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8/22/2019 Unit 3- Theories of Leadership
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Unit 3
Leadership theories
Dr.Yogananthan
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Lecture Plan
Leadership theory
a. Trait theory
b. Behavior theory
c. Contingency theory (situation theory)
Substitute Servant
Content & Process theories
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What Is Leadership?LeadershipThe ability to influence a
group toward the
achievement of goals
Management
all actions focused on
accomplishing the tasks in
an organization.
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Effective Leadership andManagement Styles
Personal Check-In: IndividualLeadership Reflection
Think about a leadership experience that
really pleased you, a time when you workedwith others and did a good job of helpingsomething positive or effective occur. It canbe a work experience or a personalexperience.
1. Briefly summarize the situation.
2. What action did you take to make ithappen?
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What is the skills approach toleadership?
A. Robert Katzs researchsurfaced a set of skills forleadership success.
B. Skill 1-Technical skills
involving hands-on activity.C. Skill 2 -Human skillswhich is the ability to workwith people.
-Greatest asset to
have.D. Skill 3 -Conceptual skillshaving ability to work withideas and concepts.
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The Different Views of
LeadershipTrait definition of leadership Process definition of leadership
Leader Leader
Followers Followers
Leadership LeadershipHeight Intelligence Extroversion Fluency Other traits
Interaction
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Trait Theories of leadership
Theories that consider personality,
social, physical, or intellectual traits todifferentiate leaders from non leaders.
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Trait Approach
Traits (Bennis & Nanus, 1985, pp. 152) Logical thinking Persistence Empowerment Self-control
Assumption: Leaders are born Goal: Select leaders Problems
Traits do not generalize across situations Better at predicting leader emergence than leadereffectiveness
Unclear evidence of the cause and effect ofrelationship of leader and traits
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Behavioral Theories
Behavioral Theory
Leadership behaviors can be taught.
vs.
Trait TheoryLeaders are born, not made.
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate
leaders from nonleaders
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Ohio State Studies/University of Michigan(pp.154)
Initiating Structure/Production Orientation Consideration/Employee Orientation
Assumption: Leaders can be trained
Goal: Develop leaders Problem: Effective behaviors do not
generalize across situations.
Behavioral Approach
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Ohio State Studies
Initiating Structure
The extent to which a leader is likely
to define and structure his or her
role and those of subordinates in the
search for goal attainment
Consideration
The extent to which a leader is likely to have job
relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for
subordinates ideas, and regard for his/her feelings
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University of Michigan Studies
Employee-oriented Leader
Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal
interest in the needs of employees and accepting
individual differences among members
Production-oriented Leader
One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of thejob
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Leadership style
Refers to the behavior of leaders towardssubordinates, the manner in which tasks andfunctions of leadership are conducted.
Autocratic style to democratic/participativestyle
Task/Structure orientation Vspeople/interpersonal orientation
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TheManagerial
Grid(Blake and Mouton)
E X H I B I T 121
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Contingency Theories
All Consider the Situation
Fiedler Contingency Model
Houses Path Goal Theory
Assumptions underlying the differentmodels:
Fiedler: Leaders style is fixed.
Others: Leaders style can and should be changed.
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Leader: Style Is Fixed (Task-oriented vs.Relationship- oriented)
Considers Situational Favorableness for Lead
Leader-member relations
Task structure
Position power
Key Assumption
Leader must fit situation; options to accomplish this:
Select leader to fit situation
Change situation to fit leader
Fiedler Model
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Fiedler Model: The Leader
Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC)
Questionnaire
The way in which a leader will evaluate
a co-worker who is not liked will
indicate whether the leader is task- or
relationship-oriented.
Assumption: Leaders style is fixed and can bemeasured by the least preferred co-worker (LPC)questionnaire.
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Fiedler Model: Defining theSituation
Leader-Member RelationsThe degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates
have in their leader
Position Power
Influence derived from ones formal structural position in
the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline,
promote, and give salary increases
Task StructureThe degree to which the job assignments are procedurized
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Findings of the Fiedler Model
Category
Leader-Member
Relations
Task Structure
Position Power
I
Good
High
Strong
II
Good
High
Weak
III
Good
Low
Strong
IV
Good
Low
Weak
V
Poor
High
Strong
VI
Poor
High
Weak
VII
Poor
Low
Strong
VIII
Poor
Low
Weak
Good
Poor
Performance
Relationship
-Oriented
Task-Oriented
Favorable Moderate Unfavorable
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Path-Goal Theory
PremiseExpectancy theory of motivation, emphasizing on the
leaders effect on subordinatess goals and the paths used
to achieve those goals.
Flexibility of leader behavior:
Directive behaviors: planning, setting expectations
and clarifying instructions
Suportive behaviors: offering friednly consideration
Participative behaviors: involving subordinates in DM
Achivement-orientated behavior: setting objectives
and expecting them to be achieved.
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Path-Goal Theory
E X H I B I T 124
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What are the major componentsof the Contingency Theories?
A. Contingency theoryidentifies:-Key situational
factors,-Specifies how theyinteract, and
-Determines bestleadership approach.-This is calledsituational leadership.
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Contingency Theories continued
B. Fred Fiedlerdeveloped theContingency Theory.
-Effectivenessdepends on situation.C. Three factors.
-Leader-member
relations.-Task structure.-Leader positionpower.
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Contingency Theories continued
Situational leadership isbuild upon thecontingency theory, andrefined by Ken Blanchard
in the 1980s. Leadership is composed of
both adirective andsupportive dimension.
Coaching and delegatingwere added to provide fourstyles.
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Contingency Theories continued
D. Path-Goal Theorydeveloped by Evans &House.
-Adapting leadership tothe situation.-Leader can impactperformance of others
by offering paths todesired goals.-Rewards contingent onincreased performance.
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Contingency Theories continued
E. Four leader behaviors:-Directive: gives specificguidance and direction.-Supportive: provides
assistance.-Participative: hand-in-handwith subordinates.-Achievement Oriented: sets
challenging goals and has highexpectations.F. Best style to use is to adapt
to the participativeleadership style.
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Substitute theory
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Substitutes for Leadership
Characteristic
Relationship-Oriented orConsiderateLeaderBehavior isUnnecessary
Task-Oriented orInitiating StructureLeader Behavior isUnnecessary
Of the Subordinate
1. Ability, experience, training, knowledge X
2. Need for Independence X X
3. Professional orientation X X
4. Indifference toward organizational rewards X X
Of the Task
5. Unambiguous and Routine X
6. Methodically invariant X
7. Provides its own feedback concerning
accomplishment X
8. Intrinsically satisfying. X
Substitutes for Leadership (cont)
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Characteristic
Relationship-Oriented orConsiderate
LeaderBehavior isUnnecessary
Task-Oriented orInitiating StructureLeader Behavior is
Unnecessary
Of the Organization
9. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, and areas
of responsibility)
X
10. Inflexibility (rigid, unbending rules and
procedures)
X
11. Highly specified and active advisory and staff
functions
X
12. Closely knit, cohesive work groups X X
13. Organizational rewards not with the leaders
control
X X
14. Spatial distance between superior and
subordinate
X X
Substitutes for Leadership (cont)
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Servant & super leadership theory
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Servant and Superleadership
Servant Leadership represents a philosophy inwhich leaders focus on increased service toothers rather than to oneself.
A superleader is someone who leads others tolead themselves by developing employees self-management skills.
Superleadersattempt to increase employees
feelings of personal control and intrinsicmotivation.
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Characteristics of the Servant-Leader
1. Listening Servant-leaders focus on listening toidentify and clarify the needs and desires ofa group.
2. Empathy Servant-leaders try to empathize withothers feelings and emotion. An individuals
good intentions are assumed even when heor she performs poorly.
3. Healing Servant-leaders strive to make themselvesand others whole in the face of failure orsuffering.
4. Awareness Servant-leaders are very self-aware or theirstrengths and limitations.
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Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued)
5. Persuasion Servant-leaders rely more on persuasionthan positional authority when makingdecisions and trying to influence others.
6. Conceptualization Servant-leaders take the time and effort
to develop broader based conceptualthinking. Servant-leaders seek anappropriate balance between a short-term, day-to-day focus and a long-term,conceptual orientation.
7. Foresight Servant-leaders have the ability to foreseefuture outcomes associated with a currentcourse of action or situation.
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Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued)
8. Stewardship Servant-leaders assume that they arestewards of the people and resources theymanage.
9. Commitment to Servant-leaders are committed to people
the growth of beyond their immediate work role. Theypeople commit to fostering an environment that
encourages personal, professional, andspiritual growth.
10. Building Servant-leaders strive to create a sense ofCommunity community both within and outside the
work organization.
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Continuum theory
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Motivation at Work
Content & Process theories
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Motivation
The force which drives behaviour(pp.48)
DIRECTION - i.e. what a person is trying to do
EFFORT - how hard a person is trying
PERSISTENCE - i.e. how long a person
continues trying
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Theories of motivation
Content theories (pp.49)Two-factor theory ( Hersberg): intrinsic and extrinsic
Types of needs: classification of needs: deficiency versus growth
Hierarchy of needs (e.g. Maslow): ordering of need by relative
priority
Process theoriesExpectancy theory (Vroom; Porter & Lawler): : a rational estimate of
the likely result of their behaviour
Goal theory ( Locke) Equity theory ( Adams)
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Content Theories
1.Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Abraham Maslow(pp.56)
There is a hierarchy of 5 needs---physiological,
safety,social,esteem,& self-actualization---and as
each need is sequentially satisfied,the next needbecomes dominant
review
:1.intuitively logical,ease of understanding,receiving wide recognition, particularly among
practicing managers. 2.little empirical support
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
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1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink,
warmth, sleep, etc.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order,
law, limits, stability, etc.
3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family,affection, relationships, etc.
4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery,
independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerialresponsibility, etc.
5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential,
self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak
experiences.
Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs
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Content Theories
2. ERG theory (Alderfer, pp.58)
There are three groups of core needs: existence,relatedness and growth
Difference:(1) more than one need may be operative atthe same time,(2) if the gratification of a higher levelneeds is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower level needincreases
Maslow: a rigid step like progression. ERG:contains afrustration-regression dimension
Several studies have supported the ERG theory:nativesof Spain & Japan place social needs before their
physiological requirements
C t t Th
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48
Content Theory
3.McClellands Acquired Needs Theory
Acquired needs theory. Developed by David McClelland.
Three needs achievement, affiliation, and
power are acquired over time, as a result ofexperiences.
Managers should learn to identify these needsand then create work environments that are
responsive to them.
Content Theory
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49
Content Theory
3.McClellands Acquired Needs Theory
Need for achievement. The desire to do something better or more
efficiently, to solve problems, or to master
complex tasks. High need for achievement people:
Prefer individual responsibilities.
Prefer challenging goals.
Prefer performance feedback.
Content Theory
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50
Content Theory
3.McClellands Acquired Needs Theory
Need for affiliation.
The desire to establish and maintain friendly and
warm relations with others. High need for affiliation people:
Are drawn to interpersonal relationships.
Seek opportunities for communication.
Content Theory
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51
Content Theory
3.McClellands Acquired Needs Theory
Need for power.
The desire to control others, to influence their
behavior, or to be responsible for others.
High need for for power people:
Seek influence over others.
Like attention.
Like recognition.
Content Theory
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52
Content Theory
3.McClellands Acquired Needs Theory
Research evidence on acquired needs theory.
Identification of the need profiles that are
required for success in different types of jobs.
People can be trained to develop the need for
achievement, particularly in developing nations.
Content Theories
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53
Content Theories
4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Developed by Frederick Herzberg.
Also known as Two Factor theory.
Portrays two different factors hygiene factors
and motivator factors as the primary causes
of job dissatisfaction and job satisfaction.
Content Theories
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54
Content Theories
4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Hygiene factors. (Mostly Extrinsic)
Sources of job dissatisfaction.
Associated with the job context or work setting.
Improving hygiene factors prevent people from
being dissatisfied but do not contribute to
satisfaction.
Content Theories
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55
Content Theories
4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Motivator factors. (Mostly Intrinsic) Sources of job satisfaction.
Associated with the job content.
Building motivator factors into the job enablespeople to be satisfied.
Absence of motivator factors in the job results inlow satisfaction, low motivation, and low
performance.
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Content Theories
4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory
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Not specific about what behaviours and rewards
satisfy which needs.
Neglect the impact of the social context on
peoples interpretation of their needs.
People do not necessarily strive to move up the
hierarchy - at least, not through their work.
How to define needs?
Problems with Content Theories
P Th i
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Process Theories
1. Vrooms Expectancy Theory(1964) pp.51
Motivation ( M)=Expectation (E) x Valence
Where: Expectancy - If I tried would I be able to
perform the action?
Valence - How much do I value those
outcomes?
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Process Theories
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Process Theories
2. Goal-setting Theory (Locke,pp.51)
A goal is a target level of performanceIf a goal is: difficult
specific
And if a person: accepts the goal
feels committed to it
gets feedback on their progress
Then their performance improves because:
their behaviour is focused
they try hard
they keep trying
they develop strategies
SLIDE 9 19
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SLIDE 9.19
S li i i G l
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Some live issues in Goal-
Setting How to enhance goal commitment (participative?)
Who defines challenging?
Conflict between goalsIndividual v. group
Competing personal goals
Goals set Vs dynamic environment
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Process theories3.Equity theory (Adams, 1963, pp.65)
Individuals compare their job inputs & outcomes with
those of others & then respond so as to eliminate any
inequities
Minor qualifications:
1. people have a great deal more tolerance of
overpayment inequities than of underpayment
inequities.2. not all people are equity sensitive,such as benevolent
types
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Process theory3.Equity theory
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Motivation and Job Design
Hackman and Oldham (1980, pp.73)
Motivation through design of work.
Five Core Job Dimensions
1. Skill Variety
2. Task Identity
3. Task Significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
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S h t d ll th th i dd t ?
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Sowhat do all these theories add up to?
1. Successful work performance can arise from manydifferent needs/motives.
2. People need to believe they can perform effectively if
they try.
3. The rewards for good performance should actually be
desired by the people concerned.
4. What constitutes good performance should be clearly
defined.
5. People need feedback on their performance.
6. Peoples values and identity matter.
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Reference
Stephen Covey, 7 habits of highly effective people,Ist edition.
Ronald D. Snee, Develop leadership skills, Tunnell
Consulting, Roanoke, VA, 2002. Julian Lapiton, Principles of leadership and
management, IRRI,web article-ppts.
Doan Xuan Huy Minh, Lecture on leadership,
motivation & problem solving.
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Any questions..!!!!!!!