Unit 731 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia - Japanese Torture Experimintation

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Unit 731

Unit 731 (Japanese : 731 Hepburn : Nana-san-ichi Butai ? ) was a covert biological and

chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that

undertook lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)

of World War II . It was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes carried out by

Japan . Unit 731 was based at the Pingfang district of Harbin , the largest city in the Japanese

puppet state of Manchukuo (now Northeast China ).

Unit 731

The Unit 731 complex

Location Pingfang , China

Coordinates 45.6°N 1 26.63 °E

Date 1935–1945

Attack type Human experim entation

Biological warfa re

Chemical warfa reWeapons Biological weap ons

Chemical weap ons

Explosives

Deaths Over 3,000 from inside experiments and tens of thousands from field experiments

Perpetrators General Shirō Ishii

Lt. General Masaji Kitano

Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department

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Building on the site of the Harbin bioweapon facilityof Unit 731

Formation

Activities

Vivisection

Germ warfare attacks

Frostbite testing

Rape, syphilis and forced pregnancy

Weapons testing

Other experiments

Biological warfare

Known unit members

Divisions

Facilities

Tokyo

Guangzhou

Related units

Contents

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Surrender and immunity

Destruction of evidence

American grant of immunity

Separate Soviet trials

After World War II

Official silence under Occupation

Post-Occupation Japanese media coverage and debate

Official government response in Japan

Abroad

Books

Films

Music

Television

See also

Pacific War (World War II)

Other human experimentation

References

Further reading

External links

Formation

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Shiro Ishii , commander of Unit 731

In 1932, General Shirō Ishii ( Ishii Shirō ), chief medical officer of the Japanese Army

and protégé of Army Minister Sadao Araki was placed in command of the Army Epidemic

Prevention Research Laboratory . Ishii organized a secret research group, the "Tōgō Unit",

for various chemical and biological experimentation in Manchuria. Ishii had proposed the

creation of a Japanese biological and chemical research unit in 1930, after a two-year study

trip abroad, on the grounds that Western powers were developing their own programs. One

of Ishii's main supporters inside the army was Colonel Chikahiko Koizumi , who later became

Japan's Health Minister from 1941 to 1945. Koizumi had joined a secret poison gas research

committee in 1915, during World War I , when he and other Japanese army officers were

impressed by the successful German use of chlorine gas at the second battle of Ypres ,

where the Allies suffered 15,000 casualties as a result of the chemical attack. [13]

Unit Tōgō was implemented in the Zhongma Fortress , a prison/experimentation camp in

Beiyinhe, a village 100 km (62 mi) south of Harbin on the South Manchurian Railway . A

jailbreak in autumn 1934 and later explosion (believed to be an attack) in 1935 led Ishii to

shut down Zhongma Fortress. He received the authorization to move to Pingfang,

approximately 24 km (15 mi) south of Harbin, to set up a new and much larger facility. [14]

In 1936, Hirohito authorized, by imperial decree, the expansion of this unit and its integration

into the Kwantung Army as the Epidemic Prevention Department. [15] It was divided at the

same time into the "Ishii Unit" and "Wakamatsu Unit" with a base in Hsinking . From August

1940, all these units were known collectively as the "Epidemic Prevention and Water

Purification Department of the Kwantung Army ( )"[16] or "Unit 731" (

731 ) for short.

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The ruins of a boiler building

A special project code-named Maruta used human beings for experiments. Test subjectswere gathered from the surrounding population and were sometimes referred to

euphemistically as "logs" ( maruta ? ), used in such contexts as "How many logs fell?".

This term originated as a joke on the part of the staff because the official cover story for the

facility given to the local authorities was that it was a lumber mill. However, in an account by

a man who worked as a "junior uniformed civilian employee" of the Japanese Army in Unit

731, the project was internally called "Holzklotz", which is the German word for maruta. [17]

The test subjects were selected to give a wide cross-section of the population and includedcommon criminals, captured bandits and anti-Japanese partisans, political prisoners, and

also people rounded up by the Kempeitai for alleged "suspicious activities". They included

infants, the elderly, and pregnant women.

Vivisection

Prisoners, including one known POW, [18] were subjected to vivisection without anesthesia. [19]

Vivisections were performed on prisoners after infecting them with various diseases.

Researchers performed invasive surgery on prisoners, removing organs to study the effects

of disease on the human body. These were conducted while the patients were alive because

it was feared that the decomposition process would affect the results. [20] The infected and

vivisected prisoners included men, women, children, and infants, including pregnant women

and their infants impregnated by Japanese surgeons. [21]

Activities

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Prisoners had limbs amputated in order to study blood loss. Those limbs that were removed

were sometimes re-attached to the opposite sides of the body. Some prisoners' limbs were

frozen and amputated, while others had limbs frozen, then thawed to study the effects of the

resultant untreated gangrene and rotting.

Some prisoners had their stomachs surgically removed and the esophagus reattached to the

intestines. Parts of the brain, lungs, liver, etc. were removed from some prisoners. [19]

Japanese army surgeon Ken Yuasa suggests that the practice of vivisection on human

subjects (mostly Chinese Communists) was widespread even outside Unit 731, [6] estimating

that at least 1,000 people were involved in the practice in mainland China. [22]

Germ warfare attacks

Prisoners were injected with inoculations of disease, disguised as vaccinations , to study their

effects. To study the effects of untreated venereal diseases , male and female prisoners were

deliberately infected with syphilis and gonorrhea , then studied. Prisoners were also

repeatedly subject to rape by guards. [23]

Plague fleas, infected clothing, and infected supplies encased in bombs were dropped on

various targets. The resulting cholera , anthrax , and plague were estimated to have killed

around and possibly more than 400,000 Chinese civilians. [24] Tularemia was tested on

Chinese civilians. [25]

Unit 731 and its affiliated units ( Unit 1644 and Unit 100 among others) were involved in

research, development, and experimental deployment of epidemic-creating biowarfare

weapons in assaults against the Chinese populace (both civilian and military) throughout

World War II. Plague-infested fleas, bred in the laboratories of Unit 731 and Unit 1644, were

spread by low-flying airplanes upon Chinese cities, coastal Ningbo in 1940, and Changde ,

Hunan Province, in 1941. This military aerial spraying killed thousands of people with bubonicplague epidemics. [26]

Frostbite testing

Some Japanese justify their experiments with "a discovery of a new treatment methodology

for frostbite," made possible by the human experimentation conducted in Unit 731. Japan

intended to prepare to battle the looming threat of the Soviet Union, which “meant that the

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Japanese military had to be ready to treat large numbers of its soldiers for frostbite". So

physiologist Yoshimura Hisato conducted experiments by taking captives outside, dipping

various appendages into water, and allowing the limb to freeze. Once frozen, which

testimony from a Japanese officer said "was determined after the 'frozen arms, when struck

with a short stick, emitted a sound resembling that which a board gives when it is struck'", [27]

ice was chipped away and the area doused in water. The effects of different water

temperatures were tested by bludgeoning the victim to determine if any areas were still

frozen. Variations of these tests in more gruesome forms were performed. However, the best

way to treat frostbite, which is used today, was established to be by immersing the affected

area in water with a temperature between 100–122 °F (38–50 °C). This method differed

substantially from previous treatment of rubbing afflicted areas. The aim and breadth of this

research was in response to the historical flaws of other colonial powers' attempts to invade

Russia. [28]

Rape, syphilis and forced pregnancy

Women were used in specific experiments in Unit 731. In order to respond to the growing

threat of syphilis among Japanese troops, “among whom the prevalence of syphilis was high

due to the systematic rape of women and the widespread use of sex slaves,” women at Unit

731 were either raped or infected with a serum containing virulent strains of syphilis. [29] In

documentation of these experiments, doctors remarked that syphilitic infection of the women

was the result of self-perpetuated prostitution, rather than the serum that had been

administered to them. External reactions—change in skin and organ appearance—as well as

internal changes were studied. In the case of the body’s internal reaction to infection, patients

were vivisected or killed with autopsies being conducted immediately afterward. Forced

pregnancy was also used to determine the effects of vertical transmission of the disease.

Weapons testing

Human targets were used to test grenades positioned at various distances and in different

positions. Flame throwers were tested on humans. Humans were tied to stakes and used as

targets to test germ-releasing bombs , chemical weapons , and explosive bombs. [30][31]

Other experiments

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In other tests, subjects were deprived of food and water to determine the length of time until

death; placed into high-pressure chambers until death; experimented upon to determine the

relationship between temperature, burns, and human survival; placed into centrifuges and

spun until death; injected with animal blood; exposed to lethal doses of x-rays ; subjected to

various chemical weapons inside gas chambers; injected with sea water to determine if it

could be a substitute for saline solution ; and burned or buried alive. [32]

An unidentified victim of Unit 731human experimentation.

Japanese researchers performed tests on prisoners with Bubonic plague , cholera , smallpox ,

botulism , and other diseases. [33] This research led to the development of the defoliation

bacilli bomb and the flea bomb used to spread bubonic plague. [34] Some of these bombs

were designed with porcelain shells, an idea proposed by Ishii in 1938.

These bombs enabled Japanese soldiers to launch biological attacks, infecting agriculture,

reservoirs, wells, and other areas with anthrax , plague-carrier fleas, typhoid , dysentery ,

cholera, and other deadly pathogens. During biological bomb experiments, researchers

dressed in protective suits would examine the dying victims. Infected food supplies and

clothing were dropped by airplane into areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces. In

addition, poisoned food and candies were given out to unsuspecting victims, and the resultsexamined.

In 2002, Changde , China, site of the flea spraying attack, held an "International Symposium

on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare" which estimated that at least 580,000 people died

as a result of the attack. [35] The historian Sheldon Harris claims that 200,000 died. [36] In

addition to Chinese casualties, 1,700 Japanese in Chekiang were killed by their own

biological weapons while attempting to unleash the biological agent, which indicates serious

Biological warfare

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issues with distribution. [2]

During the final months of World War II, Japan planned to use plague as a biological weapon

against San Diego, California . The plan was scheduled to launch on September 22, 1945, but

Japan surrendered five weeks earlier. [37][38][39][40]

Lieutenant General Shirō Ishii

Lieutenant Colonel Ryoichi Naito , founder of the pharmaceutical company Green Cross

Masaji Kitano

Yoshio Shinozuka

Yasuji Kaneko

Unit 731 was divided into eight divisions:

Division 1: Research on bubonic plague , cholera , anthrax , typhoid and tuberculosis using

live human subjects. For this purpose, a prison was constructed to contain around three to

four hundred people.

Division 2: Research for biological weapons used in the field, in particular the production of

devices to spread germs and parasites.

Division 3: Production of shells containing biological agents. Stationed in Harbin.

Division 4: Bacteria mass production and storage. [41]

Division 5: Training of personnel.Divisions 6–8: Equipment, medical and administrative units.

Known unit members

Divisions

Facilities

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One of the buildings is open to visitors

The Unit 731 complex covered six square kilometers and consisted of more than 150

buildings. The design of the facilities made them hard to destroy by bombing. The complex

contained various factories. It had around 4,500 containers to be used to raise fleas , six

cauldrons to produce various chemicals, and around 1,800 containers to produce biological

agents. Approximately 30 kg of bubonic plague bacteria could be produced in several days.

Some of Unit 731's satellite facilities are in use by various Chinese industrial concerns. A

portion has been preserved and is open to visitors as a War Crimes Museum.

Tokyo

A medical school and research facility belonging to Unit 731 operated in the Shinjuku District

of Tokyo during World War II. In 2006, Toyo Ishii—a nurse who worked at the school during

the war—revealed that she had helped bury bodies and pieces of bodies on the school's

grounds shortly after Japan's surrender in 1945. In response, in February 2011 the Ministry

of Health began to excavate the site. [42]

China requested DNA samples from any human remains discovered at the site. The

Japanese government—which has never officially acknowledged the atrocities committed by

Unit 731—rejected the request. [43]

Guangzhou

The related Unit 8604 was operated by the Japanese Southern China Area Army and

stationed at Guangzhou (Canton). This installation conducted human experimentation in food

and water deprivation as well as water-borne typhus . According to postwar testimony, this

facility served as the main rat breeding farm for the medical units to provide them with

bubonic plague vectors for experiments. [44]

Related units

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Unit 731 was part of the Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department which dealt

with contagious disease and water supply generally.

Information sign at the site today.

Operations and experiments continued until the end of the war. Ishii had wanted to use

biological weapons in the Pacific War since May 1944, but his attempts were repeatedly

snubbed.

Destruction of evidence

With the coming of the Red Army in August 1945, the unit had to abandon their work inhaste. The members and their families fled to Japan.

Ishii ordered every member of the group "to take the secret to the grave", threatening to find

them if they failed, and prohibiting any of them from going into public work back in Japan.

Potassium cyanide vials were issued for use in the event that the remaining personnel were

captured.

Skeleton crews of Ishii's Japanese troops blew up the compound in the final days of the war to destroy evidence of their activities, but most were so well constructed that they survived

somewhat intact.

American grant of immunity

Among the individuals in Japan after their 1945 surrender was Lieutenant Colonel Murray

Sanders, who arrived in Yokohama via the American ship Sturgess in September 1945.

Surrender and immunity

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Sanders was a highly regarded microbiologist and a member of America's military center for

biological weapons. Sanders’ duty was to investigate Japanese biological warfare activity. At

the time of his arrival in Japan he had no knowledge of what Unit 731 was. [45] Until Sanders

finally threatened the Japanese with bringing communism into the picture, little information

about biological warfare was being shared with the Americans. The Japanese wanted to

avoid the Soviet legal system so the next morning after the threat Sanders received a

manuscript describing Japan's involvement in biological warfare. [46] Sanders took this

information to General Douglas MacArthur, who was the Supreme Commander of the Allied

Powers responsible for rebuilding Japan during the Allied occupations. MacArthur struck a

deal with Japanese informants [47]—he secretly granted immunity to the physicians of Unit

731, including their leader, in exchange for providing America, but not the other wartime

allies, with their research on biological warfare and data from human experimentation. [10]

American occupation authorities monitored the activities of former unit members, including

reading and censoring their mail. [48] The U.S. believed that the research data was valuable.

The U.S. did not want other nations, particularly the Soviet Union, to acquire data on

biological weapons .[49]

The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal heard only one reference to Japanese experiments with

"poisonous serums" on Chinese civilians. This took place in August 1946 and was instigated

by David Sutton, assistant to the Chinese prosecutor. The Japanese defense counsel argued

that the claim was vague and uncorroborated and it was dismissed by the tribunal president,

Sir William Webb , for lack of evidence. The subject was not pursued further by Sutton, who

was probably unaware of Unit 731's activities. His reference to it at the trial is believed to

have been accidental.

Separate Soviet trials

Although publicly silent on the issue at the Tokyo Trials, the Soviet Union pursued the case

and prosecuted twelve top military leaders and scientists from Unit 731 and its affiliatedbiological-war prisons Unit 1644 in Nanjing, and Unit 100 in Changchun, in the Khabarovsk

War Crime Trials . Included among those prosecuted for war crimes , including germ warfare,

was General Otozō Yamada , the commander-in-chief of the million-man Kwantung Army

occupying Manchuria.

The trial of those captured Japanese perpetrators was held in Khabarovsk in December

1949. A lengthy partial transcript of the trial proceedings was published in different languages

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the following year by a Moscow foreign languages press, including an English language

edition. [50] The lead prosecuting attorney at the Khabarovsk trial was Lev Smirnov , who had

been one of the top Soviet prosecutors at the Nuremberg Trials . The Japanese doctors and

army commanders who had perpetrated the Unit 731 experiments received sentences from

the Khabarovsk court ranging from two to 25 years in a Siberian labor camp . The U.S.

refused to acknowledge the trials, branding them communist propaganda. [51]

After World War II, the Soviet Union built a biological weapons facility in Sverdlovsk using

documentation captured from Unit 731 in Manchuria. [52]

Official silence under Occupation

As above, under the American occupation the members of Unit 731 and other experimental

units were allowed to go free. One graduate of Unit 1644 , Masami Kitaoka, continued to do

experiments on unwilling Japanese subjects from 1947 to 1956 while working for Japan's

National Institute of Health Sciences. He infected prisoners with rickettsia and mental health

patients with typhus .[53]

Post-Occupation Japanese media coverage and debate

Japanese discussions of Unit 731's activity began in the 1950s, after the end of the American

occupation of Japan. In 1952, human experiments carried out in Nagoya City Pediatric

Hospital , which resulted in one death, were publicly tied to former members of Unit 731. [54]

Later in that decade, journalists suspected that the murders attributed by the government to

Sadamichi Hirasawa were actually carried out by members of Unit 731. In 1958, Japanese

author Shusaku Endo published the book The Sea and Poison about human

experimentation, which is thought to have been based on a real incident.

The author Morimura Seiichi published The Devil's Gluttony ( ) in 1981, followed

by The Devil's Gluttony: A Sequel in 1983. These books purported to reveal the "true"

operations of Unit 731, but actually confused them with that of Unit 100 , and falsely used

unrelated photos attributing them to Unit 731, which raised questions about its

accuracy. [55][56] Also in 1981 appeared the first direct testimony of human vivisection in

After World War II

http://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_100https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiichi_Morimurahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shusaku_Endohttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadamichi_Hirasawahttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nagoya_City_Pediatric_Hospital&action=edit&redlink=1http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhushttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickettsiahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_1644http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sverdlovsk_anthrax_leakhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulaghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberiahttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Trialshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lev_Smirnov&action=edit&redlink=1http://-/?-


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China, by Ken Yuasa . Since then many more in-depth testimonies have appeared in

Japanese. The 2001 documentary Japanese Devils was composed largely of interviews with

14 members of Unit 731 who had been taken as prisoners by China and later released. [57]

Official government response in Japan

See also: List of war apology statements issued by Japan

Since the end of the Allied occupation, the Japanese government has repeatedly apologized

for its pre-war behavior in general, but specific apologies and indemnities are determined on

the basis of bilateral determination that crimes occurred, which requires a high standard of

evidence. Unit 731 presents a special problem, since unlike Nazi human experimentation

which the U.S. publicly condemned, the activities of Unit 731 are known to the general public

only from the testimonies of willing former unit members, and testimony cannot be employed

to determine indemnity in this way. The American retrieval of the highly documentedexperimentations of Unit 731 is covert and not something either the U.S. or Japan are willing

to admit has happened in the first place. The Nazis and Japanese collaborated in their

experiments. [citation needed ]

Japanese history textbooks usually contain references to Unit 731, but do not go into detail

about allegations, in accordance with this principle. [58][59] Saburo Ienaga 's New History of

Japan included a detailed description, based on officers' testimony. The Ministry for

Education attempted to remove this passage from his textbook before it was taught in public

schools, on the basis that the testimony was insufficient. The Supreme Court of Japan ruled

in 1997 that the testimony was indeed sufficient and that requiring it to be removed was an

illegal violation of freedom of speech .[60]

In 1997, the international lawyer Kōnen Tsuchiya filed a class action suit against the

Japanese government, demanding reparations for the actions of Unit 731, using evidence

filed by Professor Makoto Ueda of Rikkyo University . All Japanese court levels found that the

suit was baseless. No findings of fact were made about the existence of human

experimentation, but the decision of the court was that reparations are determined by

international treaties and not by national court cases.

In October 2003, a member of the House of Representatives of Japan filed an inquiry.

Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi responded that the Japanese government did not

then possess any records related to Unit 731, but the government recognized the gravity of

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junichiro_Koizumihttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_Japanhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikkyo_Universityhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_actionhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speechhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Japanhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saburo_Ienagahttp://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentationhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_war_apology_statements_issued_by_Japanhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Devilshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Yuasa


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the matter and would publicize any records that were located in the future. [61]

Abroad

Books

Forest sea (pol. Leśne morze ) (1960) a novel by a Polish writer and educator Igor Newerly .The first book outside Asia which refers to atrocities committed in the Unit.

Films

There have been several films about the atrocities of Unit 731.

Men Behind the Sun (1988), China, directed by Tun Fei Mou .

Philosophy of a Knife (2008), Russia, directed by Andrey Iskanov .

731: Two Versions of Hell (2007), produced by James T. Hong ; documentary about Unit

731 told from the Chinese and Japanese sides. [62]

Music

"The Breeding House" (1994), Bruce Dickinson . Segment of the CD-single Tears of the

Dragon , describing the atrocities committed by Unit 731 and the immunity granted by the

Americans to the physicians of the Unit.

"Unit 731" (2009), American thrash metal band Slayer . Song on the album World Painted

Blood , describing the events and atrocities that occurred at Unit 731.

Television

The X-Files episode "731" (1995). Former members of Unit 731 secretly continue their

experiments on humans under control of a covert U.S. government agency.

ReGenesis episode "Let it burn" (2007). Outbreaks of anthrax and glanders are traced to

World War II Japan.

"Warehouse 13 " episode "The 40th Floor" (2011). General Shoro Ishii's Medal from Unit

731 simulated drowning when applied to a victim's skin.

Human subject research

See also

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_subject_researchhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warehouse_13https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReGenesishttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/731_(The_X-Files)https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Painted_Bloodhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slayerhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tears_of_the_Dragonhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Dickinsonhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_T._Honghttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andrey_Iskanov&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_a_Knifehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tun_Fei_Mouhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_Behind_the_Sunhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Newerlyhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_languagehttp://-/?-


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War crime

Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services

Pacific War (World War II)

Changde chemical weapon attack

Japanese war crimes

Kaimingjie germ weapon attack

Second Sino-Japanese War

Other human experimentation

Nazi human experimentation

Josef Mengele

North Korean human experimentation

Unethical human experimentation in the United States

Porton Down

1. ^ Japan unearths site linked to human experiments. Some historians estimate up to

250,000 people were subjected to experiments. ,

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/21/japan-excavates-site-human-experiments

2. ^ a b David C. Rapoport. "Terrorism and Weapons of the Apocalypse". In James M. Ludes,

Henry Sokolski (eds.), Twenty-First Century Weapons Proliferation: Are We Ready?

Routledge, 2001. pp. 19, 29

3. ^ Khabarovsk War Crime Trials . Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of theJapanese Army Charged with Manufacturing and Employing Biological Weapons , Moscow:

Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950. p. 117

4. ^ Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors , Westviewpress, 1996, p.138

5. ^ The Imperial Japanese Medical Atrocities and Its Enduring Legacy in Japanese

Research Ethics

References

http://www.lit.osaka-cu.ac.jp/user/tsuchiya/gyoseki/presentation/IAB8.htmlhttp://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khabarovsk_War_Crime_Trialshttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/21/japan-excavates-site-human-experimentshttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porton_Downhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation_in_the_United_Stateshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korean_human_experimentationhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Mengelehttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentationhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_Warhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaimingjie_germ_weapon_attackhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_war_crimeshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Changde#Biological_and_chemical_attackshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison_laboratory_of_the_Soviet_secret_serviceshttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crime


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6. ^ a b Kristof, Nicholar D. (17 March 1995). "Unmasking Horror — A special report. Japan

Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity" . New York Times .

7. ^ AII The War Crime "Unit 731" and Chinese, Korean Civilian. ci

8. ^ Seiichi Morimura, The Devil's Gluttony , 1981

9. ^ The devil unit, Unit 731.10. ^ a b c Hal Gold, Unit 731 Testimony , 2003, p. 109

11. ^ Harris, S.H. (2002) Factories of Death. Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932—1945, and

the American Cover-up , revised edn. Routledge, New York, USA.

12. ^ The World: Revisiting World War II Atrocities; Comparing the Unspeakable to the

Unthinkable . New York Times

13. ^ Williams, Peter, and Wallace, David (1989). Unit 731 . Grafton Books, p. 44. ISBN 0-586-20822-4

14. ^ Harris, Sheldon H. (1994). Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45

and the American Cover-Up . California State University, Northridge: Routledge. pp. 26–33.

ISBN 0-415-09105-5 . “Page 26: Zhong Ma Prison Camp's creation; Page 33: Pingfang site's

creation.”

15. ^ Daniel Barenblat, A plague upon humanity , 2004, p.37.

16. ^ Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors , 1996, p.136

17. ^ Cook, Haruko Taya; Cook, Theodore F. (1992). Japan at war : an oral history (1 ed.).

New York, NY: New Press. p. 162. ISBN 1-56584-014-3 .

18. ^ One known case of US POWS used in experiments were a B-29 crew captured May 5,

1945

19. ^ a b Richard Lloyd Parry (February 25, 2007). "Dissect them alive: order not to be

disobeyed" . London: Times Online.

20. ^ Interview with former Unit 731 member Nobuo Kamada at the Wayback Machine

(archived November 19, 2006)

21. ^ Nicholas D. Kristof New York Times , March 17, 1995. "Unmasking Horror: A special

report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity"

22. ^ "Vivisectionist recalls his day of reckoning"

http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/10/24/reference/vivisectionist-recalls-his-day-of-reckoning/http://-/?-http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE2D71630F934A25750C0A963958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=printhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machinehttps://web.archive.org/web/20061119053825/http://www.technologyartist.com/unit_731/http://-/?-http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1438491.ecehttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/usprisoners_japancomp.htm#fn88http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56584-014-3https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09105-5https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0586208224http://-/?-http://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/07/weekinreview/world-revisiting-world-war-ii-atrocities-comparing-unspeakable-unthinkable.htmlhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.cc.matsuyama-u.ac.jp/~tamura/731butai.htmhttp://-/?-http://www.x-libri.ru/elib/morim000/00000036.htmhttp://-/?-http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/sinboj/sinboj2002/8/0826/81.htmhttp://-/?-http://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=2http://-/?-http://-/?-


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23. ^ Unit 731: One of the Most Terrifying Secrets of the 20th Century

24. ^ Christopher Hudson (2 March 2007). "Doctors of Depravity" . Daily Mail.

25. ^ Video adapted from "Biological Warfare & Terrorism: The Military and Public Health

Response", Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Retrieved October 21, 2007

26. ^ Barenblatt, Daniel. A Plague Upon Humanity: the Secret Genocide of Axis Japan'sGerm Warfare Operation , HarperCollins, 2004. ISBN 0-06-018625-9

27. ^ Kristof, Nicholas D. “Unmasking Horror -- A special report.; Japan Confronting

Gruesome War Atrocity” The New York Times(1995)

28. ^ Baader, Gerhard, Susan E. Lederer, Morris Low, Florian Schmaltz, and Alexander V.

Schwerin. “Pathways to Human Experimentation, 1933-1945: Germany, Japan, and the

United States.” Osiris (2005): 205-231.

29. ^ E. Cuerda-Galindo, X. Sierra-Valentí, E. González-López, and F. López-Muñoz,

"Syphilis and Human Experimentation From the First Appearance of the Disease to World

War II: A Historical Perspective and Reflections on Ethics," Actas Dermo-Sifiliográficas

(English Edition) 105, no. 8 (2014): 765-67.

30. ^ Monchinski, Tony (2008). Critical Pedagogy and the Everyday Classroom . Volumen 3

de Explorations of Educational Purpose. Springer, p. 57. ISBN 1402084625

31. ^ Neuman, William Lawrence (2008). Understanding Research . Pearson/Allyn andBacon, p. 65. ISBN 0205471536

32. ^ "The Nanjing Massacre and Unit 731" . Advocacy & Intelligence Index For POWs-

MIAs Archives. 2001. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved

28 September 2010.

33. ^ Biological Weapons Program-Japan Federation of American Scientists

34. ^ Review of the studies on Germ Warfare Tien-wei Wu A Preliminary Review of Studiesof Japanese Biological Warfare and Unit 731 in the United States

35. ^ Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague upon Humanity , 2004, p.xii, 173.

36. ^ Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death (London, Routledge, 1994)

37. ^ Naomi Baumslag, Murderous Medicine: Nazi Doctors, Human Experimentation, and

Typhus , 2005, p.207

http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.centurychina.com/wiihist/germwar/731rev.htmhttp://-/?-https://fas.org/nuke/guide/japan/bw/http://-/?-http://www.aiipowmia.com/731/731holocaust.htmlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071017024440/http://www.aiipowmia.com/731/731holocaust.htmlhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0205471536http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1402084625http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060186259http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Preventionhttp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/epr/historyofbt/wmcc/07_tularemia_cc.wmvhttp://-/?-http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=439776&in_page_id=1770http://-/?-https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.htmlhttp://-/?-


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38. ^ "Weapons of Mass Destruction: Plague as Biological Weapons Agent" .

GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved December 21, 2014.

39. ^ Amy Stewart (April 25, 2011). "Where To Find The World's Most 'Wicked Bugs':

Fleas" . National Public Radio.

40. ^ Russell Working (June 5, 2001). "The trial of Unit 731" . The Japan Times.

41. ^ "Unit 731: One of the Most Terrifying Secrets of the 20th Century" . Retrieved

November 8, 2015.

42. ^ Associated Press , "Work starts at Shinjuku Unit 731 site ", Japan Times , 22 February

2011, p. 1.

43. ^ The Economist , "Deafening silence ", 24 February 2011, p. 48.

44. ^ Gold, Hal. Unit 731: Testimony . Tuttle Publishing, 2006, p. 50

45. ^ Gold, Hal (2011). Unit 731 Testimony. (1st ed.). New York: Tuttle Pub. pp. 94–95.

ISBN 9781462900824 .

46. ^ Gold, Hal (2011). Unit 731 Testimony. (1st ed.). New York: Tuttle Pub. p. 96.

ISBN 9781462900824 .

47. ^ Gold, Hal (2011). Unit 731 Testimony. (1st ed.). New York: Tuttle Pub. p. 97.

ISBN 9781462900824 .

48. ^ Kyodo News , "Occupation censored Unit 731 ex-members' mail: secret paper ", Japan

Times , February 10, 2010, p. 3.

49. ^ BBC News - Unit 731: Japan's biological force.

50. ^ Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged with

Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons (Moscow: Foreign Languages

Publishing House, 1950). (French language: Documents relatifs au procès des anciens

Militaires de l'Armée Japonaise accusés d'avoir préparé et employé l'Arme Bactériologique /Japanese language:

/ Chinese language: )

51. ^ Takashi Tsuchiya. "The Imperial Japanese Experiments in China". The Oxford

Textbook of Clinical Research Ethics , pp, 35, 42. Oxford University Press, 2011.

52. ^ Ken Alibek and S. Handelman. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biohazard_(book)https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Alibekhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/correspondent/1796044.stmhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Timeshttp://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100210f3.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed:%20japantimes%20%28The%20Japan%20Times:%20All%20Stories%29https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyodo_Newshttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781462900824https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781462900824https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781462900824https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.economist.com/node/18237081?story_id=18237081&CFID=159016485&CFTOKEN=88221649https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economisthttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Timeshttp://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110221x1.htmlhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Presshttp://-/?-https://www.mtholyoke.edu/~kann20c/classweb/dw2/page1.htmlhttp://-/?-http://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2001/06/05/commentary/world-commentary/the-trial-of-unit-731/http://-/?-http://www.npr.org/2011/04/25/135638924/where-to-find-the-worlds-most-wicked-bugshttp://-/?-http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/bio_plague.htmhttp://-/?-


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Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World - Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it .

1999. Delta (2000) ISBN 0-385-33496-6 .

53. ^ 43 1968 pp.126-134

54. ^ 43 1968 pp.134-136

1982 pp.94-111;

55. ^ Nozaki, Yoshiko (2000). Textbook controversy and the production of public truth:

Japanese education, nationalism, and Saburo Ienaga's court challenges . University of

Wisconsin--Madison. pp. 300, 381.

56. ^ Keiichi Tsuneishi (1995). . p. 171.

ISBN 4-06-149265-9 .

57. ^ ― ISBN4915237362

58. ^ Yoshiko Nozaki and Mark Selden, The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus "Japanese

Textbook Controversies, Nationalism, and Historical Memory: Intra- and Inter-national

Conflicts"

59. ^ Kathleen Woods Masalski (November 2001). "EXAMINING THE JAPANESE HISTORY

TEXTBOOK CONTROVERSIES" . Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural

Education. Retrieved 2012-07-30.

60. ^ Asahi Shinbun editorial, August 30, 1997

61. ^

October 10, 2003.

62. ^ Alexander Street Press, Academic Video Store 731: Two Versions of Hell

Barenblatt, Daniel. A Plague Upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ

Warfare Operation , HarperCollins, 2004. ISBN 0-06-018625-9 .

Barnaby, Wendy. The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare , Frog Ltd,

1999. ISBN 1-883319-85-4 , ISBN 0-7567-5698-7 , ISBN 0-8264-1258-0 , ISBN 0-8264-1415-

X.

Further reading

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/082641415Xhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0826412580https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0756756987https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1883319854https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060186259http://www.filmakers.com/index.php?a=filmDetail&filmID=1578http://-/?-http://www.shugiin.go.jp/itdb_shitsumon.nsf/html/shitsumon/b157024.htmhttp://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asahi_Shinbunhttp://-/?-http://spice.stanford.edu/docs/134http://-/?-http://www.japanfocus.org/-Mark-Selden/3173http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4915237362http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-06-149265-9https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://www.nichibenren.or.jp/activity/document/civil_liberties/year/1955/1955_4.htmlhttp://-/?-http://-/?-https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0385334966https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biohazard_(book)


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Cook, Haruko Taya; Cook, Theodore F., Japan at war: an oral history , New York: New

Press: Distributed by Norton, 1992. ISBN 1-56584-014-3 . Cf. Part 2, Chapter 6 on Unit 731

and Tamura Yoshio.

Endicott, Stephen and Hagerman, Edward. The United States and Biological Warfare:

Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea , Indiana University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-253-

33472-1 .

Gold, Hal. Unit 731 Testimony , Charles E Tuttle Co., 1996. ISBN 4-900737-39-9 .

Grunden, Walter E., Secret Weapons & World War II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science ,

University Press of Kansas, 2005. ISBN 0-7006-1383-8 .

Handelman, Stephen and Alibek, Ken. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest

Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World—Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It ,

Random House, 1999. ISBN 0-375-50231-9 , ISBN 0-385-33496-6 .Harris, Robert and Paxman, Jeremy. A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of

Chemical and Biological Warfare , Random House, 2002. ISBN 0-8129-6653-8 .

Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932–45 and the

American Cover-Up , Routledge, 1994. ISBN 0-415-09105-5 , ISBN 0-415-93214-9 .

Lupis, Marco. Orrori e misteri dell'Unità 731: la "fabbrica" dei batteri killer , La Repubblica,

14 aprile 2003, on line too.

Mangold, Tom; Goldberg, Jeff, Plague wars: a true story of biological warfare , Macmillan,

2000. Cf. Chapter 3, Unit 731.

Moreno, Jonathan D. Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans , Routledge, 2001.

ISBN 0-415-92835-4 .

Nie, Jing Bao, et al. Japan's Wartime Medical Atrocities: Comparative Inquiries in Science,

History, and Ethics (2011) excerpt and text search

Williams, Peter. Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II , Free Press,

1989. ISBN 0-02-935301-7 .

The Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working

Group (IWG) —The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).

External links

http://www.archives.gov/iwg/https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0029353017http://www.amazon.com/Japans-Wartime-Medical-Atrocities-Transformations/dp/0415682282/https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415928354https://books.google.com/books?id=y69nhn-9FqcC&printsec=frontcoverhttp://www.repubblica.it/online/cronaca/virustre/fabbrica/fabbrica.htmlhttps://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415932149https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415091055https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0812966538https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0385334966https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0375502319https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0700613838https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4900737399https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253334721https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1565840143


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History of the Unit 731 UNIT 731 information site.

History of Japan's biological weapons program —The Federation of American Scientists

(FAS).

History of United States' biological weapons program —The Federation of American

Scientists (FAS).

Unit 731, Nightmare in Manchuria , a World Justice documentary, Video on YouTube

Unit 731: Auschwitz of the East at the Wayback Machine (archived October 24, 2007)—

AII POW-MIA images.

Army Doctor —a firsthand account by Yuasa Ken.

Theodicy - through the Case of "Unit 731" by Eun Park (2003).

US paid for Japanese human germ warfare data , Australian Broadcasting CorporationNews Online .

Japan's sins of the past by Justin McCurry (2004), The Guardian .

The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731 by Shane Green (2002), The Age .

War Crimes: Never Forget —review of the book Unit 731 by Peter Williams and David

Wallace

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