Understanding Brittle Deformation at the Olkiluoto …POSIVA OY FI-27160 OLKILUOTO, FINLAND Tel +358-2-8372 31 Fax +358-2-8372 3709 Alan Geoffrey Millnes July 2006 Working Report 2006-25

P O S I V A O Y

FI -27160 OLKILUOTO, F INLAND

Tel +358-2-8372 31

Fax +358-2-8372 3709

Alan Geof f rey M i l l nes

Ju ly 2006

Work ing Repor t 2006 -25

Understanding Brittle Deformationat the Olkiluoto SiteLiterature Compilation for

Site Characterization and Geological Modelling

Ju ly 2006

Working Reports contain information on work in progress

or pending completion.

The conclusions and viewpoints presented in the report

are those of author(s) and do not necessarily

coincide with those of Posiva.

Alan Geoff rey Mi lnes

GEA Consu l t i ng

Work ing Report 2006 -25

Understanding Brittle Deformationat the Olkiluoto SiteLiterature Compilation for

Site Characterization and Geological Modelling

UNDERSTANDING BRITTLE DEFORMATION AT THE OLKILUOTO SITE

LITERATURE COMPILATION FOR SITE CHARACTERIZATION AND

GEOLOGICAL MODELLING

ABSTRACT

The present report arose from the belief that geological modelling at Olkiluoto, Finland,

where an underground repository for spent nuclear fuel is at present under construction,

could be significantly improved by an increased understanding of the phenomena being

modelled, in conjunction with the more sophisticated data acquisition and processing

methods which are now being introduced. Since the geological model is the necessary

basis for the rock engineering and hydrological models, which in turn provide the

foundation for identifying suitable rock volumes underground and for demonstrating long-

term safety, its scientific basis is of critical importance. As a contribution to improving this

scientific basis, the literature on brittle deformation in the Earth's crust has been reviewed,

and key references chosen and arranged, with the particular geology of the Olkiluoto site in

mind. The result is a compilation of scientific articles, reports and books on some of the

key topics, which are of significance for an improved understanding of brittle deformation

of hard, crystalline rocks, such as those typical for Olkiluoto.

The report is subdivided into six Chapters, covering (1) background information, (2)

important aspects of the fabric of intact rock, (3) fracture mechanics and brittle

microtectonics, (4) fracture data acquisition and processing, for the statistical

characterisation and modelling of fracture systems, (5) the characterisation of brittle

deformation zones for deterministic modelling, and (6) the regional geological framework

of the Olkiluoto site. The Chapters are subdivided into a number of Sections, and each

Section into a number of Topics. The citations are mainly collected under each Topic,

embedded in a short explanatory text or listed chronologically without comment. The

systematic arrangement of Chapters, Sections and Topics is such that the Table of Contents

can be used to focus quickly on the theme of interest without the necessity of looking

through the whole report. In the Bibliography at the end of the report, which contains some

1200 references, each citation is listed once, according to normal bibliographic rules,

whereas in the main text it may appear at several places, under different Topics. An

electronic copy of the report is provided to enable the easy preparation of reference lists on

any Topic.

Keywords: scientific literature, bibliography, brittle deformation, crystalline rocks,

Olkiluoto site, Finland, structural geology, fracture systems, fracture zones, fault zones

OLKILUODON ALUEEN KALLIOPERÄN HAURAS DEFORMAATIO

KIRJALLISUUSSELVITYS PAIKKATUTKIMUSTA JA GEOLOGISTA

MALLINNUSTA VARTEN

TIIVISTELMÄ

Olkiluodon kallioperään ollaan tällä hetkellä rakentamassa maanalaista tutkimustilaa käy-

tetyn ydinpolttoaineen loppusijoitusta silmällä pitäen. Geologinen malli on tärkeä lähtö-

kohta kalliomekaanisille ja hydrologisille malleille, jotka puolestaan luovat pohjan loppu-

sijoitustiloille sopivien kalliotilavuuksien tunnistamiselle sekä vaikuttavat pitkäaikaistur-

vallisuuteen liittyvien analyysien tekoon; näin ollen geologisella mallilla on oltava vankka

tieteellinen pohja. Tämä raportti kehittyi ajatuksesta, että kehittämällä mallinnettavien ilmi-

öiden taustan perusteellista ymmärtämistä yhdessä kehittyneiden tiedonhankinta- sekä kä-

sittelymenetelmien kanssa olisi myös mahdollista parantaa Olkiluodon geologiseen malliin

liittyvää tieteellisyyttä. Sen vuoksi tässä raportissa on pyritty antamaan kattava selvitys

hauraaseen deformaatioon liittyvän kirjallisuuden nykytilanteesta ja tärkeimmät kirjalli-

suuslähteet on valittu ja järjestelty nimenomaan Olkiluodon geologiaa ajatellen. Tuloksena

on selvitys tärkeimmistä tieteellisistä artikkeleista, raporteista ja kirjoista, jotka liittyvät Ol-

kiluodolle tyypillisten kiteisten kivien hauraaseen deformaation.

Raportti on jaettu kuuteen lukuun, jotka kattavat seuraavat aihealueet: (1) hauraan defor-

maation perusteet, (2) ehjän kiven kutous, (3) rakomekaniikka ja hauras mikrotektoniikka,

(4) rakoaineiston hankinta ja käsittely rakosysteemien tilastollista mallinnusta varten, (5)

hauraiden deformaatiovyöhykkeiden karakterisointi determinististä mallinnusta varten sekä

(6) alueellinen geologia. Raportin luvut on jaettu kappaleisiin ja jokainen kappale edelleen

eri aihepiireihin. Viittaukset on esitetty pääasiassa jokaisen aihepiirin yhteydessä, liitettynä

joko lyhyeen selitystekstiin tai listattuna kronologisesti ilman kommentteja. Raportin luvut,

kappaleet ja aihepiirit on järjestetty systemaattisesti siten, että lukijaa kiinnostava aihealue

löytyy helposti sisällysluettelosta; raporttia ei siis tarvitse selata kokonaisuudessaan läpi

aihealueen löytämiseksi. Kirjallisuusluettelossa raportin lopussa on esitetty yhteensä noin

1200 viittausta normaalien bibliografisten sääntöjen mukaisesti – jokaisen lähteeseen on

viitattu vain kerran. Päätekstissä yksittäinen viite saattaa sen sijaan esiintyä useammin kuin

kerran, eri aihepiireihin liittyen. Raportin teksti on lisäksi liitetty raportin oheen digitaalisen

kopiona CD:llä, jotta lukijan olisi helppo koota oma kirjallisuusluettelonsa mistä tahansa

raportin aihepiiristä.

Asiasanat: tieteellinen kirjallisuus, bibliografia, hauras deformaatio, kiteisen kivet, Olki-

luoto, Suomi, rakennegeologia, rakosysteemit, rakovyöhykkeet, siirrosvyöhykkeet

PREFACE

Geological modelling is a fundamental activity in most areas of applied geology where the

target is an underground rock volume, be it for exploration and exploitation of oil and gas,

estimation of groundwater resources, development of geothermal energy fields, disposal of

high-level nuclear waste, or a host of other enterprises. In practically all cases, the most

important geological control on the short-term and long-term behaviour of the rock volume

of interest is the occurrence and spatial distribution of fractures, fracture systems and faults,

i.e. on the natural brittle deformation of the bedrock at the site. In fact, geological

modelling is very often regarded as synonymous with the development of a synthetic 3D

picture of the rock fracturing, although the term also covers other types of discontinuity,

such as lithological boundaries. Since rock fracturing is notoriously complicated and often

quite unsystematic, geological modelling as a discipline remained largely qualitative until

the development of sufficiently powerful computers in the 1980s, when quantitative

numerical methods could be developed. This led to an enormous upswing of interest in

natural brittle deformation in applied geology, and, at the universities, structural geology

teaching and research became correspondingly more focussed on understanding rock

fracture, which had up to then been treated rather perfunctorily.

This surge of interest in the collection and analysis of data on the effects of brittle rock

deformation, coupled with modern data processing and visualisation techniques, has led,

however, to a general overemphasis of quantification at the expense of understanding. In

many cases, fractures are treated as geometrical elements of given sizes, shapes and

orientations within a volume of rock which has been very poorly sampled (e.g. from a few

drillholes) and/or only investigated using remote methods (e.g. geophysical probing) which

are indirect and poorly validated. In many modelling reports, it seems to be of little interest

what types of fractures occur and how they formed, whether they are all of the same age,

how small-scale structures, treated stochastically, relate to large-scale, deterministic

features, etc. In other words, the "geology" of the fracturing, in many cases, is hardly

considered in the construction of the models, and the implication seems to be that

"understanding" the phenomenon being modelled is not really necessary in the face of

sophisticated numerical processing and geophysical techniques.

The present report arose from the belief that geological modelling at the Olkiluoto site

could be significantly improved by an increased understanding of the phenomena being

modelled, in conjunction with the more sophisticated data acquisition and processing

methods which are now being introduced. Since the geological model is the necessary

basis for the rock engineering and hydrological models, which in turn provide the

foundation for identifying suitable rock volumes underground and for demonstrating long-

term safety, its scientific basis is of critical importance.

As a contribution to improving this scientific basis, the literature on brittle deformation in

the Earth's crust has been reviewed, and key references chosen and arranged, with the

particular geology of the Olkiluoto site in mind. The result is a compilation of scientific

articles, reports and books on some of the key topics which are of significance for an

improved understanding of brittle deformation of hard, crystalline rocks, such as those

typical for Olkiluoto. The scientific and technical literature on this subject is, of course,

immense, and cannot be digested by a single person, let alone be presented in its entirety in

a single report. The literature collected in this report is above all a personal selection, based

on material acquired during a long teaching and consulting career, and “looked through”, if

not always studied in detail, during frequent browsing sessions in physical and virtual

libraries. The aim of this report is not to give a rigorous and complete overview, but rather

to provide pointers towards some key sources of information. It is hoped, thereby, that the

interested reader will be guided towards a convenient "entry into the literature", from where

he himself or she herself can start a more detailed search. For this reason, an important

criterion for including a particular reference has been a judgement of scientific quality and

ease of access. In the case of scientific papers, this means taking references mainly from

international, peer-reviewed journals, wherever possible. The reference lists in the most

recent of these papers give the reader immediate access to a more expert assessment of the

most important literature on that particular topic, with a more complete coverage than is

found in the present report. This is a “preliminary” report in the sense that time was

insufficient to digest the recent literature collected under many of the topics. Therefore,

only some of the topics are accompanied by explanatory texts in which the different works

cited are placed in their historical and/or thematical context. The rest remain, for the

moment, as mere lists of references, waiting to be chewed over and digested.

The report is subdivided into six Chapters, covering (1) background information, (2)

important aspects of the fabric of intact rock, (3) fracture mechanics and brittle

microtectonics, (4) fracture data acquisition and processing, for the statistical

characterisation and modelling of fracture systems, (5) the characterisation of brittle

deformation zones for deterministic modelling, and (6) the regional geological framework

of the Olkiluoto site. The Chapters are subdivided into a number of Sections, and each

Section into a number of Topics. The citations are mainly collected under each Topic,

embedded in a short explanatory text or listed chronologically without comment. The

systematic arrangement of Chapters, Sections and Topics is such that the Table of Contents

can be used to focus quickly on the theme of interest without the necessity of looking

through the whole report. In the Bibliography at the end of the report, which contains some

1200 references, each citation is listed once, according to normal bibliographic rules,

whereas in the main text it may appear at several places, under different Topics. An

electronic copy of the report is provided to enable the easy preparation of reference lists on

any Topic.

The work of compiling this background material in a usable form has been performed under

contract to Posiva Oy. The contact person at Posiva Oy has been Jussi Mattila, and I would

like to thank both him and Liisa Wikström for their interest in the project and for many

discussions along the way. Thanks are also due to Seppo Paulamäki of the Geological

Survey of Finland for reviewing the report and providing useful comments, as well as a

number of important additions, particularly to Chapters 2 and 6.

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

TIIVISTELMÄ

PREFACE

1 ROCK DEFORMATION: BASIC PRINCIPLES....................................................... 5 1.1.2 Brittle Tectonics....................................................................................... 6

2. FABRIC OF INTACT ROCK ................................................................................. 11 2.1 Tectonites and Tectonite Fabric Analysis ..................................................... 11

2.1.1 Description and Analysis of Tectonite Complexes ................................ 12 2.1.2 Foliation (and Lineation)........................................................................ 12 2.1.3 Structural Relations in Ductile Shear Zones ......................................... 13

2.2 Migmatization and Magmatism ..................................................................... 15 2.2.1 “Migma-Magma”.................................................................................... 17 2.2.2 Migmatites and Migmatite Fabrics ........................................................ 17 2.2.3 Felsic Magmatic Veining ....................................................................... 18

2.3 “Fault Rocks” (Rocks Formed in Ductile and Semi-Brittle Deformation Zones) 18 2.3.1 General - Terminology, Classification, Genesis .................................... 18 2.3.2 Mylonites ............................................................................................... 20 2.3.3 Cataclasites........................................................................................... 21 2.3.4 Pseudotachylite..................................................................................... 21

2.4 Rock Anisotropy in Rock Engineering and Geophysics ................................ 22 2.4.1 Effect of Anisotropy on Rock Strength and Deformation Behaviour ..... 22 2.4.2 Anisotropy and Rock Stress; Effect of Anisotropy on in Situ Stress

Estimation ............................................................................................. 22 2.4.3 Effect Of Anisotropy on Thermal Properties.......................................... 23 2.4.4 Propagation Of Seismic Waves In Anisotropic Media........................... 23

3 BRITTLE DEFORMATION IN EXPERIMENT AND NATURE .............................. 25 3.1 Fracture Mechanics ...................................................................................... 25

3.1.1 Opening Crack Propagation (Rupture Mode 1)..................................... 26 3.1.2 Shear Rupture (Rupture Modes II and III) ............................................ 26 3.1.3 Frictional Slip......................................................................................... 27

3.2 Brittle Microtectonics..................................................................................... 27 3.2.1 General Background and Terminology ....................................................... 29 3.2.2 Extension Joints.......................................................................................... 30 3.2.3 “Shear Joints” ............................................................................................. 31 3.2.4 Single-Plane Faults and Related Features ........................................... 32 3.2.5 Mineral Veins, Mineralized Joints, Wall-Rock Alteration, Etc. ............... 32

3.3 Incohesive Fault Products (Gouge, Etc.) ........................................................... 33

4 FRACTURE DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING...................................... 35 4.1 Fracture Parameters ..................................................................................... 35

4.1.1 Fracture Orientation and the Definition of Fracture Sets....................... 36 4.1.2 Fracture Size and Size Distribution of Fracture Sets ............................ 37 4.1.3 Degree of Fracturing ............................................................................. 38 4.1.4 Spatial Distribution of Fractures, Connectivity ...................................... 39 4.1.5 Fracture and Fracture-Mineral Chronology ........................................... 39

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4.2 Fracture Data Acquisition .................................................................................. 40 4.2.1 Basic Principles of Linear and Areal Sampling ..................................... 40 4.2.2 Fracture Logging of Cored Drillholes .................................................... 41 4.2.3 Optical and Geophysical Fracture Logging Techniques, Petrophysics. 41 4.2.4 Scanline Logging of Rock Exposures ................................................... 42 4.2.5 Areal Sampling - Fracture Trace Mapping (Outcrop-Trench-Tunnel) ... 42

4.3 Fracture System Characterisation, Analysis and Modelling.......................... 45 4.3.1 Rock Quality, Rock Mass Classification, Stability Modelling for Rock

Engineering ........................................................................................... 45 4.3.2 Discrete Fracture Network (Dfn) Modelling ........................................... 46 4.3.3 Bulk Properties of Averagely Fractured Rock Masses.......................... 47

4.5 Rock Mass Stability....................................................................................... 48 4.5.1 Crustal Response to Plate Motion and Glacial Loading/Unloading....... 51 4.5.2 Effect Of Seismic Activity on Underground Excavations....................... 51 4.5.3 Rock Mass Response to Underground Excavation (Edz) ..................... 51 4.5.4 Rock Mass Response to Fluid Pressure and Fracture Fluid Response to

Rock Stress (Coupled Hydromechanical Processes) ........................... 51

5 BRITTLE DEFORMATION ZONES (FRACTURE ZONES).................................. 53 5.1 Terminology and Classification of Deformation Zones ................................. 53 5.2 Fault Zone Geometry and Kinematics ............................................................... 56

5.2.1 Fault Parameters (Slip, Displacement, Thickness), .................................... 57 5.2.2 Spatial Variations In Fault Geometry (“Faults In The Real World”) ....... 58 5.2.3 Fault Slip Analysis................................................................................. 60

5.3 Fault Zone Characterization.......................................................................... 60 5.3.1 Fault Zone Architecture......................................................................... 61 5.3.2 Composite Deformation Zones ............................................................. 62 5.3.3 Properties of Fault Zones and Fault Zone Materials ............................. 64

5.4 Fracture Zones in Crystalline Bedrock: Site Characterisation in Finland, Sweden and Canada .................................................................................... 64

5.4.1 Surface-Based Studies (Surface and Borehole Geology and Geophysics), without Tunnel Control .................................................... 65

5.4.2 Subsurface Studies and Programmes in Underground Rock Laboratories.......................................................................................................... 66 5.4.3 Structural Modelling (Extrapolation, Correlation, Visualisation of

Deterministic Fracture Zones)............................................................... 68 5.5 Characterization of Fault Populations................................................................ 68

5.5.1 Orientation - Andersonian Approach (Plane Strain).............................. 69 5.5.2 Orientation - Reches-Krantz Approach (General 3d Strain).................. 70 5.5.3 Size - Scaling Properties of Fault Populations ...................................... 70

5.6 Dynamics of Faulting ......................................................................................... 70 5.6.1 Mechanics of Faulting - General, Reviews............................................ 70 5.6.2 Fault Formation (Shear Rupture, Post-Yield Fracture Mechanics) - Birth,

Growth, Propagation, Linkage, Death ................................................... 70 5.6.3 Fault Movement and Reactivation (Fault-Slip Behaviour, Dilatancy,

Shear Heating, Etc.).............................................................................. 70 5.6.4 Surface and Near-Surface Expression of Seismically Active Faults ..... 71 5.6.5 Seismotectonics; Seismicity and Crustal Stress; Focal Mechanisms

(Fault-Plane Solutions).......................................................................... 71 5.6.6 Faulting, Seismicity and Fluid Flow (Role of Fluids in Faulting, Effects of

Faulting/Seismicity on Fluid Flow)......................................................... 71

3

6 REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE OLKILUOTO SITE ............. 73 6.1 Deep Structure of the Fennoscandian Craton .............................................. 73

6.1.1 Geophysical Studies ............................................................................. 73 6.1.2 Petrographic and Geochemical Studies................................................ 73

6.2 Geological Descriptions and Interpretations - the Svecokarelian Orogeny (1910-1750 Ma)........................................................................................................... 75

6.2.1 General: Syntheses and Models ........................................................... 75 6.2.2 Southwest Finland................................................................................. 75 6.2.3 Eastern Sweden.................................................................................... 75

6.3 Geological Description and Interpretations - Post-Svecokarelian Events (Post-Migmatitic, Mainly Post-1750 Ma)..................................................................... 75

6.3.1 General ................................................................................................. 75 6.3.2 Late Svecokarelian to Post-Svecokarelian Ductile Shear Zones (Post-

Migmatitic Ductile Deformation) ............................................................ 75 6.3.3 Rapakivi Intrusions And Related Features............................................ 75 6.3.4 Faulting, Basin Formation, Vertical Movement (Late Precambrian- Phanerozoic, But Pre-Glacial)............................................................................... 76

6.4 Pleistocene Glacio-Tectonics........................................................................ 76 6.4.1 Pleistocene History, Ice Sheet Reconstructions, Future Glaciations .... 76 6.4.2 Glacio-Isostasy...................................................................................... 76 6.4.3 Deglaciation Seismotectonics ............................................................... 76 6.4.4 Post-Glacial Faulting and Paleoseismicity (Geological Evidence) ........ 77

6.5 Stress and Crustal Dynamics in Fennoscandia ............................................ 78 6.5.1 Intraplate Tectonics............................................................................... 78 6.5.2 In Situ Stress......................................................................................... 78 6.5.3 Sesimicity And Seismotectonics ........................................................... 78 6.5.4 Present-Day Crustal Movements (Gps, Etc.) ........................................ 78 6.5.5 Thermal Regime, Crustal Rheology ...................................................... 79

BIBLIOGRAPHY

4

5

1 ROCK DEFORMATION: BASIC PRINCIPLES

In this chapter, I collect together some of the documents which I have used as the general background for this compilation of key literature on brittle deformation in the Earth's crust, particularly in relation to the Olkilluoto site and the needs of the deep disposal project for spent nuclear fuel in Finland. The documents are collected into two groups, which together provide introductory material to the most basic features of natural rock deformation. The first group (Section 1.1) is simply a list of basic texts and monographs, essentially those which I have found most useful for university courses in structural geology and tectonics, and/or most useful in connection with the application of structural principles to practical geological problems. As in the rest of this report, the selection leans towards the “geological approach”, i.e. the references emphasize basic geological and tectonic principles, and the present-day understanding of the modes of formation of deformation structures and structural associations. However, some works which take a more “practical approach” are added, including some general texts on the nuclear waste disposal in all its aspects.

The second group (Section 1.2) represents the first scientific theme in the report, collecting together a series of classical papers on the basic principles of rock deformation from a geological point of view. The main emphasis in the literature covered is on the basic concepts of "brittle" and "ductile" rock deformation under conditions pertaining in the Earth's crust, based on the results of experimental rock deformation under high PT conditions. The citations focus on the brittle-ductile transition in the crust during crustal deformation (e.g. plate collision), and on the effects of pore fluid pressure in the upper crust (the brittle regime). As an example of the application of this basic data to problems relevant to brittle deformation at Olkiluoto, the Sibson/Scholz fault zone model is introduced, although this will be documented in more detail later in the report. The papers cited in Section 1.2 set the stage for many of the topics covered in later chapters.

1.1 Basic Textbooks

The text books which I have consulted while writing this report are the ones I have mainly used in my own research and as required reading for undergraduate and graduate courses in structural geology and tectonics. These fall in two main categories: general texts on structural geology, and more specialised texts on brittle rock deformation and applied geology. In the first category, many of the books have individual chapters which are particularly pertinent to different topics, and these will be cited specifically at the appropriate places. The second category includes the main textbooks which focus specifically on brittle deformation of rocks in all its aspects, including fracture mechanics, fault dynamics, seismicity, etc.. In addition to these more "geological" texts, I have added, as a third category, those books in engineering geology and hydrogeology which I have used, as a non-expert, to build a bridge to the study of fractures and fracturing in different areas of practical application, and included also some general texts on nuclear waste disposal in all its aspects.

6

As indicated above, the main focus in this report is on understanding the effects of brittle deformation, as a key element in the modelling geological structures, particularly fracture and fault systems. The special techniques and concepts which have been developed for analysing and modelling fractured rock for rock engineering and groundwater flow studies in Olkiluoto-type crystalline complexes are outlined and expanded in numerous Technical Reports from SKB and Posiva. These have also provided a general background to the present report and will be referred to at the appropriate places.

1.1.1 Structural Geology

Turner & Weiss 1963, Ramsay 1967, Hobbs et al. 1976, Ramsay & Huber 1983, 1987, Dennis 1987, Barker 1990, Twiss & Moores 1992, Hancock 1994, Passchier & Trouw 1996, Park 1997, Weijermars 1997, Groshong 1999, Ramsay & Lisle 2001.

1.1.2 Brittle Tectonics

Price 1966, Blés & Feuga 1986, Atkinson 1987, Price & Cosgrove 1990, Scholz 1990, Chernyshev & Dearman 1991, Engelder 1993 (Before going to press, two recent text books came to my notice which contain up-to-date data on rock fracture: Mandl 2005, Pollard & Fletcher 2005)

1.1.3 Other Source Books

Milnes 1985, Goodman 1989, NRC/CFCFF 1996, Hudson & Harrison 1997, Harrison & Hudson 2000, Miller et al. 2000, Zhang & Sanderson 2002, Chapman & McCombie 2003

1.2 Deformation of Intact Rock Under Crustal Conditions

To set the stage for later chapters, the literature cited here gives a quick overview of basic data concerning the deformation of intact rock in the Earth's crust under natural conditions. The starting point is experimental rock deformation under high pressure and high temperature - pressures and temperatures appropriate to conditions in the crust at any depth, under different geothermal gradients and strain rates. High PT constant strain rate tests and high PT creep tests have been carried in increasing numbers and with increasing sophistication since the first laboratory was set up by Griggs in the late 1930s. Most of the works cited below, however, originate from research done in the 60s, 70s and 80s (Topic 1.2.1), which led to a minor revolution in understanding crustal rheology, i.e. the way in which the crust reacts to the differential movement of tectonic plates. By the earlier 1980s, sufficient data had accumulated on rock strengths and deformation modes under different conditions to lead to tentative crustal strength/depth

7

profiles, related to different crustal compositions and different geothermal regimes (Topic 1.2.2). One outcome of this process was the development of a fundamental fault zone model for major structures like the San Andreas fault, relating rock strength, depth, deformation mechanisms, seismicity and geological features. This was a radical step forward in understanding crustal deformation, and one which is particularly relevant to understanding deformation features at sites like Olkiluoto. Some basic papers to illustrate this historical development are given below. The experimental data collected and used under this heading relate to intact rock (see Chapter 2). As will be shown later, crustal deformation of rock which has already suffered pervasive fracturing is a different problem and introduces complications with far-reaching consequences, particularly in Olkiluoto-type situations.

1.2.1 High Pt Experimental Rock Deformation - Basic Results

The aim of high pressure/temperature (high PT) rock testing was, in the first instance, to deduce the deformation mode and the strength of rocks under different conditions of confining pressure (lithostatic pressure), temperature and strain rate (Figure 1). Deformation mode describes qualitatively the appearance of the specimen after deformation: "brittle" when it deformed by movement on newly-formed discontinuities (fractures); "ductile" when it deformed continuously, without visible discontinuities (e.g. Donath et al. 1971, Carter et al. 1981). Between these states, a transitional state was distinguished, when the specimen was said to have deformed in the "brittle-ductile transition" (e.g. Heard 1960, Turner & Weiss 1963, Part II ). Rock strength was defined differently in the brittle and ductile regimes, and in the ductile field was quantified using different rules, sometimes quite arbitrary. Nevertheless, changes in rock strength were studied closely in relation to changing conditions (e.g. Donath & Frith 1971, Rutter 1972). To a good approximation, in the brittle regime (relatively low PT, relatively high strain rate), rock strength was found to be controlled by the confining pressure (high P = high strength), whilst changes in temperature and strain rate were found to have little effect (cf. Paterson 1978). In contrast, strength in the ductile regime(relatively high PT, relatively low strain rate) was found to be controlled by temperature and strain rate, independent of confining pressure. For a basic discussion of the use of the terms "brittle" and "ductile" in this context, see Rutter 1986 and Schmid & Handin 1991, and for a modern view of the factors affecting rock strength, see Lockner 1995.

8

Figure 1. Textbook diagram illustrating the results of high PT experimental rock deformation, showing brittle, brittle-ductile and ductile deformation under differentstates of stress and strain (Hobbs et al. 1976, Fig. 1.29)

For a given rock type, the basic relationships of the effects of temperature, pressure and strain rate had been established experimentally by the 1950s. However, the deformation mode and rock strength under a given set of conditions (P, T, strain rate) were found to be affected by several factors of an intrinsic nature. The rock composition was clearly a primary controlling factor, and by the early 1980s experiments had been carried out on a wide range of rock types, particularly salt, limestone, dolomite, quartzite and granite, under a wide range of conditions. Rock structure was also known to be important, particular the presence or absence of a pervasive plane of weakness in the rock (slaty cleavage, foliation, lamination, etc.), and numerous experiments showing how the orientation of the plane of weakness (planar anisotropy) with respect to the stress field affected rock strength had been carried out (e.g. Donath 1961, 1964). It was also clear that the strength of rock under tension was always significantly lower than the strength

9

under compression, i.e. that the stress state played an important role in rock deformation, particularly in the brittle regime (see Sibson 1998). Perhaps the most important result from this early phase of experimentation, with enormous geological implications, was the demonstration of the effects of increasing the fluid pressure within the pores of the intact rock, in the brittle regime (e.g. Hubbert & Rubey 1959, Heard 1960, Gretener 1969, 1978, Narashimhan et al. 1980, Mase & Smith 1987). When the pore fluid pressures approached the confining pressure (i.e. the overburden pressure due to depth of burial), rock strength was strongly reduced and deformation took place exclusively by brittle fracture over a wide range of crustal conditions (cf. Rutter 1972b). This basic data was synthesized during the 1970s and used to throw new light on the reaction of the lithosphere to plate boundary forces as a function of depth, as documented in the papers cited in the next section.

1.2.2 Rheological Profiles of the Lithosphere, and the Sibson-Scholz Fault Zone Model

From the basic data outlined in the works cited under Topic 1.2.1 (merely a small selection from an enormous body of research), combined with the basic mathematics of the theories of elasticity, plasticity, viscosity and rheology, the early 1980s saw the development of strength/depth diagrams for the Earth's crust, stimulated by the need to understand and model crustal deformation for plate tectonics (see, for instance, Park 1988, Knipe & Rutter 1990, Ranalli 1995, 1997). These types of diagram (sometimes called "windsurfer diagrams") are based on a considerable amount of geological hypothesis, including models for (i) the deep structure and composition of the crust and upper mantle, (ii) the geothermal gradient down to the Moho and beyond, (iii) the extrapolation of the laboratory strain rates ( at slowest, 10-8/sec) to geological strain rates (10-11/sec to 10-14/sec), (iv) the distribution of fluids in the crust, and (v) the stress field at depth. Nevertheless, they have proved exceptionally inspirational, and the Fennoscandian Shield has provided an extremely attractive natural laboratory (e.g. Blundell et al. 1992, Dragoni et al. 1993, Cloetingh & Burov 1996, Milnes et al. 1998, Moisio et al 2000, Kaikkonen et al. 2000, Moisio & Kaikkonen 2004). Most continental strength/depth diagrams show an upper crustal layer in which deformation under geological conditions occurs by brittle failure and frictional slip on fracture surfaces, with bulk rock strength increasing downwards to a depth of 10-20 kilometers, below which viscous flow becomes the dominant deformation mechanism and the rocks become successively weaker. This has become the basis for understanding large-scale fault zones and their relation to seismicity, and a model - the Sibson-Scholz fault zone model (e.g. Sibson 1977, 1982, 1983, Grocotte 1977, Hanmer 1988, Scholz 1990, Schmid & Handy 1991, Gratier et al. 1999, Imber et al. 2001) - which provides a framework and background for several subjects treated later in this report (e.g. Sections 2.1, 2.3, 3.3 and 5.1). The classical synthesis of the model by Scholz (1990) is shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2. The Sibson-Schlz fault zone model: fault rocks, deformation mechanisms, seismic behaviour and long-term strength, correlated with depth (temperature) in a crustal-scale fault zone such as the San Andreas fault zone, California (Scholz 1990, Fig. 3.19)

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2. FABRIC OF INTACT ROCK

A unique feature of the bedrock at Olkiluoto in the context of nuclear waste disposal is the small-scale heterogeneity and anisotropy of the intact rock, which together are referred to here as its “fabric”. Heterogeneity refers to compositional variations, which are present on all scales, particularly the rapid alternation of mafic and felsic rock types, within the migmatites themselves and between the migmatites and the intruding veins and dykes. Anisotropy refers to the preferred oientation of minerals grains and aggregates which is a typical feature of many of the rock types encountered at Olkiluoto. In comparison, at other crystalline rock sites which are under consideration as deep repository locations, world wide, the intact rock is relatively homogeneous and isotropic (e.g. Simpevarp), although anisotropy may be significant in places (e.g. Forsmark). As a result of the strong rock fabric at Olkiluoto, numerous problems arise for which there is little or no international experience within the nuclear industry. This is particularly true in the context of understanding the brittle deformation of this heterogeneous and anisotropic bedrock at a later stage in its history, and the consequences it has for repository design, groundwater flow, in situ stress estimation, and many other aspects related to construction and long-term safety. Hence, a prerequisite for analysing the brittle structures at Olkiluoto is a detailed knowledge of the fabric of the intact rock, something which has little significance in most other sites. In this Chapter, I have collected some basic literature on the techniques and results of analysing rock fabrics which have resulted form ductile deformation and partial melting in the Earth’s crust. The analysis of ductile deformation features is treated in many textbooks, since Ramsay’s classical work in the late 1950s (cf. Ramsay 1967) , as indicated under Section 2.1. These general works form a background for focussing on two topics which are particularly relevant to Olkiluoto, the development of planar and linear fabrics and the structure of ductile shear zones. The main emphasis of Section 2.2, in contrast, is on partial melting and its role in the formation and deformation of migmatites, and the development of syntectonic and post-tectonic vein and dyke systems. The formation of fault rocks under ductile and semi-brittle conditions (mylonites and cataclasites) is the subject of the third theme in this Chapter (Section 2.3), since they form intact rock with particular properties, even though occurring within deformation zones. In the final section (Section 2.4), the focus is on the significance of the intact rock fabric for practical problems in rock engineering and geophysics.

2.1 Tectonites and Tectonite Fabric Analysis

Rocks which have undergone ductile deformation under high grade metamorphic conditions are called tectonites, since they are characterized by the development of planar and/or linear rock fabrics, and other ductile deformation features, as a result of tectonic processes (Turner & Weiss 1963). The development and significance of such fabrics under conditions which do not involve partial melting is the subject of the papers collected in this section. The first category includes basic materials concerned with the description, mapping and analysis of ductile deformation features, with emphasis on

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crystalline complexes, such as that found at Olkiluoto (Topic 2.1.1). These are mainly textbooks, to provide a backcloth to the following topics, which focus on particular aspects of tectonite fabric analysis. The second group of citations refer to the phenomenon of foliation (and the related topic of lineation), which is the characteristic rock fabric at Olkiluoto and the one which is thought to exercise the greatest control on the development of the fracturing (Topic 2.1.2). Thirdly, we focus on a related topic which could be significant at Olkiluoto, although such features are, based on present knowledge, not common: ductile shear zones (Topic 2.1.3). Such zones are potentially very strongly foliated (see Section 2.3) and are thought to represent the deep-seated equivalents of ancient fault zones (see Topic 1.2.2, the Sibson-Scholz fault zone model). This group of references focusses on the structural relations in ductile shear zones (strain variations, kinematic indicators), rather than material aspects (microstructures, petrography, geochemistry, etc.), which are documented under Topic 2.3.1.

2.1.1 Description and Analysis of Tectonite Complexes

Turner & Weiss 1963, Ramsay 1967, Stauffer 1970, Hobbs et al. 1976, Borrodaile et al. 1982, Ramsay & Huber 1983, Fry 1984, Dennis 1987, McClay 1987, Ramsay & Huber 1987, Passchier et al. 1990, Price & Cosgrove 1990, Davis & Reynolds 1996, Passchier & Trouw 1996, Park 1997

2.1.2 Foliation (and Lineation)

The mica gneisses, veined gneisses and grey gneisses at Olkiluoto typically show well-developed planar fabric, or foliation (e.g. Turner & Weiss 1963, Hobbs et al. 1976, Ch. 5-6, McClay 1987, Park 1997, Snoke et al. 1998, Milnes et al. in press), a general descriptive term which, however, is more often used for planar fabrics in gneissic rocks (equivalent to schistosity in schists and cleavage in slates). Rocks which show a single foliation which is constantly oriented, as in many parts of the Olkiluoto bedrock, are often referred to as S-tectonites (e.g. Dennis 1987, Ch. 9-10, Barker 1990, Ch. 4). Some rocks at Olkiluoto also show a well-developed linear fabric, or lineation, and these may be referred as L-tectonites (in the absence of foliation) or SL-tectonites (when the lineation lies in the foliation surfaces and is genetically related to the foliation). In all these rocks, the microfabrics reflect solid-state flow of minerals under high PT conditions, as observed in similar naturally deformed rocks, world wide (cf. Hobbs et al. 1976, Borrodaile et al 1982, Passchier & Trouw 1996), and in many laboratory experiments with rocks and other materials (ice, metals, camphor, etc.). Such microfabrics reflect the dominant deformation mechanisms which were active at the time of deformation, mainly crystal plasticity, viscous grain-boundary sliding, diffusion creep and dynamic recrystallization (Groshong 1988, Knipe 1989, Schmid & Handy 1991, Passchier & Trouw 1996).

As a general rule, the foliation in S-tectonites approximately corresponds to the XY-plane of the strain ellipsoid (the plane of flattening of strain markers, such as conglomerate pebbles), and the lineation in SL- and L-tectonites to the X-axis (direction

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of elongation of strain markers) ( Ramsay 1967, Ramsay & Huber 1983). A typical feature of gneiss complexes, in which the rocks were deformed regionally under amphibolite facies conditions or higher, is that that the strain varies from place to place, not only in type (represented by the S-, SL-, and L-tectonites) but also in intensity (high-strain and low-strain zones). A good example of such relationships is the Western Gneiss Complex in southern Norway, where a large piece of Precambrian migmatitic crust was overprinted by pervasive heterogeneous ductile deformation during the Caledonian orogeny (e.g. Milnes et al. 1988, Milnes & Koyi 2000).

The foliation in some high-strain zones is so intense that the zones need to be included as deformation zones in the site model (high-grade deformation zones, see Section 5.1 and Figure 12). Such zones sometimes look like low-grade ductile shear zones (Topic 2.1.3, see also Figure 12) but their geometry and kinematic significance is rather different. Mylonitic rocks in low-grade ductile shear zones, however, would be classified as S- or SL-tectonites in hand specimen, if the structural and metamorphic relationships at the field locality were unknown or obscured.

2.1.3 Structural Relations in Low-Grade Ductile Shear Zones

The structural relations in a low-grade ductile shear zone are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3. The term “ductile shear zone” is in almost universal use; it is synonymous with “ductile deformation zone” in the classification scheme in use at Olkiluoto (see Section 5.1 and Fig. 12). In this case of low-grade ductile shear zones, the most important primary feature is the presence of undeformed wall rock on either side of the deformation zone (cf. Ramsay & Graham 1970, Ramsay 1980, Ramsay & Huber 1987, Ch. 26). The rigidity of the rock blocks on either side is a fundamental prerequisite for the interpretation of the structures within a ductile shear zone, since strain compatibility arguments suggest that only then will the strain be of the type known as rotational plane strain, (“simple shear” in a plane parallel to the direction of movement). The deformation zone itself can be subdivided into three subzones parallel to the zone margins: a core zone, which is marked by the development of mylonites (see Topic 2.3.2), with two zones of influence, one on each side of the core. The zone of influence represents the transition from mylonite to undeformed wall rock, and is often marked by a typical curving foliation (decreasing in intensity outwards and dying out at the deformation zone margin, to which it is at an angle of 45o, see Fig. 3). Structural relations within the mylonitic core and the zones of influence have been studied in detail over the past two decades, resulting in a voluminous literature on the structures and microstructures which can be used to measure and analyse the direction of movement and the strain variations within such zones (e.g. Simpson & Schmid 1983, McClay 1987, Hanmer & Passchier 1991, Passchier & Trouw 1996, Goscombe & Passchier 2003). Also, there is a growing number of theoretical and experimental studies (e.g. Regenauer-Lieb & Yuen 2003, Exner et al. 2004, Mandal et al. 2004, Mancktelow & Pennacchioni 2005). Since the field aspect of low-grade ductile shear zones is very dependent on local conditions, particularly on the wall rock complex (the protolith, which becomes sheared and mylonitized within the zone), a number of examples from the Canadian and Fennoscandian Shields are cited for illustration (e.g. Hanmer 1988, Fossen & Rykkelid 1990, Stephens Wahlgren 1993, Talbot & Sokoutis 1995, Wennberg et al. 1998, Högdahl 2000, Mattsson & Elming 2001, Pajunen et al 2001).

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Figure 3. Internal structures in a typical low-grade ductile shear zone (Hanmer & Passchier 1991, Fig. 33). The mylonite marking the “core” of the shear zone is shown in black and the “zones of influence” on each side of the core are represented by the zones of curving ‘S’ planes, which die out at the shear zone margins, marked by the half-arrows. Outside the shear zone margins, the rock is undeformed (i.e. not affected by the deformation which took place within the shear zone).

Low-grade ductile shear zones should be clearly distinguished from very high-strain zones in heterogeneously deformed tectonite complexes, i.e. from high-grade ductile shear zones (Topic 2.1.2, see also Fig. 12), because of the former’s well-defined strain type, which makes kinematic analysis possible. This distinction is also based on rheological arguments, which can be illustrated with reference to the Sibson-Scholz fault zone model (Fig. 2). Low-grade ductile shear zones with mylonitic cores develop

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in the upper part of the plastic flow regime, between the T1 (onset of quartz plasticity) and T2 (onset of feldspar plasticity) temperature lines, which essentially bracket greenschist facies conditions. Under these conditions, strain-softening takes place, so that, once initiated, the deformation becomes more and more concentrated withing the zone, which becomes progressively weaker relative to the wall rock as deformation proceeds (e.g. Davis & Reynolds 1996, Passchier & Trouw 1996). Strain-softening mechanisms in mylonites are documented further under Topic 2.3.2. They are intimately related to quartz plasticity and weakening, under conditions in which feldspars and mafic minerals are non-plastic. Below temperature line T2 (amphibolite facies conditions or higher, see Fig. 1.2), feldspars become plastic and all minerals recrystallize when strained, strain softening is suppressed, and pervasive heterogeneous ductile deformation becomes the dominant process (with complex strain variations, see Topic 2.1.2). Under such high-grade conditions, both the wallrock and the shear zone materials are deforming simultaneously, and hence high-grade ductile shear zones cannot be analysed in the way described in the references cited here.

2.2 Migmatization and Magmatism

The works cited under Section 2.1 concern ductile deformation in the solid state, under conditions of high temperature and pressure at depth in the Earths crust, but below the temperatures necessary to partially melt the rock. In regions where melting temperatures in crustal complexes are attained, pockets of low-eutectic (granitic) melts develop which expand and coalesce, and radically weaken the rock mass. Partial melting (anatexis, migmatisation), deformation, magmatism, melt migration and felsic vein formation are intimately connected processes under these conditions, and lead to the often “chaotic” and “fluidal” structural relations which are typical of many migmatite complexes (Figure 4). To emphasize this situation, some recent works on these complex interactions between plutonic processes are listed below under the cryptic heading “migma-magma” (Topic 2.2.1). In general, however, the extensive literature can be subdivided into two main groups. The first group concentrates on the “migma” parts of the process, i.e. the formation of different types of migmatite (Topic 2.2.2), whilst the second group focusses on the “magma” parts, the processes of migration and intrusion of the melts within the deforming crust, particularly in relation to fracturing (Topic 2.2.3). Because of the many boundaries which the subject crosses (in situ melting - melt migration, ductile - brittle deformation, plate movement - diapirism, weakening - strengthening, etc.), the topics are difficult to structure further, and the citations are included merely as possible entrances to the voluminous and dispersed literature.

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Figure 4. Classical diagrams showing the complex relationships resulting from deep-seated partial melting (anatexis) and magmatism (from Wegmann 1965). Legends: 1 - pre-existing crystalline schists and mafic dykes; 2 - gneisses with the older structural trends; 3 - migmatites, showing draining of mobilized fluids (ichors) towards the diapir; 4 - more or less massive granite: a - older granite intruded by two sets of mafic dykes; b - high PT deformation transforming granite to gneiss and causing folding/boudinage of dykes; c - anatexis: “older” granite intrudes the “younger” dykes ; d - new cycle begins with renewed dyke intrusion.

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2.2.1 “Migma-Magma”

Sawyer 1994, Brown 1994, Vigneresse et al. 1996, Sawyer 1998, McLellan 1998, Vigneresse & Tikoff 2000, Barraud et al. 2001, Marchildon & Brown 2003, Barraud et al, 2004

2.2.2 Migmatites and Migmatite Fabrics

The study of migmatites is historically something of a Finnish speciality (e.g. Eskola 1933, Sederholm 1934), and this tradition continues to the present time. This is illustrated by the number of recent papers on these analytically extremely difficult rocks (e.g. Hopgood 1984, Ehlers et al. 1993, Väisänen & Hölttä 1999, Mengel et al. 2001, Kriegsman 2001, Johannes et al. 2003, Schersten et al. 2004) and the way in which the Olkiluoto migmatites are being studied (e.g. Laine 1996, Anttila et al. 1999, Paulamäki et al. 2002, Kärki & Paulamäki 2004).

There is general agreement that migmatites are formed by anatexis, i.e. by partial melting of the protolith (the original rock, which could be sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic) to give granitic melts ("neosome") which remain more or less in situ,surrounding and enclosing the unmelted remains ("palaeosome") and locally intruding the enclosing rock forming complicated vein systems. Different morphological types of migmatite evolve according to different protolithic relationships, different degrees of partial melting and melt migration, different amounts of deformation of the partially melted crystal mush, and different time relations between melting, deformation and recrystallization (cf. Dietrich & Mehnert 1961, Mehnert 1968, Ashworth 1985). For an entry into the extensive literature, including recent experimental work on partial melting and the relation between melting and deformation, the reference lists in the following recent papers may be useful: Andersson et al. 1999, Simakin & Talbot 2001a, 2001b, Otamendi & Douce 2001, Milord et al. 2001, Mancktelow 2002, Holyoke & Rushmer 2002, Attrill & Gibb 2003a, b, Marchildon & Brown 2003, Schersten et al. 2004, Liu et al. 2004, Barraud et al. 2004, Pelletier et al. 2005.

Migmatites are typically heterogeneous on a small scale (cm to dm scale) but relatively homogeneous on a large scale (m to km scale, depending on the homogeneity of the protolith). The small-scale heterogeneities can show extremely complicated structures (folded, refolded, boudinaged, veined, diffusely irregular, xenolithic, etc.), but can also show a coarse, composite, planar/linear fabric, in which the palaeosome and neosome components show a general shape orientation similar to individual mineral grains and mono-mineralic aggregates within the components. With regard to later fracturing, the former situation can be regarded as "isotropic" (similar, for instance, to an unfoliated granite), whereas the latter situation is roughly "anisotropic" (similar, for instance, to a foliated granite). Both situations occur at Olkiluoto, and a basic mapping of the site according to these criteria may be important for understanding the fracture patterns.

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2.2.3 Felsic Magmatic Veining

Gudmundsson 1983, Fry 1984 (Ch. 7-8), Thorpe & Brown 1985 (Ch. 3, 7), Delaney et al. 1986, Atkinson 1987 (Ch. 8), Sleep 1988, Marsh 1989, Clemens & Mawer 1992, Davidson et al.1994, Davis & Reynolds 1996, Karlstrom & Williams 1998, Petford & Koenders 1998, Weinberg 1999, Vigneresse 1999, Miller & Paterson 2001, Klepeis et al. 2003, Henderson & Ihlen 2004

2.3 “Fault Rocks” (Rocks Formed in Ductile and Semi-Brittle Deformation Zones)

I have placed the theme “Fault rocks” in this Chapter on “Intact rock” to emphasize the cohesive, i.e. rock-like, nature of many products of faulting. However, in some of the most common classification schemes, the term “fault rocks” also includes incohesive fault products, such as gouge and breccia. Considering the normal meaning of the word “rock”, it seems appropriate, for the purposes of site characterisation at Olkiluoto, to make a clear distinction between mylonites, cataclasites, pseudotachylites and other welded fault products (which are treated in this Chapter, as intact rock), and incohesive fault products, which are treated in the next Chapter, under Topic 3.2.6. In addition, the word “fault” in this context may be misleading, and a better term would be “deformation zone”, except that this is not normal usage (for further discussion, see Section 5.1). With these problems of nomenclature in mind, Topic 2.3.1, below, contains most of the relevant literature on the terminology, classification and genesis of “fault rocks”. The main subdivision is into mylonites and cataclasites, formed at deeper and shallower levels in the Sibson-Scholz fault zone model, respectively (see Fig. 2 and Topic 1.2.2). Mylonities and mylonitic rocks are treated in more detail under Topic 2.3.2, whilst cataclasites and cataclastic rocks are treated under Topic 2.3.3. Some references to a special type of fault rock, pseudotachylite, found in and around mylonite and cataclasite zones are given in a final section (Topic 2.3.4).

2.3.1 General - Terminology, Classification, Genesis

In the Sibson-Scholz model fault zone (Topic 1.2.2 and Fig. 2), different types of fault products characterize different levels in the Earth's crust (Sibson 1977, 1983, Scholz 1990, Schmid & Handy 1991, Braathen et al. 2004). Near surface shearing due to fault movement produces weak and non-cohesive fault products, which because of their friable nature would not normally be called "rocks" and certainly not "intact rock". Hence, documents related to such products (fault gouge, crush rock, breccia, etc.), formed by fracture and cataclasis under relatively low temperatures and confining pressures, are grouped separately (Topic 3.2.6). In contrast, deformation zone products from deeper levels, below say 1-5 km in active fault zones, are cohesive materials which are definitely "intact rock" if they are encountered in rock cores and underground excavations. There is general agreement that such rocks can be subdivided into two main groups: mylonites and cataclasites (e.g. Higgins 1971, Sibson 1977, Grocotte

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1977, Fry 1984, Wise et al. 1984, Scholz 1990, Schmid & Handy 1991, Park 1997, Snoke et al. 1998). The original classification scheme proposed by Sibson (1977) is still useful and practical (see Section 5.1) and is reproduced here as Figure 5.

Figure 5. Classification table for fault rocks, based on the scheme in the original paper by Sibson, published in 1977 (Park 1997, Table 2.1).

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2.3.2 Mylonites

Mylonites are typical products of movement in low-grade ductile shear zones (see Topic 2.1.3 for citations relating to structural relations), which correspond to the interval between T1 and T2 in the Sibson-Scholz model fault zone, approximately greenschist facies metamorphic conditions (Fig. 2). Mylonites are typically fine-grained and strongly foliated, and the transformation of some minerals in the protolith takes place by deformation mechanisms such as crystal plasticity, viscous grain-boundary sliding, diffusion creep, recrystallization, etc. (e.g. Passchier & Trouw 1996, Schmid & Handy 1991), which dominate in the viscous flow regime. This applies mainly to quartz in lowermost greesnschist facies and progressively to other silicate minerals towards the upper end of the temperature range (high greenschist facies). Even at high temperatures, however, feldspars are generally not plastically deformed and form typical rigid porphyroblasts within the fine-grained mylonitized matrix. Mylonitized rocks are classified as protomylonites, mylonites or ultramylonites, according to the volume % of mylonitized matrix in the rock (Fig. 2). Depending, however, on the type of protolith and the presence/absence of fluids, other types of mylonitic rock may be produced which are given various names, e.g. phyllonite (phyllite-like mylonites), muscovite-schists (due to breakdown of feldspars to white mica by fluid action), blastomylonite (not fine-grained, due recrystallization and grain growth at high temperatures i.e. formed in high-grade deformation zones, see Topic 2.1.2). Despite these variations, true mylonite zones are characterised by occupying the core zone of low-grade ductile shear zones (Topic 2.1.3), with a zone of ductile influence and then completely undeformed wall rock on either side. This implies that very effective strain-softening processes play a major role in mylonite formation (White et al. 1980, Tullis et al. 1990), due to some or all of the following processes: decreasing grain size, growth of more easily deformable minerals (e.g. white mica), hydrolytic weakening of quartz and other minerals, development of lattice-preferred orientation facilitating dislocation glide, and shear heating.

Mylonites are easily recognized in cores, tunnels and outcrops by the characteristic strong foliation, which often occurs in the form of a parallel-sided lamination produced by alternating laminae of fine-grained quartz, plagioclase and mafic minerals. Other characteristic features are the presence of alkali feldspar porphyroclasts, especially in mylonites derived from granitic rocks, and complex patterns of boudinage and isoclinal folding concordant with the foliation. The papers cited below, together with those under Topic 2.1.3, give only a very brief overview of the extensive mylonite literature, some more historical (Bell & Etheridge 1973, Sibson 1977, Berthé et al. 1979), some more recent (Snoke et al. 1998, Stipp et al. 2002, Montesi & Hirth 2003, Ree et al. 2005).

It should perhaps be noted that the term mylonite as used now universally in geological circles (see above), is not always synonymous with the term "mylonite" as it was earlier sometimes used in engineering geology (meaning non-cohesive, crushed and friable rock, in zones often referred to as mylonite zones in older reports). Mylonite zones, in modern terminology, are generally not difficult or unstable zones in underground excavation or core drilling, and if they are, it is not because of the weakness of the rock material but because of the strong foliation, which will always need to be taken into account.

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2.3.3 Cataclasites

Above the T1 line in the Sibson-Scholz model (Fig. 2), the deformation zone is shown to widen and to be characterized by a group of rocks called cataclasites. The temperatures are lower than those for greenschist facies metamorphism, and the dominant deformation mechanisms include micro-cracking, frictional grain-boundary sliding, rigid-body rotation, abrasive wear (cf. Higgins 1971, Sibson 1977, Stel 1981, Knipe 1989, Scholz 1990, Schmid & Handy 1991, Monzawa & Otsuki 2003, Braathen et al. 2004), i.e. processes of shear rupture and frictional slip (cf. Engelder 1993). The upper limit of this regime is marked by an upwards transition from stick-slip (seismogenic) movement to stable sliding (non-seismogenic), and from cohesive to non-cohesive fault products (line T4 on Fig. 1.2, which is no longer a temperature-related limit). Cataclasites are typically very hard and massive, showing a welded fine-grain matrix containing rock fragments and diffuse masses of granulated rock. There is disagreement about whether the cohesiveness of cataclasites is inherent, or whether the crushed material was non-cohesive at first and later welded by minerals (particularly epidote and chlorite) deposited from circulating solutions e.g.Sibson 1986, Bos et al. 2000, Bos & Spiers 2001a, 2001b). What is clear, however, is that circulating fluids can be assumed to have played a some part in the process, which is highly pore pressure dependent. Also, it is important to remember that the mineralogical composition of the protolith (the wall rocks of the fault) and the presence/absence of fluids (during and after faulting) can play a dominant role in the field appearance and mineral composition of the cataclasites, i.e. whether they developed as intact rock or as non-cohesive material, later welded.

The Sibson-Scholz model shows a widening of the deformation zone in the cataclasite regime (Fig. 2). This indicates schematically that, in contrast to above and below, the initiation of faulting is not automatically accompanied by strain-softening in this regime. The weakening of cataclastic rocks is mainly dependent of the development high pore fluid pressures, which may or may not take place, depending on local conditions. Because of this, and because of the diffuse and massive nature of the fault rock, cataclasite zones are difficult to recognize, even in rock cores, and their margins tend to be difficult to distinguish and are often quite irregular. Also, in contrast to mylonites and ductile shear zones (Topics 2.1.3 and 2.3.2), practically no regular minor structures are associated with this type of deformation, although foliated cataclasites have been reported (e.g. Chester et al. 1987, Lin 2001). Hence, the scientific literature specifically on cataclasites is meagre and descriptions are usually found within the framework of more general geological studies (e.g. Kamineni et al. 1988, Zulauf et al. 1990, Bossart et al. 2001, some papers in Knipe & Rutter 1990).

2.3.4 Pseudotachylite

A typical rock which is mainly confined to the regime in which cataclasites develop is pseudotachylite (Fig. 2), a black glassy material reminiscent of basaltic glass (“tachylite”). This formed mainly in the frictional slip regime by localized melting due to the generation of frictional heat (e.g. Sibson et al. 1979, Snoke et al. 1998, Curewitz

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& Karson 1999, Toro & Pennacchioni 2004, Ray 2004, Barker 2005, Ferre et al. 2005). The importance of these rocks lies in the fact that they provide a powerful tool for studying the conditions and timing of fault movement when they occur (e.g. O´Hara 2001, Sherlock & Hetzel 2001, Bjornerud & Magloughlin 2004).

2.4 Rock Anisotropy in Rock Engineering and Geophysics

In this section, some papers referring to the significance of the anisotropy of intact rock in rock engineering and geophysics are collected together, since an anisotropic rock fabric is a characteristic feature of the Olkiluoto site. Foliated rocks of the type common at Olkiluoto are referred to as "transversely isotropic" in rock engineering parlance, indicating that the intact rock has isotropic geomechanical properties in the foliation plane, whereas it is anisotropic in a plane perpendicular to the foliation (Hudson & Harrison 1997). The papers selected below are grouped under different headings. The first group concenrs the strength and deformation behaviour of intact rock, starting with some early papers from the classical period of experimental rock deformation (Topic 2.4.1). Since anisotropic rock fabrics have considerable influence on the stress field and on in situ stress estimation techniques, some recent papers on this topic form the second group (Topic 2.4.2). Rock fabric is also known to affect thermal properties (Topic 2.4.3), and this has been shown to be the case at Olkiluoto, also, although the work on thermal modelling at SKB and Posiva still assumes that the intact rock is isotropic. Finally, a selection of papers on the propagation of seismic and other types of waves in anisotropic media are added (Topic 2.4.4), since this is relevant to different types of geophysical borehole logging and surface surveying techniques.

Some Posiva reports are included in this section, but in general one can say that the significance of rock anisotropy to the different aspects given below has not yet been studied in sufficient detail at Olkiluoto. The material cited here is also poorly representative of the efforts being made worldwide to come to grips with this difficult problem, which will eventually need to become a major focus in the Posiva programme.

2.4.1 Effect of Anisotropy on Rock Strength and Deformation Behaviour

Donath 1961, 1964, Brace 1971, Paterson 1978, Hudson & Harrison 1997, Wang & Liao 1999, Ramsay & Lisle 2001, Fjær & Ruistuen 2002, Wanne 2002, Nasseri et al. 2003, Song et al. 2004, Lipponen et al. 2005, Persson & Göransson 2005

2.4.2 Anisotropy and Rock Stress; Effect of Anisotropy on in Situ Stress Estimation

Amadei 1983, 1996, Amadei & Stephansson 1997, Nunes 2002, Tonon & Amadei 2003

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2.4.3 Effect Of Anisotropy on Thermal Properties

Kukkonen & Lindberg 1995, Kukkonen 2000, Hökmark 2003, Ikonen 2003a, 2003b, Huotari & Kukkonen 2004

2.4.4 Propagation Of Seismic Waves In Anisotropic Media

Tsvankin 2001, Rudzki 2003, Thomsen & Dellinger 2003, Newrick & Lawton 2003, Artola et al. 2004, Druzhinin 2004, Holliger & Maurer 2004, Tang & Cheng 2004, Ivankina et al. 2005

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25

3 BRITTLE DEFORMATION IN EXPERIMENT AND NATURE

The papers cited in this chapter refer to the general process of brittle deformation, mainly based on the results of laboratory experiments (Section 3.1) and observations made on structures and structural associations formed by the brittle deformation of rocks in Nature (Section 3.2). The first theme is often referred to as fracture mechanicsand is empirical/mechanical in nature. The second theme is descriptive/geological in essence, and has been referred to as brittle microtectonics. From this point on, we focus on situations corresponding to the upper part of the Sibson-Scholz fault zone model (Topic 1.2.2 and Figure 2), the part dominated by cataclasis, which is the general name for all deformation mechanisms related to mechanical breakage and frictional slip (cf. Section 2.3). Cataclasis leads to a wide spectrum of geological structures, on many different scales, from microcracks to crustal faults, and is almost always accompanied by fluid migration, creating complicated interrelationships between fracturing, alteration and mineral growth. Aspects of cataclasis which lead to the formation of incoherent fault products, such as fault gouge and fault breccia, are particularly important for understanding fault and fracture zone properties, and are included in this chapter as a separate group (Section 3.3). As noted in Chapter 2, incoherent fault products are often grouped together with mylonites and cataclasites as “fault rocks”, in spite of the fact that they would not normally be classified as “rocks” due to their incohesive nature (cf. Section 2.3 and Figure 5).

3.1 Fracture Mechanics

Fracture mechanics applied to rocks has many aspects and applications: geological, geophysical, hydrogeological and rock mechanical (see particularly the contents of the textbook edited by Atkinson 1987). "In essence, fracture mechanics concerns the study of stress concentrations caused by sharp-tipped flaws and the conditions for the propagation of these flaws" (op. cit., p.2). The basis for the theory was laid early in the 20th century (e.g. Griffith 1920), and has its roots in attempts to understand the failure of engineering materials and structures (cf. Knott 1973). Only later was it applied to brittle deformation in the Earth's crust, and then in an almost explosive surge of scientific papers in the early 1980s. No attempt is made here to encompass this large amount of theoretical and experimental material. Instead, I take as the starting point the well-known diagrammatic representation of the three modes of subcritical crack propagation (e.g. Paterson 1978, Nelson 1985, Atkinson 1987, Lockner 1995): mode I - tensile or opening mode; mode II - in-plane shear or sliding mode; mode III - anti-plane shear or tearing mode (Figure 6). The term "crack" is used for the microscopic planar objects with linear edges which are used to represent flaws in theoretical treatments, but in Nature flaws may be any kind of defect, such as pores, impurities, etc.. Experimental investigations show that macroscopic brittle structures, such as joints, veins and faults (see Section 3.2), originate from the propagation and coalescence of such defects (cf. Blés & Fuega 1986, Hancock 1994), and by the initiation of new microcracks (creating new space - dilatancy - and causing acoustic emissions, cf. Atkinson 1987). In a recent synthesis (Engelder 1993), these data are combined with other evidence to subdivide the

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upper crust, which is dominated by brittle deformation, into a shallower "crack-propagation regime" and a deeper "shear-rupture regime". This is based on the dominant rupture process: mode I in the shallow regime and modes II and III in the deeper regime, both lying in the friction-dominated regime distinguished by Sibson and Scholz (the zone of “abrasive wear” in Figure 2). Once the ruptures are formed, by any mode, deformation takes place by frictional slip on the newly formed fractures, and on any already-formed discontinuities in the rock. A fracture mechanics view of phenomena associated with the different types of brittle structure in Nature is given in a recent U.S. National Research Council monograph (NRS/CFCFF 1996), together with an extensive reference list.

Figure 6. The three modes of rupture and crack propagation used as an underlying concept in the application of fracture mechanics to brittle rock deformation (Paterson 1978, Fig. 56).

3.1.1 Opening Crack Propagation (Rupture Mode 1)

Bahat & Rabinovitch 1988, 2001, Olson & Pollard 1989, Engelder 1993, Bai & Pollard 2000, Müller & Dahm 2000, Müller 2001, Bai et al. 2002, Al-Shayea 2005

3.1.2 Shear Rupture (Rupture Modes II and III)

Murrell 1977, Atkinson 1987 (Ch. 9), Lin & Parmentier 1988, Cox & Scholz 1988, Petit & Barquins 1988, Engelder 1993 (Ch. 3), Reches & Lockner 1994, Wibberley et al. 2000, Al-Shayea 2005

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3.1.3 Frictional Slip

Byerlee & Brace 1968, Brace 1971, Stesky et al. 1974, Byerlee 1978, Teufel 1981, Scholz 1990 (Ch. 2), Engelder 1993 (Ch. 3), Nieto-Samniego & Alaniz-Alverez 1995, Cooke & Underwood 2001 (see also Section 5.6)

3.2 Brittle Microtectonics

"Brittle microtectonics" is a general term for all the features of natural rock deformation in the brittle regime which can be observed at the scale of the individual outcrop and mapping area (e.g. at scales relevant to site characterisation at Olkiluoto), and the description and interpretation of these features for the solution of tectonic problems. The term was coined by Paul Hancock (Hancock 1985, Hancock et al. 1987, Hancock 1994, Dunne et al. 2001, see Figure 7), and its usage caught on, in spite of being potentially misleading: the "micro-" in the term does not, as one might suppose, imply observation at microscopic scale; it simply means "small-scale", i.e. outcrop scale to site scale, as opposed to normal "tectonics", which in English implies a much larger scale (i.e. “macro-” scale), encompassing whole rift systems, parts of mountain ranges, etc..

The analysis of small-scale brittle structures in outcrops, cores, tunnels, etc., and the description of the relationships between these structures, as observed at a particular site or in a particular mapping area, depends on the use of a classification system which is both geologically meaningful, and relevant to the problem being investigated. A simple descriptive classification based on observable geological characteristics in the field is now in general use, as found in the works listed under the first heading below (Topic 3.2.1). For comparison, rock engineering nomenclature and hydrogeological usage are included under the same heading. The basic geological subdivision of brittle structures into joints, faults and veins forms the framework of the following topics. Selected literature on extension joints are listed under Topic 3.2.2, whilst some key references on the controversial topic of “shear joints” are given under Topic 3.2.3, each with a brief commentary. Under Topic 3.2.4, a selection of literature on single-plane faults (often referred to as “shear fractures”) is given, although most of the literature on faults, fault zones and the mechanics of faulting are collected in Chapter 5. Hydrothermal veins and associated structures are treated under Topic 3.2.5, emphasising particularly mineralization and wall-rock alteration, and their importance for fracture chronology. In a final section, Topic 3.2.6, incohesive fault products (gouge, crush breccia, etc.) are treated. As noted above, these are often included under the general term “fault rocks” (cf. Figure 5) but are more appropriately placed under the general heading of brittle microtectonics. They are also often described in the context of fault zones, and many of the references given here are repeated in Chapter 5.

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Figure 7. Different aspects of brittle microtectonics as illustrated in the seminal work of Hancock (Hancock 1985, Fig. 13). Criteria for distinguishing between different types of joint: (a) microscopic characteristics, (b)surface markings and fringes, (c) parallelism with a kinematic indicator, (d) continuity with a kinematic indicator, (e) symmetry with respect to a kinematic indicator, (f) relation to a fold structure, (g) joint “refraction” at lithological boundaries, (h) systematic curvature of a joint plane.

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3.2.1 General Background and Terminology

Geological terminology (classification of tectonic fractures)

Brittle deformation in the Earth's crust, caused by differential crustal movements and/or gravitational forces, results in the formation of tectonic fractures. Practically all the fractures at the Olkiluoto site are of tectonic origin (as opposed to, for example, fractures formed during the cooling of magmatic rocks). Hence, the use of "fracture" alone in the following, implies its tectonic nature. From a descriptive point of view, there is general agreement that tectonic fractures can be classified into three main groups - joints, faults and veins/stylolites, depending on the observed movement of the fracture walls.

Joints are fractures on which there has been no significant movement of the fracture walls, either laterally or perpendicularly, at the relevant scale of observation (for all practical purposes, the scale is determined by the resolution attainable by the naked eye). There are some problems in applying this definition, but it has in fact stood the test of time (see, for instance, Hancock 1985, Pollard & Aydin 1988).

Faults are fractures along which the fracture walls have undergone appreciable lateral displacement (movement in the plane of the fracture), at the relevant scale of observation (see above), as evidenced by displaced markers and/or surface structures typical of slip (see, for instance, McClay 1987 Gabrielsen 1990, Hancock 1994).

Veins and stylolites indicate appreciable movement perpendicular to the fracture, veins in the opening and stylolites in the closing mode (see, for instance, Groshong 1988, Hancock 1994). The term "vein" implies mineral or magmatic infilling (an open fracture, without infilling, would be called a fissure), and is generally applied to small-scale features, with thicknesses measured in centimeters. Larger scale magma-filled fractures, with thicknesses measured in meters, are rather arbitrarily referred to as dykes and sills (still, however, initially associated with brittle deformation). Stylolites are formed by removal of material from the fracture site by pressure solution, and show characteristic surface features (e.g. Ramsay & Huber 1987, see also Figure 7e) - if these features are absent, they are referred to as pressure solution seams. In this report, we concentrate on joints, faults and viens, as the structures most commonly found at the Olkiluoto site.

Rock engineering and hydogeological terminology

From the descriptive point of view, it is usually not difficult to distinguish between joints, faults and veins (and associated structures) in outcrops, cores, tunnels, etc.. Nevertheless, their interpretation in terms of mode of formation and tectonic significance is often controversial, as indicated below. A more important problem from the point of view of fracture system modelling at Olkiluoto, however, is the fact that these geological categories often do not coincide with categories which are thought meaningful from a rock engineering or hydrogeological point of view. For rock engineering, interest focusses on discontinuities, which are defined as "any significant mechanical break or fracture of negligible tensile strength in a rock. The term discontinuity makes no distinctions concerning the age, geometry or mode of origin of the feature." (Priest 1993, p. 5, see also

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ISRM 1978, Hudson & Harrison 1997). Many joints and faults will be classified as discontinuities, but some may not, depending on other characteristics (e.g. degree of mineralisation), implying that joints and faults need to be described individually for engineering applications. The question of whether veins and associated features are to be regarded as discontinuities may be even more difficult to answer. In hydrogeology, interest focusses on water-conducting features (e.g. Mazurek et al 1997, Mazurek 2000), which may be joints, faults and/or veins depending on their specific characteristics. However, this must be proven in each individual case, through careful characterization (cf. Thorpe 1979, Martel 1992, Munier 1993, Melamed & Front 1996, Goto 2002, McEwen 2002). Hence, the characterization of geological structures caused by brittle deformation in a way which is relevant to rock engineering and hydrogeology is a major effort at any radioactive waste disposal site. The following topics present the main types of brittle structure found in Nature from a geological point of view.

3.2.2 Extension Joints

Joint populations of presumed tectonic origin are ubiquitous in apparently undeformed, sub-horizontal, sedimentary sequences (e.g. Price & Cosgrove 1990, Cruikshank & Aydin 1995), and in crystalline complexes which otherwise show little sign of post-crystalline deformation (e.g. Segall & Pollard 1983). In undeformed sediments, they are generally sub-vertical, often bedding-confined, and usually arranged in joint domains of different or systematically changing preferred orientation, showing little relation to large-scale structures (major faults or folds). Joint orientation is often systematic over wide areas, and such regional joint patterns are usually interpreted in terms of the regional stress field (Hancock et al 1984, Engelder 1985, Bevan & Hancock 1986, Dyer 1988, Pollard & Aydin 1988, Hancock & Engelder 1989, Gross & Engelder 1991, Arlegui & Simon 2001). Well-developed joint sets often show different characteristics in different lithological units, apparently related to the different mechanical properties of the rock types ("mechanical stratigraphy", e.g. Gross & Engelder 1995) and to variations in bed thickness (e.g. Hobbs 1967, Ladeira & Price 1981, Narr & Lerche 1984, Lerche & Narr 1986, Bahat 1988b, Huang & Angelier 1989, Narr & Suppe 1991, Wu & Pollard 1995, Ji & Saruwatari 1998, Bai & Pollard 2000).

In fine-grained rocks, joint surfaces show typical associations of plumose markings, conchoidal rib marks and fringes of en echelon minor joints (Hodgson 1961, Ramsay & Huber 1987, Dennis 1987, Davis & Reynolds 1996, see Figure 7b, and “EJ” in other parts of the diagram), which can be interpreted in terms of the established principles of fracture mechanics (Bahat & Engelder 1984, Atkinson ed.1987, Bahat 1988a, Pollard & Aydin 1988). The point of convergence of the plume striations, or hackle marks, represents the origin (point of initiation) of the joint, the axis of the plume marks represents the leading tip of the fracture front, and the opening of the plume points in the direction of fracture propagation. The fringes of single joints, when viewed in cross-section, show typical enechelon arrangements of small trace segments or dilational cracks, or “side-stepping” relationships showing characteristic patterns in the region of the "bridges" (e.g. Wheeler & Dixon 1980, Pollard et al. 1982, Pollard & Aydin 1984, Nicholson & Pollard 1985, Dyer 1988, Olson & Pollard 1989, Milnes & Gee 1992). These features are typical of mode I fractures observed experimentally under different conditions in a wide range of materials

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(e.g. Bahat 1979, Bahat & Rabanovitch 1988, 2001, Müller & Dahm 2000, Müller 2001, Frid et al. 2005), and leads to the conviction that joints are predominantly extensional fractures (Engelder 1993). Failure of the intact rock took place under conditions such that the minimum principal stress was regionally tensional, or, at deeper levels, under the influence of high pore pressure, such that the maximum principal strain axis was regionally extensional (e.g. Griggs & Handin 1960, Secor 1969, Segall & Pollard 1983, Pollard & Aydin 1988, Gross & Engelder 1995, Engelder & Peacock 2001, Cooke & Undrwood 2001). Other conditions distributed the points of failure regularly over a wide area, leading to the regional patterns (cf. Segall 1984a, 1984b), which can be interpreted as form lines at right angles to the regional axis of minimum compressive stress.

3.2.3 “Shear Joints”

According to Pollard & Aydin (1988, p. 1186) "the concept of shear joints is sheer nonsense", and they review the controversy which has circled around the subject in the past, and is still going on (e.g. Bevan & Hancock 1986, Cruikshank & Aydin 1995, Davis & reynolds 1996, Scheidegger 2001, Bai et al. 2002). That intact rock in the Earth's crust can fail in a shearing mode (modes II or III in fracture mechanics, see Topic 3.1.2) is not open to question. However, the experimental evidence (see citations under Section 1.2) indicates that this only occurs under considerable confining pressure, at differential stresses much higher than those needed for failure in the tensional mode (mode I), and much higher than those necessary for frictional sliding on planes of weakness already in the rock (see Engelder 1993). In other words, shear rupture is highly localised in the Earth's crust, usually only where stress is concentrated around propagating major faults and folds (e.g. Stearns 1972), and a fracture thus formed almost always develops from being a joint at the time of rupture (joint definition: no visible displacement, see Topic 3.2.1) to being a fault immediately afterwards, with increasing amounts of displacement until the stress drops to below that needed for frictional sliding. Only under very special conditions will shear joints be preserved as joints (i.e. as fractures showing no visible displacement, e.g. Engelder 1974, Aydin & Johnson 1978), and it is hardly conceivable that they should occur over wide areas as regional sets, as has been sometimes suggested (see discussion/reply references cited in Pollard & Aydin 1988, p. 1186). Also, once shear displacement has taken place, it becomes very difficult to decide whether the fault thus formed originated as a shear rupture (mode II or III) or by shearing along an already formed extensional joint (e.g. Segall & Pollard 1983a,b, Granier 1985, Laubach 1988, Milnes & Gee 1992, Petit & Mattauer 1995, Engelder et al. 2001, Wilkins et al. 2001). However, the literature on jointing (about 10 000 papers up to 1987, see Pollard & Aydin op. cit., and of the order of that amount since) is full of descriptions of "conjugate sets of shear joints" wherever two sets of joints intersect at an angles of 60o-80o (see Figure 7, features marked “SJ”). The results of fracture mechanics documented in Section 3.1 suggest that such interpretations should be treated with a good deal of scepticism.

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3.2.4 Single-Plane Faults and Related Features

As noted above (Topic 3.2.3), small, single-plane faults are very common in the Earth's crust, but generally highly localized or sporadically distributed, whether they develop by shear rupture (cf. Reches & Lockner 1994) or whether they develop by reactivation of extension joints (cf. Granier 1985). Such faults are often referred to "shear fractures", since they typically show phenomena related to frictional or pressure-solution slip (slickensides, mineral fibres and related structures, e.g. Tjia 1968, Byerlee et al. 1978, Hancock et al. 1987, Laubach 1988, Twiss & Moores 1992, Hancock 1994, Davison 1995). Socalled “deformation bands” are single-plane faults which develop in sandstone lithologies, probably from original shear ruptures (e.g. Aydin 1978, Aydin & Johnson 1978, 1983, Underhill & Woodcock 1987, Antonelli & Pollard 1995). Other structures which are often associated with the terminations of small faults are enechelon rows of tension gashes, or "feather joints" (Friedman & Logan 1970, Granier 1985, Ramsay & Huber 1987, Cruikshank et al. 1001, Mazzoli et al. 2003, Laing 2004, see Figure 7c and 7d), together with splaying fractures, veins and solution surfaces (Rispoli 1981, Granier 1985, Atkinson ed. 1987, Martel et al. 1988, Petit & Barquins 1988, Martel 1990, McGrath & Davison 1995). Such shear-related en echelon tension gashes must be caefully distinguished from dilational en echelon cracks related to extension jointing (Topic 3.2.2). In strongly foliated rocks (e.g. slates), kink bands may also develop in association with, or instead of, small faults or shear fractures (Paterson & Weiss 1966, Donath 1968, 1969, Gay & Weiss 1974, Verbeek 1978, Weiss 1980, Ramsay & Huber 1987, Stewart & Alvarez 1991, Twiss & Moores 1992, Srivastava et al. 1998). The relation between these types of small-scale structures and major fault zones (e.g. Jamison & Stearns 1982, Schmid & Frotzheim 1993) and the use of measurements on populations of such single-plane faults in tectonic analysis (e.g. Frizzell & Zoback 1987, Angelier 1989, Gross& Engelder 1995, Davison 1995, Watterson et al. 1998) will be returned to in Sections 5.2 and 5.5.

3.2.5 Mineral Veins, Mineralized Joints, Wall-Rock Alteration, Etc.

As indicated above, most single-plane faults result from shear movement on already formed joints, since stress release is much easier by slip on such planes of weakness than by brittle failure of intact rock. Similarly, most veins are formed by dilational movement on already formed joints, either as a continuation of the joint-forming deformation, or at a much later stage in the joint's history (e.g. Vermilye & Scholz 1995). Joints and faults form preferred pathways for the circulation of hydrothermal solutions and mineral-bearing groundwater, and there are all transitions between mineral veins, mineralized joints and faults, and replacement veins due to wall-rock alteration, and as well as between through-going parallel-sided veins and the en echelon vein arrays mentioned under Topics 3.2.2 and 3.2.4 (for overviews, see Ramsay & Huber 1983, Groshong 1988, Barker 1990, Passchier & Trouw 1996).

From a structural point of view, veins are of particular interest because they aid in deducing the timing in areas where there is evidence of a polyphase evolution. There are two main aspects. Firstly, the degree of mineralization of joints often allows the relative dating of different fractures (for instance, unmineralized joints cutting through

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mineralized joints with wall-rock alteration), and hence potentially, different sets of fractures (e.g. Stone & Kamineni 1982, Titley et al. 1986, Munier & Talbot 1993). This is particularly important because the relative dating of intersecting joints is extremely difficult and ambiguous (e.g. Price & Cosgrove 1990). Secondly, the minerals and their fluid inclusions potentially yield material to carry out radiometric dating and for studying the PTt evolution of the vein infilling (e.g. Kerrich 1984, Maddock et al. 1993, Gehör et al. 2003). For more on the subject of fracture chronology, see Topic 4.1.5.

3.3 Incohesive Fault Products (Gouge, Etc.)

In addition to widespread small-scale brittle structures in the uppermost part of the Earth's crust (Section 3.2), brittle deformation is often concentrated in narrow zones of shearing. The internal structure of such fault zones is the subject of Section 5.3: here, the emphasis is on the materials formed in such zones, since this topic forms a natural complement to the discussion of the Sibson-Scholz fault zone model (Topic 1.2.2) and the associated “fault rocks” (Section 2.3 and Figure 5). In the upper few kilometers of the crust, movement in major zones of shearing similar to those envisaged by the Sibson-Scholz model results in incohesive fault products, known as fault gouge and fault breccia, which are sometimes included under the general heading of "fault rocks" or "cataclastic rocks" (e.g. Higgins 1971, Sibson et al. 1979, Anderson et al. 1980, Swensson 1990, Faulkner et al. 2003). Cataclasis and other low-temperature deformation mechanisms (cf. Groshong 1988) lead to mechanical comminution of the original mineral grains, and often to mineralogical transformations, such as the production of micas and clay minerals. Gouge is a general name for the resulting fine-grained, incohesive product (Engelder 1974, Sammis et al.1986, Stel & Landkreyer 1994, Cladouhos 1999, Vrolijk & van der Pluijm 1999, Monzawa & Otsuki 2003). Breccia is often referred to as "crush rock" since it consists mainly of rock fragments, which may be the result of shearing (incipient gouge formation) or of shattering under near-surface conditions (Sibson 1986, Anderson et al. 1980). Gouges and breccias are typically incohesive, and are often isotropic, although clay and mica-bearing materials may show a rough foliation and other “ductile” structures (Chester et al. 1987, Chester & Logan 1987, Cladouhos 1999, Zhang et al 1999). Gouge, and the process of gouge formation, have been the focus of considerable attention because of their significance in earthquake studies (e.g. Byerlee et al.1978, Moody & Hundley-Goff 1980, Reches & Dewers 2005), and for rock mechanics and hydrogeological problems in many fields of application (e.g. Morrow et al. 1984, Bos & Spiers 2001, Evans et al. 1997, Seront et al. 1998, Zhang et al. 1999, 2001, Habimana et al. 2002 ). Finally, the importance of fault gouge for dating the movement in fault zones should be noted (e.g. Fuduchi 2001, Zwingmann et al. 2004). Many of the works cited here also describe other features of fault zones, and will be returned to in Chapter 5.

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4 FRACTURE DATA ACQUISITION AND PROCESSING

The literature cited in Chapter 3 was mainly concerned with the geological description of small-scale brittle structures and structural associations, and their interpretation in terms of mode of formation under crustal conditions. The emphasis was on “understanding”, which is a prerequisite for meaningful structural modelling. However, structural modelling also requires “quantification”, i.e. the systematic acquisition of numerical data, followed by suitable statistical processing, to provide the necessary input parameters for the computations. This is the subject of the present chapter, Chapter 4. Here I choose to simplify the discussion by referring to the objects of investigation as “fractures” (strictly speaking, “tectonic fractures”, see discussion under Topic 3.2.1). I assume that each individual fracture measured has been described and classified individually, and that, where appropriate, the statistical procedures can be applied separately to all fractures of a particular type or group (joints, faults, veins, discontinuities, water-conducting features, etc.). All fractures and fracture systems, of whatever type, have certain geometrical elements in common (orientation, size, frequency, etc.), and a selection from the extensive literature on these parameters is given in Section 4.1. These works mainly emphasize what is to be measured, whereas in the next section, Section 4.2, the references focus on how the measurements are made, i.e. fracture data acquisition in practice. The emphasis there is on the two main types of data collection which will be carried out at Olkiluoto: linear sampling (e.g. core and borehole logging) and areal sampling (e.g. mapping of trenches, outcrops, tunnel walls, etc.). In Section 4.3, different types of fracture system characterisation, and subsequent analysis and modelling, are documented. The emphasis is on application to rock engineering and hydrogeology (rock mass clasification, DFN modelling), and on the different types of parameterisation (creating the input for the computer codes). Following on from, and closely related to, Section 4.3, I have added a section on the estimation of bulk properties of averagely fractured rock masses (strain, permeability, deformation behaviour, anisotropy, etc., Section 4.4), and a rather heterogeneous section on different aspects of rock mass stability - crustal response to plate motion and glacial loading/unloading, effect of crustal deformation on underground excavations, rock mass response to underground excavation, hydrofracturing, etc.(Section 4.5).

The emphasis in Chapter 4 is on stochastic modelling, the collection of statistically sound fracture data sets, and the use of the latter for solving dynamic problems, particularly in relation to averagely fractured rock. Data acquisition and processing for deterministic modelling of brittle deformation zones (fracture zones) is treated in Chapter 5.

4.1 Fracture Parameters

Stochastic modelling of fracture systems in crystalline or “hard” rocks grew out the needs of rock engineering (e.g. ISRM 1978, LaPointe & Hudson 1985) and hydrogeology (particularly migration studies in nuclear waste research, e.g. Rouleau & Gale 1985, Long & Billaux 1987). The best overviews of the fracture parameters necessary for such studies, however, are given in the text book by Priest (1993) and, of

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particular relevance for site characterisation at Olkiluoto, in some recent SKB reports (Holmén & Outters 2002, Munier et al. 2003, Munier 2004). A Posiva Working Report on geological data acquisition, including a discussion of fracture parameters, is in the final stages of preparation (Milnes et al. in prep.). Following Munier 2004, the theme is subdivided into four topics:Topic 4.1.1 Fracture orientation and the definition of fracture sets Topic 4.1.2 Fracture size and size distribution of fracture sets Topic 4.1.3 Degree of fracturing Topic 4.1.4 Spatial distribution of fractures, connectivity The documents cited under the above topics mainly treat geometrical and statistical aspects of fracture data acquisition and processing. Fractures are treated as geometrical elements rather than as geological structures. Under Topic 4.1.5, some more geological aspects are documented, focussed particularly on the chronology of fracturing and type and growth history of the fracture minerals. Kinematic parameters (direction and amount of movement on faults) are considered separately in the next chapter, since they are more relevant to the deterministic modelling of fracture zones.

4.1.1 Fracture Orientation and the Definition of Fracture Sets

Some papers relating to fracture orientation are collected under Topic 4.1.1. They mainly exemplify different aspects of orientation measurement and the bias caused by linear sampling (e.g. Terzaghi 1965, Seeburger & Zoback 1982, Ewan et al. 1983, Brown 1987, McClay 1987, Feng et al. 2001, Park & West 2002, Kemeny & Post 2003, see also Topic 4.2.1). The definition of fracture sets is of fundamental importance for all types of fracture system analysis and the key methodology is stereographic projection (e.g. Phillips 1971, Thomas et al. 1987, Davis & Reynolds 1996, Part III-H), or rather, today, its computerized equivalents. A rigorous procedure for set definition is particularly important for DFN modelling (see particularly Topics 4.3.2 and 4.3.3) and is usually based on a combination of visual inspection (of contoured stereographic projections of fracture pole data, e.g. Kamb 1959, Vollmer 1995, Ortner et al. 2002) and clustering algorithms (which some authors claim to be fully automatic, not requiring visual inspection of stereograms, e.g. Hammah & Curran 1998, Marcotte & Henry 2002), together with careful consideration of fracture typology. The problem of set definition and orientation distribution functions is treated in many reports on Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) modelling, including numerous TVO, Posiva and SKB reports (see Topic 4.3.2).

Priest 1983 (Ch. 3) and Munier 2004 (Ch. 3.1) discuss fracture orientation and the definition of fracture sets in detail and give the key references (se also Figure 8). .

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Figure 8. Use of stereographic projection for the definition of fracture orientation sets (data from Forsmark site investigation, cored borehole KFM01A). (a) Equal area stereogram of fracture poles, (b) contoured version of (a) using the Kamb contouring method. Below (b), contoured version of (a) after correction for the orientation bias in the borehole data (Terzaghi effect). From Munier (2004), Figs. 3-4 and 3-5.

4.1.2 Fracture Size and Size Distribution of Fracture Sets

One of the most important and ellusive parameters needed for DFN and other types of fracture system modelling is fracture size, i.e. the dimensions of the fracture in 3D. Since a fracture can never be reconstructed in its entirety, various proxies have to be used. The most commonly used proxy for fracture size is the fracture trace length, the length of the line of intersection of the fracture and a flat rock surface (outcrop, tunnel wall, quarry floor, etc., e.g. Cruden 1977, Priest & Hudson 1981, LaPointe & Hudson

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1985, Bahat 1988, Caprariis 1988, LaPointe 2002), although, because of fringes, en echelon crack systems, intersections, etc. (see Section 3.2), the trace length measure of fracture size is fraught with difficulty. Also, trace length cannot be used as a size parameter if only core and borehole data are available (see Topic 4.2.2). An alternative size parameter is aperture, and equivalent parameters such as vein width and width of wall-rock alteration halo, particularly in connection with core logging and logging of borehole-wall images (e.g. Stone 1984, Barton & Zoback 1992, Hakami 1995, Vermilye & Scholz 1995, Isakov et al. 2001). If fractures are identified as small faults, other measures of size, such as displacement or gouge thickness, may present themselves, although rarely in sufficient amount to provide a statistically sound data set (see Topic 5.2.3)

For DFN modelling (Topic 4.3.2), sufficient fracture size data must be collected to define the size distribution (relationship between size and frequency of occurrence) of each fracture set. For fracture trace data, which is most commonly used, this time-consuming procedure requires large areas of exposed rock (see Topics 4.2.4 and 4.2.5) and is usually only carried out at a few localities, on the assumption that these give distributions which are typical for the whole area (e.g. Segall & Pollard 1983, Odling 1997, Parades & Elorza 1999, Gillespie et al. 2001, Bour et al. 2002). An example of the size distribution obtained for fracture aperture is given by Barton & Zoback 1992, and similar data sets have been obtained for displacement in fault systems (see Topic 5.5.3). Many of these works showed that the size-frequency relationship followed a power law over the scale range investigated (i.e. log/log plots of size against frequency showed a straight line distribution, cf. Pickering & Sanderson 1995, Darcel et al. 2004). This led to the idea that fracturing is fractal in nature (c.f. Marsily 1985, Turcotte 1987, 1991, Silberschmidt & Silberschmidt 1991, Korvin 1992, Barton 1995, Agterberg & Cheng 1999, Sahimi 2000), and that measured size distributions could be extrapolated using the fractal dimension (e.g. LaPointe 2002). However, the size-frequency relationships in fracture systems are often quite complex, i.e. far from ideally fractal (e.g. Chilés 1988, Heffer & Bevan 1990, Koestler et al. 1995, Fossen & Rørnes 1996, Bonnet et al. 2001) and the whole question of scaling needs to be investigated throroughly in each individual case.

Priest 1983 (Ch. 6) and Munier 2004 (Ch. 3.2) discuss the parameter of fracture size and the subject of fracture size distribution in detail and give the key references.

4.1.3 Degree of Fracturing

Topic 4.1.3 concerns the degree of fracturing, i.e. the number of fractures per unit length of borehole or scanline (fracture frequency, e.g. Dugal et al. 1981, Priest & Hudson 1981, Ewan et al. 1983, Hudson & Priest 1983, Sen & Kazi 1984, Peacock et al. 2003), the total trace length of fractures per unit area of outcrop, tunnel face, etc. (fracture density, e.g. Kulatilake & Wu 1984, Titley et al. 1986, LaPointe 1988, Tripp & Vearncombe 2004), or the total area of fracture surfaces within a unit volume of rock (fracture intensity). Fracture intensity (often given the symbol P32) cannot be measured directly, but has to be estimated on the basis of fracture frequency and/or density measurements (often given the symbols P10 and P21 respectively, e.g. Ona & Maesibu

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1985, Ona 1988, LaPointe t al. 2004, Hermanson et al. 2005). Fracture frequency (or its reciprocal - fracture spacing) is the most common measurement of degree of fracturing, and is closely related to rock quality parameters used in rock engineering (e.g. Deere 1964, see Topic 4.3.1). A problematic aspect of degree of fracturing is the commonly observed relationship between fracture spacing and bed thickness in sedimentary sequences, as well as the obvious lithological control (e.g. Hobbs 1967, Ladeira & Price 1981, Narr & Lerche 1984, Lerche & Narr 1986, Bahat 1988, Huang & Angelier 1989, Narr & Suppe 1991, Wu & Pollard 1995, Ji & Saruwatari 1998, Bai & Pollard 2000). Although the latter references refers to sedimentary sequences, the theme may have some relevance to Olkiluoto with respect to the degree of fracturing in granitic and pegmatitic veins of different thicknesses.

Priest 1983 (Ch. 4 and 5) and Munier 2004 (Ch. 3.3) discuss degree of fracturing in detail and give the key references.

4.1.4 Spatial Distribution of Fractures, Connectivity

The statistical analysis of orientation, size and frequency of fractures provides the basic input data for fracture system modelling, but the building of the model requires also instructions on how the fractures are to be distributed in space. Early modelling attempts used a random distribution (the mid-points of the fractures were distributed randomly in space, e.g. Long et al. 1982) or a Poisson distribution (e.g. Baecher 1983), both resulting in unnatural-looking simulated fracture patterns. Also more sophisticated spatial distribution rules, e.g. the parent-daughter rule (clustering of small “daughter” fractures around large “parent fracture zones”, e.g. Hestir et al. 1987) suffered from the same disadvantage (i.e. the unnatural spatial distribution of the “parents”). More recently, great effort has been put into determining the distribution rules of natural fracture patterns (e.g. Rives t al. 1992, Bour et al. 2002) and into developing other methods of distributing and clustering fractures in a natural way (e.g. Gauthier & Lake 1993, Gillespie et al. 1993, Barton 1995, Belfield 1998, Houlding 2000, Alberti 2005). From a hydrogeological point of view, the spatial distribution of the fractures in the model space is critical for the degree of intersection of the fractures and the length of the resulting flow paths, i.e. for the connectivity (e.g. LaPointe & Hudson 1985, Marsily 1985, Rouleau & Gale 1985, Watanabe 1985, LaPointe 1988, Berkowitz 1995, Odling 1997, Ozkaya & Mattner 2003).

4.1.5 Fracture and Fracture-Mineral Chronology

The fracture parameters outlined and discussed in the papers cited under Topics 4.1.1 to 4.1.3 (orientation, size, frequency) are numerical and the aim is to create data sets which amenable to statistical treatment (bias corrections, distribution function, etc.) in preparation for building a 3D fracture system model (see also Themes 4.2 and 4.3). In the course of this process it may be neglected that fractures and fracture systems are geological features. Topic 4.1.4 indicated the importance of this fact – the important aspect of spatial distribution and connectivity are determined by natural laws which are not fully understood (the geologist simply sees that simulated fracture network models

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do not “look” natural, but it is hard to define exactly why). The present topic, 4.1.5, is added to emphasize even more this aspect of modelling, that one is dealing with geology, not only geometry and statistics. Each fracture is not only measured, but is also characterised, and the types of fracture in question (see Section 3.2) are significant for the way in which the modelling is carried out. Particularly important is the question of timing, which has two aspects, which in favourable circumstances are of mutual assistance. Firstly, the minerals in veins and mineral-lined fractures often show textures, fluid inclusions and isotopic relationships indicating deposition in sequence, an aspect which has already been documented in some detail at Olkiluoto (e.g. Blyth et al. 1998, Blyth et al. 2000, Gehör et al. 2002). Secondly, there is the problematic issue of superimposed fracture systems and the relative dating of fracture-related events. This is often attempted using cross-cutting and displacement relationships between different fracture sets (e.g. Bahat 1988, Barton et al. 1988, Price & Cosgrove 1990, Cruickshank & Aydin 1995, Rawnsley et al. 1998, Peacock 2001, Potts & Reddy 2001), but it is usually more convincing when the fracture mineralogy and wall-rock alteration are taken into account as well (e.g. Stone & Kamineni 1982, Titley et al. 1986, Milnes & Gee 1992, Munier 1993a, 1993b, Gascoyne et al. 1997).

4.2 Fracture Data Acquisition

The documents cited under the previous theme concentrate mainly on the different parameters which are essential for fracture system modelling in 3D, and on the statistical processing necessary to correct biases in the raw data and to produce statistically valid mean values and distribution functions as input for numerical modelling. Under the present theme, the citations relate to the actual acquisition of the raw data and associated problems. The first topic (Topic 4.2.1) refers to basic principles of linear and areal sampling, which, as noted above, are the only practical means of modelling a fracture network in 3D. This is followed by a discussion of the different types of linear sampling techniques – data acquisition in boreholes, with and without oriented cores, scanline logging, etc. (Topic 4.2.2). Finally, a collection of citations are presented to document areal sampling (Topic 4.2.3), a process often referred to as “window mapping”, including a selection of papers and reports which contain detailed fracture trace maps as figures or plates. These case studies are important because they provide a body of comparative data for assessing the “reality” of simulated fracture patterns.

4.2.1 Basic Principles of Linear and Areal Sampling

The works selected for inclusion under this heading have mainly been cited before under Section 4.1, and will not be commented further. Although some are mainly discussions of the basic principles of fracture data acquisition (e.g. Nelson 1985, LaPointe & Hudson 1985, Preist 1993, Pickering et al. 1995, Park & West 2000), some of them are particularly interesting case studies, illustrating the translation of the fracture data acquired by linear and areal sampling into the parameters necessary for 3D

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modelling (Rouleau & Gale 1985, Long & Billaux 1987, Dezayes et al. 2000, Winberg et al. 2000, Bossart et al. 2001).

4.2.2 Fracture Logging of Cored Drillholes

There has long been a consensus that fracture data acquisition in boreholes is best carried out on oriented rock cores (e.g. Read 1990, Rouleau & Gale1985, Stanley & Hooper 2003). Originally, this was carried out by mechanically marking the core within an oriented core barrel (e.g. Kulander et al. 1990), and visual fitting together of core fragments, forerunners of the more reliable Posiva system (see below). However, such methods were judged to be too expensive and time-consuming, and too often unsuccessful, especially in the oil industry, and in the past decade an intensive search has been made to find a more satisfactory system using various types of borehole-wall imagery. In these systems, the core is oriented retrospectively, i.e. not at the drillsite, like the mechaical methods, but in the core laboratory, often long after drilling, using different methods, including core scanning techniques (e.g. Annels & Hellewell 1987, Weber 1994, Ytredal 1995, Payenberg et al. 2000, Paulen et al. 2002, Schmitz et al. 2001, Scott & Berry 2004). The most reliable method, however, is to combine optical borehole-wall imagery (e.g. BIPS, OPTV) with mechanically oriented core, such that each method compensates for the disadvantages of the other (e.g. borehole-wall imagery compensates for core loss or unsuccessful orientation, whilst oriented core data compensate for insufficient definition, characterisation difficulties in the images, or slow delivery). This is the procedure which has been developed at Posiva and which is now being used on a routine basis (e.g. Melamed & Front 1996, Niinimäki 2002a, 2002b, 2002c, 2002d, Rautio 2002, 2003). A major advantage of this system is that preliminary fracture logs become available immediately after drilling (the cores are oriented and measured manually, on-site). These can be used immediately by the rock engineers for rock quality estimation (see Topic 4.3.1), instead of having to wait until the images have been processed and logged in the laboratory. The SKB system, called Boremap, does not rely on mechanical core orientation or core scanning, but orients the core only when required (e.g. to measure the orientation of fractures which are visible in the core but not seen on the BIPS images) using the “guide-line” method (Ehrenborg & Stejskal 2004, Ehrenborg & Dahlin 2005).

4.2.3 Optical and Geophysical Fracture Logging Techniques, Petrophysics

In the absence of cores, fracture logging has to be carried out using modern borehole-wall imaging techniques alone (instead of in conjunction with rock cores, as documented under Topic 4.2.2). Fracture orientation data collected by this means suffers from some disadvantages, particularly those connected with the impossibility of directly observing and characterising the structures observed in the images, but, if comparable images from nearby cored drillholes are available, the data can be of acceptable quality for statistical treatment (cf. Stråhle 1996, 1998, Ozkaya & Mattner 2003). Other types of data which have been used to interpret the degree of fracturing in drillholes include standard geophysical (wireline) logging (e.g. McEwen et al. 1985, Fitzgerald et al. 1999, Löfgren & Neretnieks 2002, see also NRC/CFCFF 1996),

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specialized geophysical logging techniques (e.g. Siddans & Wild 1996, Siddans et al. 1997, Siddans et al. 1998, Montemagno et al. 1999), borehole radar measurements (e.g. Carlsten et al. 1989, Carlsten & Wänstedt 1996, Carlsten 1996, Wänstedt et al. 2000) and well test data (e.g. Doe & Geier 1991), sometimes in conjunction with fracture frequency logs from cores (e.g. Korkealaakso et al. 1994). However, most geophysical logging studies do not focus on individual fractures but rather on fracture frequency, i.e. the identification of highly fractured zones which may be of significance for underground excavation and site hydrogeology. The identification of highly fractured zones in boreholes is documented in more detail in the next chapter (see Topic 5.4.1 for a more complete overview of fracture zone investigations at the Olkiluoto site).

4.2.4 Scanline Logging of Rock Exposures

An important type of linear sampling is known as scanline logging, in which “scanlines”, usually in the form measuring tapes, are laid out on or attached to more or less planar rock surfaces (e.g. Priest & Hudson 1981, Hudson & Priest 1983, Sen & Kazi 1984, LaPointe & Hudson 1985, Milnes & Gee 1992, Priest 1993, Koestler et al. 1995, Zhou & Maerz 2002, Smith 2004). Although a single straight scanline is a linear sample, two or more scanlines in different directions can be treated statistically as areal sampling, with the great advantage that scanline logging is usually less time consuming than the construction of detailed fracture trace maps (see Topic 4.2.5). The same effect can be achieved using curved or circular scanlines (e.g. Mauldon & Mauldon 1997, Mauldon et al. 2001, Peacock et al. 2003). It should be noted that fracture data acquisition along scanlines yields data sets which are fundamentally different from those along cored boreholes, since the observation window is not confined to the immediate vicinity of the measuring tape. This means that the characterisation of each fracture intersected by the scanline takes into account the whole fracture (curvature, irregularity, mineralogy, signs of movement, kinematics, etc., observed on either side of the scanline itself), and, particularly, that the parameter “size” (see Topic 4.1.2: trace length, aperture, displacement, etc.) can be documented systematically.

4.2.5 Areal Sampling - Fracture Trace Mapping (Outcrop-Trench-Tunnel)

In order to study the size distribution of fractures at a site for Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) modelling (see Topic 4.3.2), it is imperative at some point to carry out detailed fracture trace mapping of natural outcrops and/or artificial excavations (road cuts, quarries, tunnels, etc.). Equidimensional, subhorizontal natural outcrops or quarry floors of sufficient size (at least 1000 m2 for most DFN purposes), with approaching 100% exposure, are ideal study objects for grid mapping and computer-aided field mapping (e.g. LaPointe & Hudson 1985, Milnes & Gee 1992, Briner et al. 1999, Brodaric 2004, Brodaric et al. 2004, Hermanson et al. 2004, 2005). Grid mapping consists of laying out a rectangular line grid over the outcrop and mapping every fracture in detail, later to be reconstructed as a fracture trace map (and other relevant geological features) using some combination of hand drawing, photography and/or geodetic measurements (e.g. Figur 9). Conditions for such “hands-on” studies are not always favourable, especially underground: large parts of tunnel walls and roof are inaccessible and/or are too

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dangerous for such work, and “remote” methods must be used (e.g. Bulut & Tüdes 1996, Feng et al. 2001, Feng et al. 2003, Kemeny & Post 2003), in conjunction with scanline logging (Topic 4.2.4). At Olkiluoto, detailed mapping which approaches grid mapping has been carried out along cleared trenches across the site (e.g. Lindberg & Paulamäki 2003, Paulamäki 2004a, 2004b, Paulamäki & Aaltonen 2003) and grid mapping has been carried out one large cleared area (1260 m2). The remaining citations under this topic are other case studies illustrating the procedures and results of areal sampling, and containing detailed fracture maps from surface outcrops ( e.g. Segall & Pollard 1983, Stone 1984, Thomas et al. 1987, Odling & Webman 1991, Koestler & Reksten 1995, Ytredal 1995, Odling 1997) and underground excavations (e.g. Rouleau & Gale 1985, Billaux et al. 1989, Bursey et al. 1991, Bossart et al. 2001).

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Figure 9. Example of a detailed fracture map from areal mapping and scanline logging in a limestone quarry, from the seminal work of LaPointe and Hudson (LaPointe & Hudson 1985).

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4.3 Fracture System Characterisation, Analysis and Modelling

As a follow-up to Section 4.1, on fracture parameters, and Section 4.2, on fracture data acquisition, the documents cited in this section illustrate different ways of using the collected data to create 3D fracture system models for different applications. The references are subdivided into two groups. Topic 4.3.1 deals with rock quality estimation and rock mass classification, which requires some additional parameters not listed in Section 4.1. An overview of this type of numerical modelling in rock mechanics is given in Jing & Hudson 2002 (Figure 10. The second group, Topic 4.3.2, deals with the more complicated modelling required for hydrogeological simulations, Discret Fracture Network modelling, which has seen a great upswing in sophistication in the last decade, as its importance for the performance assessment for nuclear waste repositories became clear. For recent discussions of DFN modelling in this area of application, see Munier 2004, Darcel et al. 2004, LaPointe et al. 2005 and Hermanson et al. 2005.

4.3.1 Rock Quality, Rock Mass Classification, Stability Modelling for Rock Engineering

Rock engineering applications, particularly rock quality estimates and rock mass characterisation and classification, require some parameters which are not included in the discussion above, particularly discontinuity roughness (often called “joint” roughness, e.g. Barton & Choubey 1977, Odling 1994, Chae et al. 2004, Klang et al. 2004, for overview of methods of data acquisition, see Feng et al. 2003), and block size and shape (Dershowitz & Einstein 1988, Starzec & Tsang 2002, Zhang 2002, Giaccio et al. 2003, Pine & Harrison 2003, Smith 2004). General surveys of these parameters and their usage are given in ISRM (1978), Goodman (1989) and Hudson & Harrison (1997) (see also Harrison & Hudson 2000). These parameters are the basis of rock mass characterisation and classification systems for engineering purposes (e.g. Barton et al. 1974, Bieniawski 1989, Afrouz 1992, Priest 1993, Palmström 1996a, 1996b, Milne et al. 1998, Riedmüller & Schubert 1999, Singh & Goel 1999, Bagde et al. 2002, Barton 2002, Sapigni et al. 2002, Sen & Sadagah 2003, Aydin 2004). In Olkiluoto, efforts are now being made to modify the traditional Finnish classification system (e.g. Korhonen et al. 1974, Gardemeister et al. 1976) so that the system is not only useful for rock engineering but also for identifying rock masses which are favourable from the point of view of long term safety (e.g. Äikäs et al. 2000, McEwen 2002, Hagros et al. 2003, Hagros et al. 2005).

Joint roughness is particularly important for stability estimates, since it is intimately connected with the sliding potential on unsupported rock surfaces and the bulk strength of the rock mass. Hence the deformability of natural discontinuities have been subject of intense study (e.g. Bandis et al. 1983, Barton et al. 1985, Nilsen 1985, Brown & Scholz 1986, Barton & Bakhtar 1987, Priest 1993, Lindfors 1996, Olsson 1998). Study of the deformability of individual fractures, together with modelling of the whole fracture network based on the other parameters mentioned under this theme, form the essential basis for the stability modelling of underground excavations (e.g. Kulatilake et

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al. 1992, Johansson & Rautakorpi 2000, Martin et al. 2001, Haijiabdolmajid et al. 2002, Hakami & Olofsson 2002, Jing & Hudson 2002, Rautakorpi et al. 2003).

Figure 10. Schematic overview of numerical methods in rock mechanics and engineering (Jing & Hudson 2002, Fig.1).

4.3.2 Discrete Fracture Network (Dfn) Modelling

Discrete Fracture Network modelling developed during the 1980s as a response to the need for more sophisticated methods of studying fluid flow in fractured rocks, using the easy access to powerful computers which appeared at that time. With regard to nuclear waste disposal, it was the international Stripa project (1980-1992) in the Stripa mine, central Sweden, which initiated DFN activities and contributed enormously to the development of fracture data acquisition, analysis and modelling techniques (e.g. Rouleau & Gale 1985, Rouleau & Gale 1987, Andersson & Dverstorp 1987, Martel 1992, Olsson 1992, SKB 1993, see also Topic 5.4.2). Similar methods were being developed and applied to other sites (e.g. Thomas et al. 1987, Long & Billaux 1987, Chilés 1988, Billaux et al. 1989, Geier et al. 1992), often parallel with the Stripa experience, and were soon extended to the Finnish sites based on the preliminary fracture data from the first cored drillholes (e.g. Kuusela-Lahtinen & Front 1992, Oudman 1991, 1992, Poteri & Taivassalo 1994, Poteri 1995, Poteri & Laitinen 1997, Niemi et al. 1999). Similar work (surface based, prior to the start of underground

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construction) was carried out on Äspö island during the pre-investigation phase of the construction of the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory (e.g. Wikberg et al. 1991, Billaux et al. 1994, Black et al. 1994). However, DFN modelling became one of the main research themes after underground construction at Äspö started, as a greatly improved fracture data base became available (e.g. LaPointe et al. 1995, Dershowitz et al. 1996, Sirat 1999, Svensson 1999, 2001a, 2001b, Outters & Shuttle 2000, Bossart et al. 2001, see also Topic 5.4.2) and this experience has resulted in some fundamental reports on DFN methodology (e.g. Holmen & Outters 2002, Munier 2004, LaPointe et al. 2005, Hermanson et al. 2005). A particularly important experiment based on DFN modelling, which has particular relevance to Olkiluoto and the construction of ONKALO, was the Äspö tunnel drawdown experiment, in which different modelling techniques were tested by different research groups (e.g. Uchida et al. 1994, Gylling 1997, Uchida et al. 1997, Holton & Milický 1997, Tanaka et al. 1996, Rhén et al. 1997, Molinero et al. 2002, Selroos et al. 2002). Although most of the documents cited above are related to the quantitative study of the transport and migration of radionuclides, DFN modelling is used also in other areas, for instance, in water resource estimation (e.g. Wang et al. 2001), in seismic risk studies (e.g. LaPointe & Hermansson 2002, see also Topic 4.5.2), in rock engineering (e.g. Starzec & Tsang 2002) and in academic research (e.g. Van Dijk et al. 2000).

4.3.3 Bulk Properties of Averagely Fractured Rock Masses

In spite of all the differences in detail, at a large scale, the fracture systems in the blocks between the main fracture zones at Olkiluoto and at the Swedish sites show similarities which lead to broadly similar “bulk” properties (properties of the rock mass at a scale which is much larger than blocks between the individual fractures) . The question of bulk properties is explored in the citations collected in this Subsection, although not necessarily focussed on the sites in Finland and Sweden. The first group concerns the estimation of the bulk strain which has been suffered by the rock mass under fracturing (which is closely related to the stress conditions causing rupture and subsequent frictional slip). Since most strain is achieved by fault movement (e.g. slip on already formed planes of weakness), the dominance of joints at Olkiluoto would suggest that strain has been minimal and possibly mainly dilational. For some engineering purposes, the present-day bulk strength of the rock mass is a significant parameter, whereas for some hydrogeological purposes, the bulk permeability of a large volume of rock containing the investigated fracture system is needed. In both cases, a particular problem is to define the elemental volume, i.e. the minimum size of the fractured rock mass which can be considered as a hydromechanical continuum. In the final topic, the references refer to different aspests of bulk anisotropy, with emphasis on variations of strength and/or permeability in different directions caused by a statistical anisotropy of the fracture network. Such an anisotropy may be the result the present-day stress field working on a statistically isotropic fracture network, or it may be the result of the statistical anisotropy of the fracture network. Since there are indications that one of the most important fracture sets at Olkiluoto is “foliation-guided” (statistically sub-parallel to the foliation in the intact rock, see Section 2.4), the phenomenon of rock mass anisotropy may be an important site characteristic.

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Bulk strain due to fracturing and faultingJamison & Stearns 1982, Hancock 1985, Wojtal 1986, Laubach 1988, Marrett & Allmendinger 1991, Milnes & Gee 1992, Peacock & Sanderson1994b, Milnes 1994, Gross & Engelder 1995, Nieto-Samaniego & Alaniz-Alvarez 1995, Krantz 1995, Gross et al. 1997, Engelder et al. 2001

Bulk strengthWagner & Engler 1983, Kulatilake et al. 1992, 1995, Priest 1993 (Ch. 9), Olsson 1997, Hudson & Harrison 1997 (Ch. 8), Hoek & Brown 1997, Sapigni et al. 2002, Martin et al 2001, Singh & Sshagiri Rao 2005

Bulk permeabilityCarlsson & Carlstedt 1977, Long et al. 1982, Wilson et al. 1983, Oda 1988, Drogue 1988, Odling & Webman 1991, Priest 1993 (Ch. 10), LaPointe et al. 1995, Hudson & Harrison 1997 (Ch. 9), Niemi et al. 1999, Guimerà et al. 1999, Ingebritsen & Manning 1999, Wanga et al. 2002

Bulk rock mass anisotropy of strength and/or pemeability Long & Witherspoon 1985, Marsily, de, 1985, Roberts & Crampin 1986, Crampin 1987, Oda & Maesibu 1985, Hudson & Harrison 1997 (Ch. 10), Ferrill et al. 1999, Shapiro et al. 1999, Chen et al. 1999, Cornet 2000, Beacom et al. 2001, Ramsay & Lisle 2001, Tsvankin 2001, McEwen 2002, Rautakörpi et al. 2003, Tonon & Amadei 2003, Åkesson et al. 2003, Laubach et al 2004

4.5 Rock Mass Stability

In the final theme in Chapter 4, papers and reports on some dynamic aspects of fracture system analysis are collected. The fracture systems control the reaction of the rock mass to changes in the stress field due to crustal movement, seismic energy release, underground excavation, etc.. Crustal movements cause distributed reactivation of all the myriads of discontinuities much more easily than the formation of new fractures in intact rock, and some key works on crustal deformation, whether caused by plate motion or glacial loading, are collected in the first group (Topic 4.5.1). Such distributed reactivation of fractures in different orientations in fracture systems often takes place as a result of seismic slip on major faults, causing major earthquakes (Topic 4.5.2). This is of particular concern in nuclear waste disposal, for obvious reasons. The citations under this topic include reports of observations in already excavated tunnels and mines which have been subject to the effects of nearby major earthquakes, and recent attempts to numerically model distributed fracture reactivation on the basis of site-specific DFN data from potential Swedish and Finnish deep repository sites (the “LaPointe method”, Figure 11). Works concerning the reaction of the rock mass to the excavation itself, and the stress field pertubations which these cause (EDZ), are collected in a third group (Topic 4.5.3), including references to the monitoring of distributed reactivation with microseismic survey networks. Finally, coupled hydromechanical processes are

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collected in Topic 4.5.4, including the rock mass response to fluid pressure (hydrofracturing) and fracture fluid response to changing rock stresses. Particularly the Topics 4.5.2 to 4.5.4 are of critical importance to the construction of ONKALO, and to all underground construction, worldwide: the scientific literature is much more extensive than indicated here and the present preliminary list of references say more about my lack of expert knowledge than about the available data base.

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Figure 11. The “LaPointe method” for analysing distributed reactivation of fracture systems due to seismic events (LaPointe & Cladouhos 1999, Fig. 2-1).

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4.5.1 Crustal Response to Plate Motion and Glacial Loading/Unloading

Rosengren & Stephasson 1990, 1993, Stephansson & Shen 1991, Engelder 1993, Hansson et al. 1995b-c, Nieto-Samaniego & Alaniz-Alvarez 1995, Nieto-Samaniego 1999, Coppersmith & Young 1999, Baisch & Harjes 2003, Lei et al. 2004

4.5.2 Effect Of Seismic Activity on Underground Excavations

Röshoff 1989b, LaPointe et al. 1997, 1999, 2000, LaPointe & Cladouhos 1999, Kuivamäki 2000, Saari 2000, Martin et al. 2001 (Ch. 7), Beck & Brady 2002, Bäckblom & Munier 2002, LaPointe & Hermanson 2002, Börgesson et al. 2004

4.5.3 Rock Mass Response to Underground Excavation (Edz)

Barton et al. 1992, Martino 2000, Martin et al. 2001, 2003, Hakala et al. 2002, Juvonen 2002

4.5.4 Rock Mass Response to Fluid Pressure and Fracture Fluid Response to Rock Stress (Coupled Hydromechanical Processes)

Marsily, de, 1985, Harper & Last 1989, 1990, Olsson 1997, 1998, Ferrill et al. 1999, Talbot 1999, Gudmundsson & Brenner 2001, Zhang 2002, Baisch & Harjes 2003, Cornet et al. 2003

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5 BRITTLE DEFORMATION ZONES (FRACTURE ZONES)

The emphasis in the preceding Chapter was on stochastic modelling, i.e. on the collection of statistically sound fracture data sets, and the use of the latter for buidling fracture system models for various uses, particularly in “averagely fractured rock”. The term “averagly fractured rock” designates the rock mass in the blocks between the “fracture zones” in traditional nuclear waste terminology, which are by definition large enough to be located, mapped and reconstructed at a repository site and are to be avoided when designing the repository. Hence, the identification, characterisation and subsurface reconstruction of “fracture zones” is perhaps the most important aspect of deterministic geological modelling during site characterization. This is the main emphasis in the present Chapter, which begins with a general discussion of the term “fracture zone”, in relation to a fundamental classification of all types of deformation zone, as it is at presnt in use at Olkiluoto (Section 5.1). Most fracture zones at Olkiluoto, and for nuclear waste disposal the most important types of fracture zones to be avoided, fall within the category fault zone in the classification scheme (Figure 12), so most of this chapter concentrates on the relevant scientific literature on this subject. In Section 5.2, the emphasis is on fault zone geometry and kinematics, i.e. on the quantitative parameters necessary for describing the 3D geometry of fault zones, and the amount and direction of movement, as well as on the “real world” spatial variations in fault zone geometry which have been studied in detail in the last decade. This is followed by a section on the geological characterization of fault zones (Section 5.3), and the properties of fault zone materials. Because of the importance of “fracture zones” (a term which is synonymous with “brittle deformation zones” in the present classification system, see Figure 12) for site investigations in Sweden and Finland, the literature from sites in crystalline bedrock is reviewed in Section 5.4, based mainly on reports from the Swedish, Finnish and Canadian nuclear waste programmes. Finally, two sections of more general interest are added, one concerned with the characterization and interpretation of linked fault systems or fault populations (Section 5.5) and one concerned with the dynamics of faulting (Section 5.6). The aim of this chapter is to provide a background for a deepened understanding of faults and faulting, as a basis for the next generation of deterministic fracture zone models which are at present being developed, since the access tunnel to ONKALO provides insights which surface-based studies could never provide.

5.1 Terminology and Classification of Deformation Zones

With regard to site characterisation, there is general agreement that deformation zonesare potentially significant for both rock engineering and hydrogeology, on the short and the long term, as well as being potentially favoured zones for future movement and seismicity (e.g. during a future glacial period). Hence, geological modelling for deep disposal of spent nuclear fuel is strongly focussed on the deterministic modelling of the 3D geometrical arrangement of the deformation zones in the Site Model volume, as a basis for rock engineering, hydrogeological and seismic studies. Based on the

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experience from Olkiluoto up to now, and on experience from other crystalline sites (particularly Romuvaara, Kivetty and Hästholmen in Finland, and Stripa, Äspö, Forsmark, and Simpevarp in Sweden), a concensus has emerged as to how deformation zones are to be described and classified for the purposes of deep disposal in crystalline complexes, although the terminology may not be everywhere identical from one programme to the other.

The term "zone" is used here in its accepted sense, for a rock unit or geological domain which is tabular in form, having sub-parallel and sub-planar margins, and having a thickness which is very much less than its lateral extent (cf. Munier et al. 2003, p. 9, see also Bäckblom 1989). “Deformation zone” is a general term for any zone in which a high degree of rock deformation has been concentrated (Munier et al. 2003). Deformation zones, in which brittle, ductile, or combined brittle/ductile shear strain is much higher than that found in the wall rock on either side, are characteristic of crystalline complexes the world over (e.g. Montési & Zuber 2002). The deformation in such zones often post-dates the magmatic, migmatitic and/or high-grade metamorphic processes which constructed the crust (the "intact rock" between the deformation zones, see Chapter 3), i.e. deformation zones are often zones of retrograde metamorphism, although this is not always the case. When present, the retrogression can be seen by observing the progressive breakdown of the magmatic, migmatitic and high-grade metamorphic structures and textures as one crosses from the wall rock into the deformation zone, across the zone margin. This "breakdown" usually involves grain-size diminution and/or an increased intensity of fracturing, coupled with mineral transformations and/or hydrothermal alterations which indicate decreasing temperatures and pressures. Under near-surface conditions, this leads to fracturing, brecciation and gouge formation and the formation of related incohesive fault products (see Topic 3.2.6). At greater depths, the main rock types in deformation zones are hard rocks of the cataclasite and mylonite groups (see Section 2.3 and Fig. 5). These relationships have been studied intensively, world-wide, together with the structural relations and microstructures which are typically produced in deformation zones at different levels in the crust, best illustrated by the Sibson-Scholz fault zone model (see Topic 1.2.2 and Fig. 2). Based on this knowledge, a simple classification scheme, using features which are easily observable in rock cores and tunnel walls, can be set up, which also reflects the genesis of the structure (Figure 12).

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Designation of a given intersection at Olkiluoto:

The intersection shows intensive deformation, clearly more intensive than the wall rock on either side.

Designation: Deformation zone intersection

The intersection is characterized by features which indicate that the deformation took place under low PT conditions, lower than those under which the wall rock

was formed.

Designation: Low-grade deformation zone intersection

The intersection shows cohesionless or low-cohesive

deformation products: gouge, breccia, fractured rock and their

partially mineralized equivalents

Designation: Brittle

deformation zone intersection

(often called “fracture zone”intersection in earlier reports)

The intersection shows no clearsigns of lateral

movement

Designation: Joint zone

intersection

(BJI )

The intersection shows clear signs

of lateral movement

Designation: Fault zone

intersection

(BFI)

The intersection shows cohesive

deformation products:

cataclasites,peseudotachylite,

welded crush rocks, etc.

(typically massive and structureless)

Designation: Semi-brittle

deformation

zone, or semi-

brittle fault zone,

intersection

(SFI)

The intersection shows cohesive

deformation products: mylonites,

phyllonites, etc. (typically strongly

foliated)

Designation: Low-grade

ductile

deformation

zone, or ductile

shear zone,

intersection

(DSI)

The intersection is characterized by features which

indicate that the deformation took place under high

PT conditions,similar to those under which the wall rock was

formed, showing cohesive

deformation products (e.g.

blastomylonites)

Designation: High-grade

ductile

deformation zone

intersection

(HGI)

Figure 12. Classification of deformation zone intersections, as at present in use in the ONKALO access tunnel at the Olkiluoto site, Finland (from Milnes et al. in prep.)

As shown in Figure 12, deformation zones can be subdivided into ductile deformation zones, “semi-brittle” deformation zones and brittle deformation zones, according to their mode of origin (as indicated by the types of material developed in zone). A further

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category is distinguished below - composite deformation zones (Topic 5.3.2) – in which ductile, “semi-brittle” and/or brittle deformation of different ages are superimposed The essential features of ductile and “semi-brittle” deformation zones (mylonite and cataclasite zones, respectively) are described in the documents cited under Section 2.3. The emphasis in the present chapter will be on brittle deformation zones. The latter term is synonymous with the term fracture zone, which is the terminology used in most SKB and Posiva reports. The two terms can be used interchangably, but “fracture zone” is often preferred because it is shorter and more tangible.

In cores, tunnels and outcrops, fracture zones are deformation zones which are characterized by cohesionless or low-cohesive fractures and/or cohesionless or low-cohesive fault products (for overview and documentation of small-scale brittle deformation features and cohesionless fault products, see Sections 3.2 and 3.3). Although lack of cohesion is a fundamental characteristic of a fracture zone (and the characteristic which makes fracture zones so important with regard to deep disposal, both for rock engineering and hydrogeology), zones in which the fractures and fault products are partially or wholly mineralized are also included in the term when they are clearly planes of weakness and/or potential pathways for water flow. Since the latter properties are sometimes difficult to ascertain, and may change with time, it is customary to take a conservative standpoint and regard all structures which show low temperature mineralization, whether cohesive or cohesionless at the present time or not, as important for the problem at hand. A fracture zone, as defined above, corresponds closely to the definition of “R-structures” at the Finnish sites, for instance, as presented in the most recent bedrock model at Olkiluoto (Vaittinen et al. 2003). As shown in Figure 12, fracture zones can be further subdivided into joint zones (e.g. Bernhard 1994, Renshaw & Pollard 1994b, NRC/CFCFF 1996) and fault zones (see Section 5.2, below), depending on the presence or absence of slickensided fractures (sheared joints, single-plane faults, see Topics 3.2.3 and 3.2.4), incohesive fault products (gouge, breccia, etc., see Topic 3.2.6), and other signs of significant lateral movement of the wall rocks across the fracture zone. Although joint zones exist locally, in general, a zone of concentrated jointing of any size (significant lateral extent and/or depth penetration) represents a major zone of weakness in the upper crust which will provide an ideal site for future fault movement. Hence, joint zones, which have rarely been described in the scientific literature.

5.2 Fault Zone Geometry and Kinematics

As noted above (Topic 5.1), fault zones are a subdivision of fracture zones (or brittle deformation zones) characterized by the fact that the wall rock on one side has been displaced laterally by a significant amount relative to the other side. “Significant” in this context refers to an amount sufficient to produce a zone of crushing, of significant thickness (at the relevant scale of observation), rather than a single fracture plane. The scale of observation which is most relevant to deterministic site descriptive modelling at Olkiluoto is the ordinary geological mapping of outcrops, tunnel walls, rock cores, etc.. Many of the geometrical features associated with fault zones at that scale are the same as those already described for single plane faults and related features (see Topic 3.2.4), and many of the latter features are found in complicated arrays in and around fault

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zones, wherever the displacement has exceeded a few tens of centimetres. To facilitate entry into the literature on the geometry and kinematics of fault zones (the understanding of which is critical in almost every area of applied geology), I have structured the theme as follows, well aware that the documents selected are too few to do justice to the amount of scientific literature on this important subject.

Topic 5.2.1 focusses on geometrical aspects of fault zones, rather than geological characteristics. These include fault orientation parameters (orientation, direction of slip, sens of slip) and fault size parameters (length, thickness, displacement). A second section, Topic 5.2.2, deals with the patterns of parameter variation within a single fault volume and the geometrical complications which have been described in relation to fault zones, including (fault segmentation, fault linkage, etc.), particularly in the oil industry, where sophisticated 3D seismic surveying is a major tool . This topic deals with “faults in the real world”, in order to understand the limitations of modelling fracture zones as planar, parallel-sided, intersecting plates. A final section, Topic 5.2.3, gives a list of references to the methodology of semi-statistical fault-slip analysis, which has developed recently out of the methods used to determine fault movement from seismic data (focal mechanisms and fault-plane solutions, see Topic 5.6.5), together with a selection of case studies.

5.2.1 Fault Parameters (Slip, Displacement, Thickness),

Although single-plane faults and related features have been treated earlier (Topic 3.2.4), the special parameters used to characterise faults on all scales were not considered when discussing fracture parameters (Section 4.1). The reason is that these are time consuming to collect, often not observable in sufficient numbers to allow statistical treatment, and are not usually critical for rock engineering or hydrogeological purposes of relevance to the present project (e.g. rock mass classification, Topic 4.3.1, or DFN modelling, see Topic 4.3.2). For some purposes, however, fault slip analysis using statistically meaningful data sets is an important tool (see Topic 5.2.3), and for deterministic modelling of sites like Olkiluoto, fault parameters can be critical for model construction (e.g. for the extrapolation and correlation of borehole or tunnel intersections). Hence, this topic starts with references to textbook treatments of fault geometry and the main fault orientation parameters: fault plane orientation (treated earlier under Topic 4.1.1), direction of slip, and sense of slip (e.g. McClay 1987, Twiss & Moores 1992, Davis & Reynolds 1996). For single-plane faults, these parameters can often be directly measured or estimated in the field (see Topic 3.2.4), whereas for larger scale fault zones they are often elusive and can only be roughly estimated using indirect arguments. Nevertheless, at every fault zone intersection (e.g. in boreholes or tunnels), the possible or probable values of these three parameters need to be discussed. In addition to these orientation parameters, parameters related to the fault size need to be measured or estimated, of which there are three: length (treated earlier under Topic 4.1.2), thickness (of the fault core zone and the zones of influence) and displacement or amount of slip. Since, in many situations, the length (sometimes referred to as “width”, e.g. Watterson 1986) of fault zones is difficult to define and even more difficult to measure or estimate, many workers have been concerned with the relationship between length and displacement (e.g. Walsh & Watterson 1988, 1989, Marrett & Allmendinger 1990, 1991, Cowie & Scholz 1992, Cartwright et al. 1995, Carter & Winter 1995,

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Dawers & Anders 1995, Morewood & Roberts 1999, see review by Kim & Sanderson 2005). In addition, some workers have compiled data on the relationship between displacement and thickness (e.g. Scholz 1987, Hull 1988, Marrett & Allmendinger 1990), which is particularly important for structural modelling since displacement is also difficult to estimate on the basis of borehole or tunnel data alone. “Thickness” in this context usually means the thickness of the fault gouge and breccia zone in the core of the fault zone, rather than the zone of influence (damage zon, drag zone, see Topic 5.3.1).

5.2.2 Spatial Variations In Fault Geometry (“Faults In The Real World”)

In contrast to joints, shear on a fracture surface causes incompatability problems which are solved in Nature by the development of numerous complications in fault geometry which are difficult to systematise and classify. The textbook view of faulting often does not correspond to “faults in the real world”, which are never continuous, rarely planar, often segmented and linked, and always accompanied by deformation of the wall rock (Figure 13). One of the most important things in deterministic modelling, which is often forced to use a conceptual fault zone model which is continuous, planar and of constant thickness, is to keep the known complexity of fault geometry in mind, in order to understand the limitations of the model and to estimate uncertainty. Since much of the data on 3D spatial variations in fault geometry comes from situations in which faults can be reconstructed from 3D reflection seismic data (e.g. Roberts et al. 1991), many of the papers cited under this heading concern the faulting of sedimentary rocks (oil industry data), which are not directly relevant to crystalline complexes like Olkiluoto. Nevertheless, they are included here as a balance to the oversimplified interpretations which are sometimes encountered when such 3D data is lacking.

In the real world, the basic element in any system of fault zones at the scale of interest for deterministic modelling is often schematised as a disc-shaped fault plane with maximum displacement (and fault zone thickness) at the centre, decreasing to zero displacement at the circumference, known as the “tip line” (e.g. Gamond 1983, Muraoka & Kamata 1983, Rippon 1985, Higgs & Williams 1987, Barnett et al. 1987, Walsh & Watterson 1989, Cowie & Shipton 1998). This basic element itself contains complicated wall-rock deformation, leading to the concept of a single “fault volume” (Gibson et al. 1989), in which the bounding surface encloses the whole fault zone and its surrounding halo of wall rock deformation related to the slip on the fault (see also Marchal et al. 2003, Mirabella et al. 2004). When the fault within the fault volume is not planar, the wall rock rock on each side and surrounding the tip shows a correspondingly greater influence, depending on the degree of slip incompatability and the type of wall rock (fault-related folds in bedded sedimentary sequences: e.g. Hamblin 1965, Peacock & Xing 1993, Schlische 1995, Reches & Eidelman 1995, Withjack et al. 1995, Salvini & Storti 2001, Grasmann et al. 2005; damage zones in unbedded sediments and massive rock types: e.g. Jamison & Stearns 1982, Katterhorn et al. 2000, Hesthammer & Johansen 2000, Bernard et al. 2002, Billi et al. 2003, Kim et al. 2004, Johansen t al. 2005, see also Section 5.3). However, some types of fault irregularity are slip-compatible, causing a minimum of wall rock disturbance (e.g. Koestler et al. 1992, Ferrill et al. 1999), and some types of fault curvaure are not obstacles to fault growth but rather a result of particular fault mechanisms (e.g. Vendeville 1991).

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Figure 13. 3D geometry of faults “in the real world” showing typical features, such as complex branching, linkage and curvature (Marchal et al. 2003, Figs. 1 and 2). Upper diagram: termination structures -“horse-tail” branching in the dip direction of a normal fault (in cross-section), en echelon fracturing in the strike direction (in map view); lower diagram: linkage structures developed during normal fault propagation (in map view), (a) in isolation, (b) by interference of two neighbouring faults.

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With regard to fault interaction (the simultaneous growth and interference of single fault volumes in a developing fault association, see Themes 5.5 and 5.6), extremely complicated structural relations develop which are difficult to systematize (e.g. Biddle & Christie-Blick 1985, McClay 1992, Peacock et al. 2000, Gupta & Scholz 2000). These relationships are often described in terms of fault segmentation or linkage (e.g. Mandl 1987, Cartwright et al. 1995, Dawers & Anders 1995, Willemse & Pollard ca.1996, Vermilye & Scholz 1999, Acocella et al. 2000, Peacock 2002, Walsh et al. 2003, Soliva & Benedicto 2004), fault termination (fault tips, e.g. McGrath & Davison 1995, Vermyle & Scholz 1998, D’Alessio & Martel 2004), fault intersection ( e.g. McCraig 1988, Nicol et al. 1995, Watterson et al. 1998), and the development of relay and accomodation zones (e.g. Peacock & Sanderson 1994a, Trudgill & Cartwright 1994, Childs et al. 1995, Huggins et al. 1995, Walsh et al. 1999, Acocella et al. 2005). Although these examples come mainly from bedded sequences, which react mechanically differently from crystalline rock of Olkiluoto type, the fact that the Olkiluoto bedrock is heterogeneous and anisotropic means that there may be parallels to some of these structural relations in some situations.

5.2.3 Fault Slip Analysis

Method and theory, paleostress analysis Wallace 1951, Lisle 1987, Reches 1987, Célérier 1988, Huang 1988, Angelier 1989, Gephart 1990, Marrett & Almendinger 1990, Hancock 1994, Davison 1995, Yin & Ranalli 1995, Gross et al. 1997, Nemcok et al. 1999, Gapais et al 2000, Yamaji 2000, 2003, Ramsay & Lisle 2001, Orife et al. 2002, Fry 2003a, 2003b, Hardacre & Cowie 2003, Liesa & Lisle 2004, Orife & Lisle 2003, Pascal 2004, Shan et al. 2003, 2004a, 2004b

Case studiesFrizzel & Zoback 1987, Anglier 1989, Hardcastle 1989, Schmid & Frotzheim 1993, Bernhard 1994, Arlegui-Crespo& Simon-Gomez 1998, Van Dijk et al. 2000, Andre t al. 2001, Pascal et al. 2002, Mostafa 2005, Shan & Fry 2005

5.3 Fault Zone Characterization

The classification of deformation zones (Figure 12) requires that each deformation zone intersection in a borehole or a tunnel must be characterized in detail, particularly with regard to the occurrence and distribution the “fault rock” and the constellation of fault-related brittle structures. In this chapter, the focus is on fault zons, and fault zone architecture (Topic 5.3.1) is an overall term for the geological characteristics of fault zones, which ran be roughly generalized in terms of a fault core zone, lined on either side by zones of influence (“damage zones”, “drag zones”, etc.). In the following section, Topic 5.3.2, a collection of references on composite deformation zones is presented, both those which represent long continued movement on the same zone, which can result in a complex juxtaposition of brittle and ductile features, and those which represent the brittle reactivation of ductile deformation zones in a different

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movement episode and stress field. The third topic in this section concerns the rock mechanics and hydrogeological properties of the materials in the fault core zone, and of the fault zone as a whole (Topic 5.3.3

5.3.1 Fault Zone Architecture

In Section 5.2, the papers cited emphasize the geometrical aspects of fault zones, both from the point of view of parameterization and from the point of view of “real world” 3D geometry. The emphasis in the present Section, in contrast, is on the geological structure of fault zones. “Fault zone architecture” is the term often applied to the overall geological characteristics of fault zones in Nature, particularly as directly observed at the Earth’s surface and underground, and such descriptions form the the basis for developing conceptual fault zone models for radionuclide migration studies (e.g. Winberg et al. 2000, Andersson et al. 2002). Since fault zones are, by definition (see Section 5.1), zones of non-cohesive and/or low cohesive structures and materials, surface outcrops are few and far between (often confined to quarries, road sections, etc.) and undeground exposures are very dangerous (particularly if they need to be “directly observed” before being secured and covered with shotcrete ). Hence, the observations described in the papers cited here are extremely valuable. The first group of citations contains some of the best general descriptions of fault zone architecture, based on specific examples (e.g. Evernden 1979, Wang 1996, Wallace & Morris 1986, Caine et al. 1996, Schulz & Evans 2000), emphasizing the basic architectural pattern of a central core zone of intense crushing and marginal zones of influnce, characterized by localized fault-related fracturing (e.g. Chester & Logan 1986, Kamineni et al. 1988, Seront et al. 1998, Billi et al. 2003).

The gouge and breccia zone which forms the core of fault zones has been studied in some detail, because of its importance in many areas of application (rock engineering, hydrogeology, hydrocarbon reservoir modelling, earthquake prediction, etc.). Some of the example papers cited below concentrate on the detailed description of core zone fabrics (e.g. Rutter et al.1986, Chester & Logan 1987, Groshong 1988, Schulz & Evans 1998, Lin 2001, Wilson et al. 2003, Toro& Pennacchioni 2005), and, based on such work, others interpet the mechanics of gouge and breccia formation during faulting (e.g. Engelder 1974, Sibson 1986, Sammis et al. 1986, Stel & Lankreyer 1994, Cladouhos 1999). From the point of view of modelling at Olkiluoto, perhaps some of the most interesting work is on the permeability of such zones (e.g. Morrow et al. 1984, Evans et al. 1997, Zhang et al. 1997, 2001, Tsutsumi et al. 2004), since experience from the oil industry shows that the core zone of faults can show both a higher or a lower permeability than their surroundings, depending on local conditions, uplift history, gouge characteristics, fabric, etc.. Another problem under discussion is the weakening effect of fluids in fault zones during movement (strain softening), which leads to the more complete concentration of deformation in such zones than would otherwise be expected (e.g. Wintsch et al. 1995, Imber et al. 1997, Stewart et al. 2000, Imber et al. 2001).

The zone of influence on each side of the fault core zone is a concept which is particularly important for radionuclide migration studies. The term is not in general use (in SKB reports, it has been referred to simply as the “transition zone”, e.g. Munier et al

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2003, whereas a recent Posiva report talks of “damage zones”, McEwen 2002), but it best covers the need for description of the region of the wall rock adjacent to the fault (or any type of deformation zone, see Figure 3) which only been modified, not completely overprinted, during fault movement. In many reports and papers, the constellation of minor structures localized in the immediate vicinity of the fault core zone are simply described, without use of a dscriptive term (e.g. Bartlett et al 1981, Jamison & Stearns 1982, Hancock et al. 1987, Schmid & Frotzheim 1993, Petit & Mattauer 1995, Katz et al. 2003, Imposa et al. 2004, Katz et al. 2004), whereas other authors describ it as a “damage zon” or “damaged zone” (e.g. McGrath & Davison 1995, Bernhard 1994, Beach et al 1999, Shipton & Cowie 2003, Flodin & Aydin 2004, Manighetti et al 2004, Kim et al. 2003, 2004, Johansen t al. 2005 – see also literature cited under Topic 5.2.2). Whatever the phenomenon is called, it is extremely important for understanding fault zone geometry and kinematics because (1) structural analysis of relationships in th zone of influence is more likely to contribute to understanding than the fault core zone itself, and (2) the fracture system in the zone of influence is more highly connected and therefore more permeable than averagely fractured rock, making it more water-conducting even when the core zone is impermeable (cf. Chester & Logan 1986). It is also clear that the zon of influence is especially relevant to the question of “respect distance” in connection with repository layout and design (e.g. McEwen 2002, Munier & Hökman 2004, Tanskanen & Palmu 2004, Hagros et al. 2005).

Th following list includes a selection of case studies, which, through their reference lists, provide a further entry into the scientific literature on this subject, which is a central topic for site descriptive modelling: Huntoon & Sears 1975, Sibson 1979a, 1979b, Yielding et al. 1981, Bäckblom & Stanfors 1986, Handy 1987, Grønlie 1991, Cello et al.2000, Hama et al. 2002, Pachell & Evans 2002, Stipp et al. 2002, Faulkner et al. 2003, EscuderViruet et al. 2003, Bierlein & Betts 2004, Matsuda et al. 2004, Mirabella et al. 2004, Bexfield et al. 2005. Since the main aim of studying fault architecture is to provide a solid basis for developing conceptual models of deformation zone relationships in the context of brittle deformation at Olkiluoto, some references to the development of SKB’s conceptual fault zone model are added, for comparison (e.g. Winberg et al. 2000, Bossart et al. 2001, Andersson et al. 2002).

5.3.2 Composite Deformation Zones

The brittle and ductile structures and fault products often occur together in deformation zones, in which case the zone is referred to as composite (Figure 14). This phenomenon is due to two rather different processes. Firstly, long-continued movement on a particular fault zone can result in the wall rock on one side of the fault being significantly cooler, and hence significantly more brittle, than on the other side, sometimes resulting in coeval brittle and ductile deformation at the same crustal level (e.g. Grocotte 1977, Sibson et al. 1979a, 1979b, Wawrzyniec et al. 2001, Braathen et al. 2004). Secondly, ductile shear zones which have ceased to be active, and which have become part of an exhumed crystalline complex, tend to form zones of mechanical weakness which become the preferred location of brittle fracturing and faulting at a late stage in the geological history (e.g. Andréasson & Rodhe 1990, 1992, 1994, Larson et al. 1990, Swensson 1990, Grønlie 1991, Talbot & Sokoutis 1995, Bøe 1997, Beunk & Page 2001, Holdsworth et al. 2001, Imber et al. 2001, McEwen 2002, Braathen et al.

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2004). For composite deformation zones, the dating of fault movement at different points in the history of faulting often provides critical evidence (e.g. Grønlie & Torsvik 1989, Maddock et al. 1991, Fukuchi 2001, Sherlock & Hetzel 2001, Zwingmann et al. 2004)

Figure 14. Different types of composite deformation zones (Davis & Reynolds 1996, Fig. 9-26). (A) Ductile shear zone overprinted by brittle deformation structures and products during uplift to lower PT conditions, (B) Brittle fault reactivated under ductile conditions during burial to higher PT conditions ( metamorphism/recrystallization of the original fault rocks, except where preserved in “tectonic lenses”).

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5.3.3 Properties of Fault Zones and Fault Zone Materials

Strength of fault zone materials Brace 1971, Leijon 1993, Seront et al. 1998, Talbot 2001, Habimana et al. 2002, Tenthorey et al. 2003

Permeability relations in fault zones Kamineni et al. 1988, McCraig 1988, Rudwicki & Hsu 1988, Caine et al. 1996, Zhang & Sanderson 1996, Evans et al. 1997, Seront et al. 1998, Ferrill et al. 1999, Zhang et al. 1999, 2001, Gudmundsson 2000, 2001, Gudmundsson et al. 2001, Imber et al. 2001, Hama 2002, Tenthorey et al. 2003, Vieno et al. 2003, Zhao et al. 2004, Tsutsumi et al. 2004

5.4 Fracture Zones in Crystalline Bedrock: Site Characterisation in Finland, Sweden and Canada

One of the most important aspects of 3D geological modelling of potential sites for deep repositories is the deterministic modelling of fracture zones (both joint zones and fault zones). Correspondingly, an enormous amount of effort has been put into the identification, characterisation and modelling of fracture zones in crystalline bedrock, the world over. This is mainly documented in technical reports published by the nuclear waste institutions in the countries involved, and relatively little has found its way into the scientific literature. Under this theme, I have collected together those reports and publications which are directly relevant to Olkiluoto and the ONKALO project, concentrating particularly on Olkiluoto itself, and on other sites in Finland, Sweden and Canada which lie in similar geological settings.

The reports are subdivided into three Topics, according to their position in the accepted sequence of geoscientific investigation: Step 1 - “observation” (collecting, processing and analysing the data), followed by Step 2 - “interpretation” (assessing the results of the analyses, hypothesizing on their significance, weighing alternative solutions, etc.). Step 1 can be called the ICP step - identification, characterisation, parameterisation - and is represented by the citations in Topics 5.4.1 and 5.4.2. Step 2 can be called the ECV step - extrapolation, correlation, visualisation - and is represented by the citations in Topic 5.4.3. Step 1 citations are subdivided into two groups because there is a fundamental difference in the quality of the data for reconstructing underground relationships (such as the 3D fracture zone network), depending on whether it is derived only from surface-based investigations (Topic 5.3.1), or whether it is derived from these plus “hands-on” underground investigations (in tunnels, URLs, etc. - Topic 5.3.2). The latter, of course, provides a much more reliable data base, and the following ECV step (Topic 5.3.3) is thus subject to a far lower degree of uncertainty. Hence, geological modelling at Olkiluoto enters an entirely new phase as soon as the fracture zones can be observed directly in the ONKALO access tunnel.

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5.4.1 Surface-Based Studies (Surface and Borehole Geology and Geophysics), without Tunnel Control

Methodology, techniques (surface-based site characterisation) SKB guidelines: Andersson et al. 1998, 2000, Ström et al. 1999, SKB 2000a, SKB 2001, Munier et al 2003Different techniques (not SKB-Posiva - from the literature): Lewis & Haeni 1987, Goodwin et al. 1989, Juhlin 1990, Juhlin et al. 1991, Tirén & Beckholmen 1992, NRC/CFCFF 1996 (Ch. 4), Hart 1999, Fitzgerald et al. 1999, Wänstedt et al. 2000, Demanet et al. 2001, Costa & Starkey 2001, Bjorke & Nilsen 2002, Escuder Viruete et al. 2003, Wise et al. 2003, Nguyen et al. 2005, Sharma & Barawal 2005, Porsani et al. 2005Continental Deep Drilling (KTB) programme - techniques and results: Emmermann et al. 1995, Emmermann & Lauterjung 1997, Smithson et al. 2000, Zillmer et al. 2002

Posiva - site investigations at Olkiluoto up to 2004 TILA-99 and Olkiluoto site reports: Vieno & Nordman 1999, Anttila et al. 1999, Äikäs et al. 2000, Posiva Oy 2005 Drilling reports for cored boreholes KR15-KR33 (drilled between 2000 and 2004,

before the start of underground excavations): Niinimäki 2002a-h, 2003a-d, Rautio 2002, 2003, 2004a-c, 2005a-b Selection of other surface-based site investigation activities: Anttila et al 1992, Heikkinen et al. 1992b, Oudman 1992, Saksa et al. 1993b, Front & Okko 1994, Korkealaakso et al.1994, Koskinen & Laitinen 1995, Carlsten 1996, Laine 1996, Melamed & Front 1996, Stråhle 1996, Labbas 1997, Paulamäki et al. 2002, Sjöberg 2003, Coma et al. 2003, Pitkänen et al. 2003, Lindberg & Paulamäki 2004, Paulamäki 2005a-b, Paulamäki & Aaltonen 2005

Posiva - other Finnish sites and site comparisons Saksa et al. 1992, 1993a, Korkealaasko et al. 1994, Carlsten & Wänstedt 1996, Keskinen et al 1998, Front et al. 1999, Johansson & Rautakorpi 2000, Okko et al. 2003

SKB - Fracture Zone Project at Finnsjön Ahlbom et al. 1986, 1989, Dahl-Jensen 1987, Tirén 1991, Leijon & Ljunggren 1992, Andersson, Peter 1993, Cosma et al. 1994, Juhlin 1995 (for a more complete coverage, see Milnes 2002)

SKB - Forsmark site investigations and related studiesTalbot 1990, Axelsson et al. 1998, SKB 2002b, 2004a, 2005b, Petersson et al. 2003, Hermanson et al. 2003 (for complete coverage of SKB reports up to year 2000, including the Osthammar, Tierp and Älvkarleby Förstudie, and the nearby Finnsjön ("Beberg") study site, see Milnes 2002)

SKB - Oskarshamn site investigations and related studiesTalbot 1990, Olsson et al. 1994, Juhlin & Palm 1997, 1999, Ekman 2001, Andersson et al. 2002, Bergman et al. 2002, Juhlin et al. 2002, Löfgren & Neretnieks 2002, Cronquist et al. 2004, Ehrenborg & Stejskal 2004, SKB 2004b, 2005a, Juhlin et al. 2004 (for complete coverage of SKB reports up to year 2000, including the Oskarshamn and

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Hultsfred Förstudie, and the Laxemar deep boreholes, see Milnes 2002; for the Äspö URL, see Topic 5.4.2)

SKI - SITE-94 and related studies Sundquist & Torssander 1995, Tirén 1996, 1997, Tirén et al. 1996, 1999 (for a more complete coverage of SITE-94 reports up to year 2000, see Milnes 2002)

Canada (AECL) - investigations at different research areasDugal et al. 1981, Hillary 1982, Stone et al. 1984, Hillary & Hayles 1985, Soonawala et al. 1987, Kamineni et al. 1988, Everitt et al. 1995, Sikorsky 1996 (for a more complete coverage of AECL reports up to year 2000, see Milnes 2002)

5.4.2 Subsurface Studies and Programmes in Underground Rock Laboratories

Olkiluoto - ONKALOPlanning documents (RDD, UCRP, TKS and related reports): Posiva Oy 2000, 2003a-e, McEwen & Äikäs 2000, Miller et al. 2003, Saksa et al. 2003, Vieno et al. 2003, 2005, Tanskanen & Palmu 2004 Other reports: Autio et al. 2000, McEwen 2002, Rautakorpi et al. 2003, Hagros et al. 2003, 2005, Rasilainen 2004

Stripa Project Pihl et al. 1986, Gale et al. 1991, Olsson 1992, Barton et al. 1992, Olsson 1993, SKB 1993, NRC/CFCFF 1996 (Ch. 8), Witherspoon 2000 (for a more complete coverage of Stripa Project reports published by SKB up to year 2000, see Milnes 2002)

Äspö URL ("Aberg" in the SR97 safety analysis) Munier 1993a-b, Rhén et al. 1997c, Stanfors et al. 1999, SKB 1999c, 2002a-b, 2003, Winberg et al. 2000, Bossart et al. 2001 (see Figure 15), Andersson, J. et al. 2002, Andersson, P. et al. 2002, Hudson 2002, Christiansson & Janson 2003, Ask 2003, Marschall & Elert 2003, Berglund et al. 2003, Mazurak et al. 2003 (for a more complete coverage of reports on Äspö URL published by SKB up to year 2000, see Milnes 2002)

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Figure 15. Conceptual model of brittle and ductile deformation features at different scales in the TRUE-1 block, Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory (Bossart et al. 2001, Fig. 2-44).

Canadian URL Stone & Kamineni 1988, Everitt et al. 1994, 1995, NRC/CFCFF 1996, Tonon & Amadei 2003 (for a more complete coverage of reports on the Canadian URL up to year 2000, see Milnes 2002)

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5.4.3 Structural Modelling (Extrapolation, Correlation, Visualisation of Deterministic Fracture Zones)

Site descriptive modelling for deep disposal in crystalline rocks (case studies and strategy documents) Hillary 1982, Hillary & Hales 1985, Olsson 1993, Olsson et al. 1994, Sundquist & Torssander 1995, Tirén 1996, Tirén et al. 1996, Winberg 1996, Rhén et al. 1997c, Axelsson & Hansen 1998, Saksa & Nummela 1998, Tirén et al. 1999, Winberg et al. 2000, Bossart et al. 2001, Andersson 2002, Andersson, J. et al. 2002, Andersson, P. et al. 2002, Marti et al. 2002, Hudson 2002, SKB 2002, 2003, 2004a, 2005, Berglund et al. 2003, Escuder Viruete et al. 2003, Munier et al. 2003, Vaittinen et al. 2003 ), Hella et al. 2004

Structural modelling in other fields of application (selected references) Graaf, van de, & Ealey 1989, Koestler et al. 1995, Buchanan & Nieuwland 1996, Kemp, de, 1999, Loon, van, 2000, 2004, Van Dijk et al. 2000, Sirakov e al. 2002, Lemon & Jones 2003, Wu & Xu 2003, Refsgaard & Henriksen 2004, Wu et al. 2005

5.5 Characterization of Fault Populations

The works cited under “Faults in the real world” (Topic 5.2.2) show that faults generally occur in linked systems or “populations” which show different characteristics depending on the overall strain field in which they develop. The usual approach to interpreting the resulting trace patterns (for instance, in map view) is to relate them to crustal stress orientations. Faulting as a stress-controlled phenomenon is the basic premise of the classical work of Anderson (Anderson 1951), which led to the distinction of normal, thrust and strike-slip faults and, correspondingly, extensional, compressional and wrench fault systems. Works which implicitly or explicitly use the Andersonian approach are cited in the first group, below. Recently, however, it has been realized that fault patterns in some areas are more complex than the Andersonian approach allows, suggesting that faulting is a strain-controlled process (Nieto-Samaniego 1999). This leads to the prediction of multi-set fault patterns which do not fit into the Andersonian scheme, since the latter presupposes a particular strain type (plane strain). Some papers on faulting in a general strain field are collected in the second group (Reches-Krantz approach). The works cited in the third group concern the size/frequency relations in fault populations (or scaling properties), and whether they follow a fractal law, at least over certain scale ranges. In general, the references given in this Section are mainly directed at understanding regional fault patterns, such as the onshore and offshore lineament patterns in the wider surroundings of the Olkiluoto site, but they are also relevant to DFN modelling (Section 4.3) when the regional fault patterns are included in the analyses.

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5.5.1 Orientation - Andersonian Approach (Plane Strain)

Anderson 1951, Boyer & Elliott 1982, Sanderson & Marchini 1984, Biddle & Christie-Blick 1985, Kautz & Sclater 1988, Sylvester 1988 (see Figure 16), McClay 1992, Milnes 1994, Sibson 1988, Peacock et al. 2000, Ferrill & Morris 2001, Peacock 2002

Figure 16. Associations of different types of geological structure expected in association with a major strike-slip fault zone, and their explanation in terms of strain accomodation using the Andersonian approach, i.e. assuming plane strain(from Sylvester 1988).

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5.5.2 Orientation - Reches-Krantz Approach (General 3d Strain)

Reches 1978, 1983, Aydin & Reches 1982, Reches & Dietrich 1983, Hancock 1985, Krantz 1988, 1989, Nieto-Samaniego 1999, Davates et al. 2003, Olsson, W.A., et al. 2004

5.5.3 Size - Scaling Properties of Fault Populations

Kakimi 1980, Scholz & Aviles 1986, Turcotte 1987, Peacock & Sanderson 1994b, Carter & Winter 1995, Koestler et al. 1995, Fossen & Rønnes 1996, Odling et al. 1999, Steen & Andresen 1999, Poulimenos 2000, Fossen & Hesthammer 2000, Ackermann et al. 2001, Gawthorpe et al. 2003, Roberts et al. 2004, Soliva & Benedicto 2005

5.6 Dynamics of Faulting

To complete this Chapter on brittle deformation zones, a collection of papers on the dynamics of faulting is appended. This is very brief and the references are inadequate in themselves to do more than scratch the surface of the voluminous scientific literature on this important subject. The references are added as an aid to “entering the literature” (through the reference lists in the more recent of the cited works) rather than as a selection based on a detailed review. The Topic headings are self-explanatory.

5.6.1 Mechanics of Faulting - General, Reviews

Anderson 1951, Sibson 1977, Slemmons & Depolo 1986, Scholz 1990, Martel 1999, Schultz 1999, Fukuyama et al. 2004

5.6.2 Fault Formation (Shear Rupture, Post-Yield Fracture Mechanics) - Birth, Growth, Propagation, Linkage, Death

Sibson 1986, 1989, Atkinson 1987 (Ch. 9), Jian & Parmentier 1988, Scholz 1990, Cowie & Scholz 1992, Reches & Lockner 1994, Cartwright et al. 1995, Dawers & Anders 1995, Cowie & Shipton 1998, Ferrill et al. 1999, Jackson 1999, Morewoog & Roberts 1999, Vermilye & Scholz 1999, Dascala et al. 2000, Kattenhorn et al. 2000, Mansfield & Cartwright 2001, Sagy et al. 2001, Peacock 2002, Mazzoli & Bucci 2003, Walsh et al. 2003, D’Alessio & Martel 2004, Crider & Peacock 2004, Manighetti et al. 2004, Nicol et al. 2005b

5.6.3 Fault Movement and Reactivation (Fault-Slip Behaviour, Dilatancy, Shear Heating, Etc.)

Byerlee 1967, Stesky et al. 1974, Teufel 1981, Sibson 1985, 1986, Walsh & Watterson 1987, Scholz 1990, Muir-Wood & King 1993, Agnon & Reches 1995, Nieto-Samaniego

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& Alaniz-Alvarez 1995, Marone 1998, Cowan 1999, Nieto-Samaniego 1999, Joussineau, de, et al. 2001, Norris & Cooper 2001, Monzawa & Otsuki 2003, Warr et al. 2003, Viola et al. 2004, Nicol t al. 2005a, Reches & Dewers 2005, Swanson 2005, Toro & Pennacchioni 2004, 2005

5.6.4 Surface and Near-Surface Expression of Seismically Active Faults

Hill & Beeby 1977, Yielding et al. 1981, Vita-Finzi 1986, Fukuchi 2001, Bergerat & Angelier 2003, Angelier et al. 2003, Bellou et al 2005, Caputo 2005b

5.6.5 Seismotectonics; Seismicity and Crustal Stress; Focal Mechanisms (Fault-Plane Solutions)

Mogi 1967, Mörner 1978, 1991, Sibson 1982, 1983, Arabasz & Julander 1986, Vita-Finzi 1986 (Ch. 9), Atkinson 1987 (Ch. 9), Turcotte 1987, Bernard & Zollo 1989, Jackson & White 1989, Gephart 1990, Scholz 1990 (Ch. 6), Engelder 1993 (Chs. 11, 13), Muir-Wood 1993, Kanamori 1994, Arsdale, van, 200, Jacobi 2002, Uski et al. 2002, Shibazaki 2003, Roberts et al. 2004, Bexfield et al. 2005, Caputo 2005a, Lunina et al. 2005, Malservisi et al. 2005

5.6.6 Faulting, Seismicity and Fluid Flow (Role of Fluids in Faulting, Effects of Faulting/Seismicity on Fluid Flow)

Sibson et al. 1975, Fyfe et al. 1978, Sibson 1986, 1994, 1996, McCraig 1988, Muir-Wood & King 1993, Zhang & Sanderson 1996, Matthaei & Roberts 1997, Seront et al. 1998, Ehlers 1999, Hardebeck & Haukesson 1999, Zhang et al. 2001, Sibson & Roland 2003, Boullier et al. 2004, Uehara & Shimamoto 2004, Green & Jung 2005

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6 REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE OLKILUOTO SITE

6.1 Deep Structure of the Fennoscandian Craton

6.1.1 Geophysical Studies

Blundell et al. 1992, Elo & Korja 1993, Korja et al. 1993, Korja 1993, 2000, Korja & Koivukoski 1994, Grad & Luosto 1994, Korja & Heikkinen 1996, Korja et al. 1996,Pesonen 1997, Milnes et al. 1998, Korsman et al. 1999 (see Figure 17), Malaska & Hyvonen 2000, Lund et al. 2001, Artemieva 2003, Crossley et al. 2004, Stephenson 2004, SVEKALAPKO Working Group et al. 2004, Bruneton et al. 2004 (for a recent review of the regional setting of the Olkiluoto site, see Paulamäki et al. 2002a)

6.1.2 Petrographic and Geochemical Studies

Lahtinen & Huhma 1997, Kukkonen & Peltonen 1999, Kukkonen et al. 2003, Andersen & Griffin 2004, Lehtonen et al. 2004, Bruneton et al. 2004 (for a recent review of the regional setting of the Olkiluoto site, see Paulamäki et al. 2002a)

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Figure 17. Overview bedrock map of Finland, and the deep structure of the Earth’s crust below Olkiluoto interpreted from geophysical data from the GGT/SVEKA transet (from Korsman et al. 1999). Olkiluoto lies at the centre of the small square on the map.

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6.2 Geological Descriptions and Interpretations - the Svecokarelian Orogeny (1910-1750 Ma)

6.2.1 General: Syntheses and Models

Hopgood 1984, Andersson 1991, Park 1991, Gorbatschev & Bogdonova 1993, Lahtinen 1994, Korja 1995, Korja & Heikkinen 1995, 2005, Vaasjoki 1996, Ruotoistenmäki 1996, Lahtinen & Huhma 1997, Nironen 1997, Kilpelainen 1998, Korsman et al. 1999, Lahtinen 2000, Åhäll & Larson 2000

6.2.2 Southwest Finland

Sederholm 1934, Konert et al. 1992, Laurie 1992, Ehlers et al. 1993, Kousa et al. 1994, Koistinen 1996, Lindroos et al. 1996, Selonen & Ehlers 1998, Nironen 1999, Stel et al. 1999, Vaisänen & Hölttä 1999, Nironen et al. 2000, Paulamäki et al. 2002a, Väisänen 2002, Vaisänen et al. 2000, 2002, Vaisänen & Mänttäri 2002, Johannes et a. 2003, Stålfors & Ehlers 2003, Ehlers et al. 2004, Schersten et al. 2004

6.2.3 Eastern Sweden

Stephens et al. 1994, 1997, Stephens & Wahlgren 1996, Milnes et al. 1998, Högdahl 2000, Högdahl & Sjöström 2001, SKB 2004a (see Milnes 2002, for overview of work carried out by the Swedish Geological Survey, under contract to SKB)

6.3 Geological Description and Interpretations - Post-Svecokarelian Events (Post-Migmatitic, Mainly Post-1750 Ma)

6.3.1 General

Muir-Wood 1995, Milnes et al. 1998, Cederbom et al. 2000, Paulamäki et al. 2002a-b

6.3.2 Late Svecokarelian to Post-Svecokarelian Ductile Shear Zones (Post-Migmatitic Ductile Deformation)

Branigan 1987, Ploegsma 1989, Larson et al. 1990, Kärki et al. 1993, Stephens & Wahlgren 1993, Pietikäinen 1994, Kärki 1995, Kärki & Laajoki 1995, Talbot & Sokoutis 1995, Lindroos et al. 1996, Lonka et al. 1998, Högdahl 2000, Beunk & Page 2001, Högdahl & Sjöström 2001, Mattsson & Elming 2001, Pajunen et al. 2001, Vaasjoki et al. 2001

6.3.3 Rapakivi Intrusions And Related Features

Rämo 1991, Haapala & Rämo 1992, Rämo et al. 1994, Haapala 1997a-b, Haapala & Ramo 1999, Puura & Flodén 1999, 2000, Rämo et al. 2000, Åhäll & Larson 2000, Åhäll et al. 2000

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6.3.4 Faulting, Basin Formation, Vertical Movement (Late Precambrian- Phanerozoic, But Pre-Glacial)

Bergman & Lindberg 1979, Axberg 1980, Tynni 1982, Wannäs 1989, Feldskaar & Cathles 1991, Suominen 1991, Kohonen et al. 1993, Lidmar-Bergström 1993, 1996, 1999, Söderberg 1993, Vidal & Moczydlowska 1995, Riis 1996, Stuevold & Eldholm 1996, Heikkinen et al. 1998, Balens, van, & Heeremans 1998, Uutela 1998, Johansson et al. 1999, Larson et al. 1999, Poprawa et al. 1999, Artyushkov et al. 2000, Cederbom 2000, Kousa & Lundqvist 2000, Kuivamäki 2000, Cederblom 2001, Elming & Mattsson 2001, Korja et al. 2001, Mänttäri et al. 2005, Söderlund et al. 2005

6.4 Pleistocene Glacio-Tectonics

6.4.1 Pleistocene History, Ice Sheet Reconstructions, Future Glaciations

Forsström 1999, Boulton et al. 2001, Svendsen et al. 2004, Hohl 2005

6.4.2 Glacio-Isostasy

Eronen et al. 1995, Ekman 1996, Kakkuri 1997, Lambeck & Johnston 1998, Lambeck et al. 1998a-b, Davis et al. 1999, Gudmundsson 1999, Lambeck 1999, Poudjom Djoumani 1999, Klemann & Wolf 1999, Rohr-Torp 2000, Sjöberg et al. 2000, Milne et al. 2001, Påsse 2001, Hutri & Antikainen 2002, Johansson et al. 2002, Lambeck & Purcell 2003

6.4.3 Deglaciation Seismotectonics

Mörner 1978, 1990, 1991, Johnston 1987, Stephansson & Shen 1991, Rosengren & Stephansson 1993, Johnston et al. 1998, Talbot 1999, Muir-Wood 2000 (see Figure 18), Stewart et al. 2000, Feldskaar et al. 2000, Trifanov 2004, Lund 2005

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Figure 18. Interpretation of the present-day seismicity of Scandinavia and offshore areas in terms of deglaciation seismotectonics (Muir-Wood 2000, Fig. 3).

6.4.4 Post-Glacial Faulting and Paleoseismicity (Geological Evidence)

FinlandVuorela et al. 1987, Kuivamäki et al. 1998, Lambeck & Purcell 2003, Ojala et al. 2004, Kotilaainen & Hutri 2004

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Northern Sweden Henkel et al. 1983, Lagerbäck & Witshard 1983, Talbot 1986, Henkel 1988, Lagerbäck 1988, 1990, 1991, Bäckblom & Stanfors 1989, Muir-Wood 1989, Stephansson & Shen 1991, Stanfors & Ericsson 1993

Central and Southern Sweden Mörner 1979, 1985, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2004, Mörner et al. 1981, Björkman & Trädgårdh 1982, Mörner et al. 1989, Mörner & Trøften 1993, Sjöberg 1994, Trøften 1997, 2000, Trøften & Mörner 1997, Talbot 1999, Mörner et al. 2000, Wänstedt 2000, Carlsten & Stråhle 2001

6.5 Stress and Crustal Dynamics in Fennoscandia

6.5.1 Intraplate Tectonics

Blundell et al 1992, Zoback & Townend 2001, Pysklywec & Beaumont 2004

6.5.2 In Situ Stress

Methodology, techniques Hast 1958, Atkinson 1987 (Ch. 6), Kim & Franklin 1987, Amadei 1996, Amadei & Stephansson 1997, Martino et al. 1997, Villaescusa et al. 2002, Nunes 2002, Fairhurst 2003, Ljunggren et al. 2003, Hudson et al. 2003, Zoback et al. 2003

ResultsStephansson et al. 1987, Stephansson 1988, Stephansson et al. 1991, Ljunggren 1998, Hakala 2000, Ekman 2001, Martin et al. 2001, 2003, Sjöberg 2003, Christiansson & Janson 2003, Ask 2003, Pascal t al. 2005

6.5.3 Sesimicity And Seismotectonics

Veriö 1983, Slunga 1989, 1991, Gregersen et al. 1991, Ahjos & Uski 1992, Gregersen 1992, Müller et al. 1992, Saari 1992, 1998, 2000, Muir-Wood 1993, Wahlström & Grünthal 1994, Goes et al. 2000, Uski et al. 2003

6.5.4 Present-Day Crustal Movements (Gps, Etc.)

Veriö 1983, Chen 1991, Kakkuri & Chen 1992, Chen & Kakkuri 1993, 1998, Veriö et al. 1993, Vuorela et al. 1993, Scherneck et al. 1998, Pan et al. 1999, Milne et al. 2001, Johansson et al. 2002, Posiva Oy 2003c, Makinen et al. 2003, Kall & Torim 2003, Scherneck et al. 2003, Virtanen & Makinen 2003, Pietrantonio & Riguzzi 2004, Richter et al. 2004, Crossley et al. 2004, Virtanen 2004, Brgstrand et al. 2005, Kiamehr & Sjöberg 2005, Martinec & Wolf 2005

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6.5.5 Thermal Regime, Crustal Rheology

Kukkonen 1988, 1995, 1998, Dragoni et al. 1993, Balling 1995, Cloetingh & Burov 1996, Milnes et a. 1998, Nyblade 1999, Goes et al. 2000, Kaikkonen et al. 2000, Moisio et al. 2000, Bodri et al. 2001, Artemieva 2003, Kukkonen & Jöeleht 2003, Moisio & Kaikkonen 2004

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Understanding Brittle Deformation at the Olkiluoto …POSIVA OY FI-27160 OLKILUOTO, FINLAND Tel +358-2-8372 31 Fax +358-2-8372 3709 Alan Geoffrey Millnes July 2006 Working Report 2006-25