Leadership Leadership TheoriesTheories

““Trust men and they will be true to Trust men and they will be true to you; treat them greatly and they will you; treat them greatly and they will show themselves to be great.”show themselves to be great.”

Ralph Waldo EmersonRalph Waldo Emerson

Leadership Models Leadership Models

Model One: authoritarian, Model One: authoritarian, democratic or laissez-fairedemocratic or laissez-faire

Model Two: task vs interpersonalModel Two: task vs interpersonal

AuthoritarianAuthoritarian

A style of leadership in which the A style of leadership in which the leader uses strong, directive, leader uses strong, directive, controlling actions to enforce the controlling actions to enforce the rules, regulations, activities and rules, regulations, activities and relationships in the work relationships in the work environment.environment.

Organizational Behavior, Nelson & QuickOrganizational Behavior, Nelson & Quick

Authoritarian Authoritarian Sets goals individuallySets goals individually Engages primarily in one-way, downward Engages primarily in one-way, downward

communicationcommunication Controls discussions of followersControls discussions of followers Sets policy and procedures unilaterally Sets policy and procedures unilaterally Dominates interactionDominates interaction Personally directs the completion of tasksPersonally directs the completion of tasks Provides infrequent positive feedbackProvides infrequent positive feedback Rewards obedience and punishes mistakesRewards obedience and punishes mistakes Exhibits poor listening skillsExhibits poor listening skills Uses conflict for personal gainUses conflict for personal gain

DemocraticDemocratic

A style of leadership in which the A style of leadership in which the leaders takes collaborative, leaders takes collaborative, responsive, interactive actions with responsive, interactive actions with followers concerning the work and the followers concerning the work and the work environment.work environment.

Organizational Behavior, Nelson & QuickOrganizational Behavior, Nelson & Quick

DemocraticDemocratic Involves followers in setting goalsInvolves followers in setting goals Engages in two-way, open communicationEngages in two-way, open communication Facilitates discussion with followersFacilitates discussion with followers Solicits input regarding determination of policy Solicits input regarding determination of policy

and proceduresand procedures Focuses interactionFocuses interaction Provides suggestions and alternatives for the Provides suggestions and alternatives for the

completion of taskscompletion of tasks Provides frequent positive feedbackProvides frequent positive feedback Rewards good work and uses punishment only as Rewards good work and uses punishment only as

a last resorta last resort Exhibits effective listening skillsExhibits effective listening skills Mediates conflict for group gainMediates conflict for group gain

Laissez-Faire Laissez-Faire (“leave them alone”)(“leave them alone”)

A style of leadership in which the A style of leadership in which the leader fails to accept the leader fails to accept the responsibilities of the position.responsibilities of the position.

Organizational Behavior, Nelson & QuickOrganizational Behavior, Nelson & Quick

Laissez-FaireLaissez-Faire Allows followers free rein to set their own goalsAllows followers free rein to set their own goals Engages in noncommittal, superficial communicationEngages in noncommittal, superficial communication Avoids discussion with followers to set policy and Avoids discussion with followers to set policy and

proceduresprocedures Avoids interactionAvoids interaction Provides suggestions and alternatives for the Provides suggestions and alternatives for the

completion of tasks only when asked to do so by completion of tasks only when asked to do so by followersfollowers

Provides infrequent feedback of any kindProvides infrequent feedback of any kind Avoids offering rewards or punishmentsAvoids offering rewards or punishments May exhibit either poor or effective listening skillsMay exhibit either poor or effective listening skills Avoids conflictAvoids conflict

Interpersonal Interpersonal OrientationOrientation

Solicits opinionsSolicits opinions Recognizes the positions, ideas, and feelings of Recognizes the positions, ideas, and feelings of

othersothers Engages in flexible, open communicationEngages in flexible, open communication Listens carefully to othersListens carefully to others Makes requestsMakes requests Focuses on feelings, emotions, and attitudes as Focuses on feelings, emotions, and attitudes as

they relate to personal needsthey relate to personal needs Emphasizes productivity through the acquisition Emphasizes productivity through the acquisition

of personal skillsof personal skills Most often communicates orallyMost often communicates orally Maintains an “open door” policyMaintains an “open door” policy

Task OrientationTask Orientation Disseminates informationDisseminates information Ignores the positions, ideas and feelings of Ignores the positions, ideas and feelings of

othersothers Engages in rigid, stylized communicationEngages in rigid, stylized communication Interrupts othersInterrupts others Makes demandsMakes demands Focuses on facts, data and information as they Focuses on facts, data and information as they

relate to tasksrelate to tasks Emphasizes productivity through the acquisition Emphasizes productivity through the acquisition

of technical skillsof technical skills Most of the time communicates in writingMost of the time communicates in writing Maintains a “closed door” policyMaintains a “closed door” policy

Studies that Identified Studies that Identified Communication Patterns of Communication Patterns of

LeadersLeaders The Michigan Leadership StudiesThe Michigan Leadership Studies The Ohio State Leadership StudiesThe Ohio State Leadership Studies McGregor’s Theory X and Theory YMcGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Blake and McCanse’s Leadership Blake and McCanse’s Leadership

GridGrid

The Michigan Leadership The Michigan Leadership StudyStudy

Conducted shortly after WWIIConducted shortly after WWII One dimensional One dimensional Identified two basic leadership Identified two basic leadership

styles:styles: Production orientedProduction oriented Employee orientedEmployee oriented

A building block for newer A building block for newer leadership studiesleadership studies

Ohio State Leadership Ohio State Leadership StudiesStudies

After WWIIAfter WWII Measured specific leader behaviorsMeasured specific leader behaviors Identified two dimensionsIdentified two dimensions

ConsiderationConsideration Initiating StructureInitiating Structure

A leader could possess varying A leader could possess varying amounts of both dimensionsamounts of both dimensions

Theory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor, MIT ProfessorDouglas McGregor, MIT Professor Identified two approaches to Identified two approaches to

supervision:supervision: Theory X: These managers think people Theory X: These managers think people

do not like to work and like strict do not like to work and like strict supervision. supervision.

Theory Y: These managers think work Theory Y: These managers think work is a source of satisfaction and want the is a source of satisfaction and want the responsibility.responsibility.

Theory X Theory X

People don’t like to work and will avoid People don’t like to work and will avoid

it.it. People do not have ambition and want to People do not have ambition and want to

be led or controlled.be led or controlled. The threat of punishment makes them The threat of punishment makes them

work.work. People do not want responsibility.People do not want responsibility. People are resistant to change.People are resistant to change. People are gullible and not very smart.People are gullible and not very smart.

Theory YTheory Y

The average person does not The average person does not inherently dislike work. inherently dislike work.

People will exercise self-direction and People will exercise self-direction and self control in the performance of self control in the performance of their jobs.their jobs.

The average person learns under The average person learns under proper circumstances not only to proper circumstances not only to accept to but to seek responsibility.accept to but to seek responsibility.

The proper leadership can bring out The proper leadership can bring out these qualities in workers.these qualities in workers.

Blake and McCanse’s Blake and McCanse’s Leadership GridLeadership Grid

Has also been called the Managerial Has also been called the Managerial GridGrid

Focuses communication stylesFocuses communication styles 1,1 Impoverished Mgt1,1 Impoverished Mgt 9,1 Authority-Compliance9,1 Authority-Compliance 5,5 Middle of the Road Management5,5 Middle of the Road Management 1,9 Country Club Management1,9 Country Club Management 9,9 Team Management9,9 Team Management

Traits Approach to Traits Approach to LeadershipLeadership

Born with leadership traitsBorn with leadership traits Not sure what those characteristics were:Not sure what those characteristics were:

HeightHeight WeightWeight AppearanceAppearance IntelligenceIntelligence DispositionDisposition

Inconsistent findingsInconsistent findings Certain traits may enhance the perception Certain traits may enhance the perception

that somebody is a leaderthat somebody is a leader

Trait ApproachTrait Approach Situational ApproachesSituational Approaches

Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Fiedler’s Contingency Model of LeadershipLeadership

Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational

Leadership TheoryLeadership Theory Leader-Member Exchange TheoryLeader-Member Exchange Theory

ResearchResearch Interpersonal FactorsInterpersonal Factors

Emotional stabilityEmotional stability Self confidenceSelf confidence Manage conflictManage conflict

Cognitive FactorsCognitive Factors Intelligence>problem solving and Intelligence>problem solving and

decision makingdecision making Administrative FactorsAdministrative Factors

Planning and organizational skillsPlanning and organizational skills Knowledge of work being performedKnowledge of work being performed

Situational Approaches to Situational Approaches to Leadership StudyLeadership Study

Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Fiedler’s Contingency Model of LeadershipLeadership

Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational

Leadership TheoryLeadership Theory Leader-Member Exchange TheoryLeader-Member Exchange Theory

Fiedler’s Contingency Fiedler’s Contingency ModelModel

Least Preferred Co-Worker Least Preferred Co-Worker Leader Situation has 3 dimensions:Leader Situation has 3 dimensions:

Position PowerPosition Power Task StructureTask Structure Leader-Member RelationsLeader-Member Relations

Leader effectiveness in a given Leader effectiveness in a given situation is affected by their LPC situation is affected by their LPC score.score.

Criticism of the theoryCriticism of the theory

Path Goal TheoryPath Goal Theory Based on expectancy theoryBased on expectancy theory Motivate followers through Motivate followers through

communication and situations. communication and situations. Communication styles are:Communication styles are: Directive LeadershipDirective Leadership Supportive LeadershipSupportive Leadership Participative LeadershipParticipative Leadership Achievement-oriented Leadership Achievement-oriented Leadership

Situational Factors: Situational Factors: Nature of FollowersNature of Followers Nature of TasksNature of Tasks

Leader Roles in the Path-Leader Roles in the Path-Goal ModelGoal Model

Path ClarificationPath Clarification Leader defines what follower needs to Leader defines what follower needs to

do to gain outcomesdo to gain outcomes Leader clarifies follower’s work rolesLeader clarifies follower’s work roles Follower gains knowledge and Follower gains knowledge and

confidenceconfidence Follower is motivated and shows Follower is motivated and shows

increased effortincreased effort Organizational goals are achievedOrganizational goals are achieved

Leader Roles in the Path-Leader Roles in the Path-Goal ModelGoal Model

Increase rewardsIncrease rewards Leader finds out about follower’s needsLeader finds out about follower’s needs Leader matches follower’s needs to

rewards if work outcomes are accomplished

Leader increases value of work outcomes for follower

Follower is motivated and shows Follower is motivated and shows increased effortincreased effort

Organizational goals are achievedOrganizational goals are achieved

Situational Leadership Situational Leadership TheoryTheory

Hersey and Blanchard say the level of Hersey and Blanchard say the level of maturity of a worker plays a role in maturity of a worker plays a role in leadership behaviorleadership behavior

Maturity consists of:Maturity consists of: Job maturity – talks-related abilities, Job maturity – talks-related abilities,

skills and knowledgeskills and knowledge Psychological maturity – feelings of Psychological maturity – feelings of

confidence, willingness and motivationconfidence, willingness and motivation Follower readinessFollower readiness Leader behaviorLeader behavior

Situational Leadership Situational Leadership TheoryTheory

Leader Member Exchange Leader Member Exchange (LMX)(LMX)

How leaders develop relationships How leaders develop relationships with followerswith followers In groupIn group Out groupOut group

SatisfactionSatisfaction StressStress Work loadWork load

Functional Approach to Functional Approach to LeadershipLeadership

Ability to communicate like a leader Ability to communicate like a leader determines leadershipdetermines leadership

TheoriesTheories BarnardBarnard Benne and SheatsBenne and Sheats

The Vroom-Jago The Vroom-Jago Contingency ModelContingency Model

A contingency model that focuses on A contingency model that focuses on varying degrees of participative varying degrees of participative leadership, and how each level of leadership, and how each level of participation influences quality and participation influences quality and accountability of decisions. accountability of decisions.

Five Leader Decision Five Leader Decision StylesStyles

Leader decidesLeader decides Leader consults individualsLeader consults individuals Leader consults the groupLeader consults the group Leader acts as a facilitator for the Leader acts as a facilitator for the

groupgroup Leader delegates decision to the Leader delegates decision to the

groupgroup

Diagnostic QuestionsDiagnostic Questions Decision significanceDecision significance

How significant is this decision for the project How significant is this decision for the project or organization?or organization?

Importance of commitmentImportance of commitment How important is subordinate commitment to How important is subordinate commitment to

carrying out the decision?carrying out the decision? Leader expertiseLeader expertise

What is the level of the leader’s expertise in What is the level of the leader’s expertise in relation to the problem?relation to the problem?

Likelihood of commitmentLikelihood of commitment If the leader were to make the decision alone, If the leader were to make the decision alone,

would subordinates have high or low would subordinates have high or low commitment?commitment?

Diagnostic QuestionsDiagnostic Questions

Group support for goalsGroup support for goals What is the degree of subordinate support for What is the degree of subordinate support for

the team’s or organization’s objectives at stake the team’s or organization’s objectives at stake in this decision? in this decision?

Goal expertiseGoal expertise What is the level of group members’ knowledge What is the level of group members’ knowledge

and expertise in relation to the problem?and expertise in relation to the problem? Team ConsequenceTeam Consequence

How skilled and committed are group members How skilled and committed are group members to working together as a team to solve to working together as a team to solve problems?problems?

ReferencesReferences

Debra L. Nelson and James Campbell Debra L. Nelson and James Campbell Quick, Quick, Organizational BehaviorOrganizational Behavior (Ohio: (Ohio: Thomson, 2006) 148-177.Thomson, 2006) 148-177.

Michael Z. Hackman and Craig E. Michael Z. Hackman and Craig E. Johnson, Johnson, LeadershipLeadership (Illinois: (Illinois: Waveland Press, 2004) 35-87.Waveland Press, 2004) 35-87.

Richard L. Daft, Richard L. Daft, The Leadership The Leadership Experience Experience (Ohio, Thomson, 2008) 45-(Ohio, Thomson, 2008) 45-71.71.