotives, that they engaged in “atomic diplomacy.”They used the bombings to try to intimidate the Soviets. As a result, said this group, they failed to consider seriously alternatives to dropping the bomb.

Today controversy over the decision to dropthe atomic bomb continues. As time passes newevidence becomes available. For example, the firstviewpoint found support in later evidence from Japanthat seemed to show that without the bombingsthe war might have continued for many months.Such findings support the often repeated but muchchallenged idea that the bombings saved as manyas 1 million American lives.

Another source of new evidence has been medi-cal reports about those who survived the bombingsat Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Many sickened and

died soon afterward. Over the years more evidencehas emerged about long-term effects of atomic radiation. Today, for example, survivors of the bombings have a higher than average incidence ofleukemia and thyroid cancer. Thus medical reportsabout survivors add to the evidence used by thosewho raise ethical questions about the bomb.

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A Japanese prisoner of war weeps at the news ofJapan’s surrender.

1. Look again at the opinions of Henry L.Stimson and James Franck and contrast theirpredictions of the consequences of using thebomb. Why do you think they differed so much?

2. Which consequences of using the bomb didTruman predict correctly? Which were differentfrom what he might have expected?

3. Some scientists were more likely than politicalleaders to oppose the use of the atomic bomb.What could account for these differences?

4. What conflicts in values did you discover asyou read the quotations on page 517? Have ourvalues as Americans changed over time, givingnew meanings to the events of the 1940s?

Even today, more than 50 years after thebombing of Hiroshima, many people still debate whether the bombing should have

taken place. Write down your opinion and yourreasoning, and place your work in your portfolio.

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C A S E S T U D Y 519

Chapter Assessment00Chapter Assessment15

Reviewing Key TermsMatch the vocabulary term from thelist below to the sentence that de-scribes it. Write your answers on aseparate sheet of paper.blitzkrieg interventionismtotalitarian isolationismunconditional appeasementsurrender

1. The United States insistedupon __________ in negotiationswith the Japanese.

2. Early in the war, the policy of__________ enabled Hitler to occupy the Sudetenland region ofCzechoslovakia without any officialopposition from Great Britain orFrance.

3. A __________ type of governmentdemands complete control over thelives of its citizens.

4. Those people who supported apolicy of __________ thought theUnited States should not becomeinvolved in the war.

5. __________ was a rapid and dev-astating style of attack that helpedHitler to gain control of Polandquickly.

Recalling Facts1. In his speech before theReichstag, how did Hitler justify hisorders to murder those who stood inhis way to political power? Whateffect did his words have on theGerman people?

2. Germany and Italy formed analliance in 1936 known as the AxisPowers. How did this alliance affectthe outcome of the Spanish civilwar?

3. Why did Japan wish to expandits territory during the 1930s and1940s?

4. What was the function of theNeutrality Acts?

5. Why was the Battle of Britain aninitial failure for Germany? Whatstrategy did Hitler try in his “blitz” ofLondon to ward off further failure?

6. Describe the Lend-Lease Act.How did its passage signify a deeperAmerican commitment to the war?

7. Why did the Battle of Stalingradcause Stalin to resent Great Britainand the United States?

8. What famous battle led to the liberation of France? How was liber-ation accomplished?

9. Why is the name Holocaust usedto describe Hitler’s atrocities againstJews in Europe during World War II?

10. What was the effect of the waron the cities of Asia and Europe?

Critical Thinking1. Identifying Assumptions Manypeople in the United States support-ed the Republican cause in Spain.Some even volunteered to fight in theSpanish civil war. What assumptionsmight they have made about the ex-pansion of totalitarian governmentsin Europe that led them to becomeinvolved in what could have beenseen as strictly Spain’s problem?

2. Determining Cause and EffectAdmiral Isoroku Yamamotopromised Japan a series of victoriesfor the first year of a war with theUnited States and Great Britain ifJapan took his advice to strike theUnited States close to home. Healso said, however, that unless

Japan won the war quickly victorywould be impossible. Consideringwhat you now know about Japanduring this time period, identify thecause-and-effect relationship thatcaused Yamamoto to hold this view.

3. Formulating Questions Use adiagram like this one to write ques-tions that you would like to ask aman or woman who volunteered forduty in World War II. Each of thequestions should begin with one ofthe six questions words—who?what? where? when? why? how?—commonly used by reporters.

4. Determining Relevance WorldWar II was the most destructive warever waged in terms of lives lost andproperty destroyed. What can peo-ple of today learn from this period inhistory?

Cooperative LearningWorking in small groups, analyze thevarious types of propaganda usedduring World War II by the Axis Pow-ers and by the Allies. Assign groupmembers specific tasks of gatheringinformation, writing descriptions and summaries of what you find, analyzing the propaganda, and then making a class presentation.Try to include some visuals in the presentation.

Reinforcing SkillsRecognizing Ideologies Researcha political slogan or choose one thatyou already know. Write out the slo-gan and explain what it revealsabout the ideology of the person orgroup who has adopted the slogan.

Who?

What?

When?

Where?

Why?

How?

Duty inWWII

Self-Check QuizVisit the American Odyssey Web siteat americanodyssey.glencoe.comand click on Chapter 15—Self-Check Quiz to prepare for theChapter Test.

HISTORY

520 C H A P T E R 1 5 W O R L D W A R I I

Portfolio ProjectIsolationists and intervention-

ists had different opinionsabout United States involve-ment in World War II. Write a

summary of the basic views,priorities, and values of each

group. Explain your own position on this issue and give reasons for taking that position. Place your finished work in yourportfolio.

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Technology Activity

Using the Internet Search the Internet for a World War II Website that includes memoirs orexcerpts from survivors of theHolocaust. Copy or print partsof the memoirs. Create a bulletinboard by posting the excerptsunder the heading “Voices of theHolocaust.”

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Standardized Test Practice1. When Roosevelt signed the Lend-

Lease Act in 1941, he said that theUnited States must become the“great arsenal of democracy” inorder to

A end the Depression.B help the Axis powers.C remain neutral.D help Great Britain and France.

2. The Allies agreed in early 1942that their first military goal wouldbe the

A defeat of Japan.B invasion of the Soviet Union.C development of the atomic bomb.D defeat of Germany.

Test-Taking Tip: Think aboutthe meaning of the word arsenal: astockpile or storehouse of weapons.Eliminate any answer that does notstrongly relate to using the UnitedStates arsenal to protect democracy.Because the Axis powers weretotalitarian states, you can rule outanswer B.

Test-Taking Tip: This questioninvolves a sequence of events and aknowledge of the nations thatcomprised the Allies. For example, by1942, the Soviet Union had joinedwith the Allies. Therefore, you canrule out answer B.

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G E O G R A P H Y A N D H I S T O R YD-Day Invasion, June 6, 1944

Study the map to answer the following questions:

1. The map shows the Allied invasion routes from Great Britain toNormandy beginning June 6, 1944. Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, andSword were code names for the Normandy beaches. Write an expla-nation of the Allied attack.

2. Why do you think the invasion was launched from five sites ratherthan from one?

3. The Nazis were fooled into thinking the D-Day invasion would comenear Calais. Why do you think the Allies chose to land on theNormandy peninsula instead?

C H A P T E R 1 5 A S S E S S M E N T 521