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Page 1: Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics978-1-4614-9236-8/1.pdf · Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics (ULNP) publishes authoritative texts cov-ering topics throughout pure and applied

Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics

For further volumes:http://www.springer.com/series/8917

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Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics (ULNP) publishes authoritative texts cov-ering topics throughout pure and applied physics. Each title in the series is suitableas a basis for undergraduate instruction, typically containing practice problems,worked examples, chapter summaries, and suggestions for further reading.

ULNP titles must provide at least one of the following:

• An exceptionally clear and concise treatment of a standard undergraduate subject.• A solid undergraduate-level introduction to a graduate, advanced, or non-

standard subject.• A novel perspective or an unusual approach to teaching a subject.

ULNP especially encourages new, original, and idiosyncratic approaches to physicsteaching at the undergraduate level.

The purpose of ULNP is to provide intriguing, absorbing books that will continueto be the reader’s preferred reference throughout their academic career.

Series Editors

Neil AshbyProfessor Emeritus, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA

William BrantleyProfessor, Furman University, Greenville, SC, USA

Michael FowlerProfessor, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA

Michael InglisProfessor, SUNY Suffolk County Community College, Selden, NY, USA

Heinz KloseOldenburg, Niedersachsen, Germany

Helmy SherifProfessor Emeritus, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada

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Charles Keeton

Principles of Astrophysics

Using Gravity and Stellar Physicsto Explore the Cosmos

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Charles KeetonDepartment of Physics and AstronomyRutgers UniversityPiscataway, NJ, USA

ISSN 2192-4791 ISSN 2192-4805 (electronic)ISBN 978-1-4614-9235-1 ISBN 978-1-4614-9236-8 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-9236-8Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014935057

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part ofthe material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or informationstorage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodologynow known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connectionwith reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being enteredand executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication ofthis publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of thePublisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer.Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violationsare liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoes not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevantprotective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date ofpublication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility forany errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, withrespect to the material contained herein.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

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To my parents, who helped me find my path

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Preface

This book is designed to show how physical principles can be used at the advancedundergraduate level to understand astronomical systems such as planets, stars,galaxies, and the universe as a whole. It emerges from a pair of courses at RutgersUniversity that attract not just astrophysics students but a broad audience of physicsand engineering students. The organization is therefore “physics-first”: we start withkey principles of physics and then examine applications to astronomical systems.

At Rutgers, each half of the book constitutes a coherent semester-length course;while there is a little overlap (notably with cosmology in Chaps. 11 and 20),the two halves are largely independent and complementary. Part I focuses ongravity, because this is the dominant force in many astronomical systems and itgoverns many types of motions we observe. The goal of Chaps. 2–11 is to developa progressively richer understanding of gravity and the way astrophysicists usegravitational motion to investigate mass.

Part II centers on one of the “big questions” we humans ask. Why are we here? isadmittedly beyond the realm of physics, but a related question is within our reach:How did we come to be here? As the Sun was forming, various elements cametogether in the right combination to form a rocky planet with a tenuous atmosphere.On this planet Earth, the energy from the Sun and the gas in the atmosphere werejust right to allow the emergence of life. The energy that sustains us originates deepinside our star, thanks to E D mc2. The atoms that comprise our bodies were forgedin previous generations of stars. Literally, we are star dust. The goal of Chaps. 12–20is to understand the roles that electromagnetism as well as gas, atomic, and nuclearphysics play in this remarkable story.

I hope this book will help you learn to think like an astrophysicist. Rather thanmemorizing facts about specific astronomical systems, you will learn to break thesystems into pieces you can analyze and understand using material that shouldbe familiar from introductory physics and vector calculus. (The necessary physicstopics are reviewed as they arise; vital aspects of vector calculus are reviewed inAppendix A.) Then you will be equipped to investigate interesting systems that you

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viii Preface

encounter in the future, even if they are not addressed in this book. Astrophysicsis a dynamic field of research—and one in which you can understand the physicalprinciples that underlie even the newest discoveries. So let’s have fun!

Piscataway Chuck KeetonDecember 2013

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Acknowledgements

“No book is an island, entire of itself.” That is not what John Donne actually wrote,but it could have been. It is certainly apt here. This book would not exist in itspresent form without the help of many people.

Arthur Kosowsky originally developed the structure for the astrophysics coursesat Rutgers, which is reflected in the makeup of this book. Saurabh Jha, Eric Gawiser,and John Moustakas have taught from this material at various stages of development,and provided critical feedback. All contributed ideas for homework problems; andmany rounds of students have (perhaps to their chagrin) field-tested a lot of theproblems. The Rutgers Department of Physics and Astronomy, and in particular theastrophysics group, has provided an environment where excellence in research andteaching are both encouraged and supported.

Art Congdon, Allan Moser, Erik Nordgren, Barnaby Rowe, and Tim Jones havedone yeomen’s work with the manuscript. They provided extensive and insightfulcomments throughout the drafting process, catching everything from typos tomuddled thinking. All remaining errors are my fault, not theirs!

Many researchers have graciously let me use images and figures to illustrate thematerial. They are too numerous to list here, but are credited in the figure captions.

A number of books have contributed to my own learning, but two in particularstand out. An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics by Bradley W. Carroll and DaleA. Ostlie is a monumental survey of astrophysics at the undergraduate level. The“big orange book” maintains a respected place on every astronomer’s bookshelf.Astrophysics in a Nutshell by Dan Maoz is a more focused treatise that shares a lotof the spirit animating this book. Both have influenced my thinking about how topresent this material, as indicated throughout the text.

Last but not least, my wife and son have not merely endured this absorbingproject, but actively endorsed it. To Kelly: thank you for letting me dream. To Evan:if you can dream it, you can do it, but it might take more effort than you imagine.

This work has received financial support from the U.S. National ScienceFoundation through grant AST-0747311.

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Contents

1 Introduction: Tools of the Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 What Is Gravity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Dimensions and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.1 Fundamental Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.2.2 Constants of Nature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.2.3 Astrophysical Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.2.4 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.3 Using the Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.3.1 Phases of an Electron Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.3.2 Stars, Familiar and Exotic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Part I Using Gravity and Motion to Measure Mass

2 Celestial Mechanics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212.1 Motions in the Sky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212.2 Laws of Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252.3 Law of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3 Gravitational One-Body Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353.1 Deriving Kepler’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353.2 Using Kepler III: Motion ! Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.2.1 The Black Hole at the Center of the Milky Way . . . . . . . . . . 403.2.2 Supermassive Black Holes in Other Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.2.3 Active Galactic Nuclei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.3 Related Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473.3.1 Sphere of Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473.3.2 Stellar Dynamical Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

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Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4 Gravitational Two-Body Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534.1 Equivalent One-Body Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.1.1 Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534.1.2 Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544.1.3 Energy and Angular Momentum.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564.1.4 Velocity Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574.1.5 Application to the Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594.1.6 Kepler III Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4.2 Binary Stars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624.2.1 Background: Inclination .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624.2.2 Visual Binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644.2.3 Spectroscopic Binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654.2.4 Eclipsing Binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4.3 Extrasolar Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674.3.1 Doppler Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684.3.2 Transiting Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704.3.3 Status of Exoplanet Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

5 Tidal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795.1 Derivation of the Tidal Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795.2 Effects of Tidal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

5.2.1 Earth/Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825.2.2 Jupiter’s Moon Io . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845.2.3 Extrasolar Planets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

5.3 Tidal Disruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

6 Gravitational Three-Body Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896.1 Two “Stars” and One “Planet” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

6.1.1 Theory: Lagrange Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896.1.2 Applications.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

6.2 One “Planet” and Two “Moons”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936.2.1 Theory: Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946.2.2 Applications.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

7 Extended Mass Distributions: Spiral Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997.1 Galaxy Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

7.1.1 Luminosity Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017.1.2 Concepts of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

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7.2 Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047.2.1 Spherical Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047.2.2 Axial Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

7.3 Rotational Dynamics .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057.3.1 Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067.3.2 Observations and Interpretation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1077.3.3 Cold Dark Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107.3.4 Is Dark Matter Real? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

7.4 Beyond Rotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147.4.1 Tangential Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147.4.2 Vertical Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157.4.3 Radial Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1177.4.4 Application to Spiral Arms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

8 N-Body Problem: Elliptical Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278.1 Gravitational N-Body Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

8.1.1 Equations of Motion .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278.1.2 Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1288.1.3 Virial Theorem .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1308.1.4 A Simple Application: N = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

8.2 Elliptical Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1338.2.1 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1338.2.2 Kinetic Energy .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1358.2.3 Mass Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

8.3 Galaxy Interactions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1378.3.1 Fly-By . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1378.3.2 Collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

8.4 Other N-Body Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

9 Bending of Light by Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439.1 Principles of Gravitational Lensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

9.1.1 Gravitational Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439.1.2 Lens Equation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1469.1.3 Lensing by a Point Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1489.1.4 Distortion and Magnification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1499.1.5 Time Delay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

9.2 Microlensing.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1549.2.1 Theory .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559.2.2 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1569.2.3 Binary Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1579.2.4 Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

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9.3 Strong Lensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1619.3.1 Extended Mass Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1619.3.2 Circular Mass Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1629.3.3 Singular Isothermal Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1639.3.4 Singular Isothermal Ellipsoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1649.3.5 Spherical Galaxy with External Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1659.3.6 Science with Galaxy Strong Lensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

9.4 Weak Lensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

10 Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17710.1 Space and Time: Classical View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17710.2 Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

10.2.1 Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17910.2.2 Loss of Simultaneity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18110.2.3 Time Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18210.2.4 Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18310.2.5 Length Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

10.3 General Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18410.3.1 Concepts of General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18510.3.2 Principle of Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18510.3.3 Curvature of Spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18610.3.4 Gravitational Redshift and Time Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

10.4 Applications of General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19110.4.1 Mercury’s Perihelion Shift (1916) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19110.4.2 Bending of Light (1919).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19310.4.3 Gravitational Redshift on Earth (1960) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19310.4.4 Gravitational Redshift from a White Dwarf (1971) . . . . . . . 19410.4.5 Flying Clocks (1971) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19510.4.6 Global Positioning System (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

10.5 Mathematics of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19910.5.1 Spacetime Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19910.5.2 4-Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20110.5.3 Relativistic Momentum and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

10.6 Black Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20410.6.1 Schwarzschild Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20410.6.2 Spacetime Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20610.6.3 Particle in a Circular Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20710.6.4 General Motion Around a Black Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20910.6.5 Gravitational Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

10.7 Other Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

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11 Cosmology: Expanding Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22111.1 Hubble’s Law and the Expanding Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22111.2 Relativistic Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

11.2.1 Robertson-Walker Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22311.2.2 The Friedmann Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22411.2.3 Einstein’s Greatest Blunder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22711.2.4 FRW Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

11.3 Observational Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22911.3.1 Cosmological Redshift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23011.3.2 Cosmological Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23111.3.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Part II Using Stellar Physics to Explore the Cosmos

12 Planetary Atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24312.1 Kinetic Theory of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

12.1.1 Temperature and the Boltzmann Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24312.1.2 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution of Particle Speeds . . . . . 24412.1.3 Pressure and the Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24712.1.4 Assumptions in the Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

12.2 Hydrostatic Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25112.3 Planetary Atmospheres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

12.3.1 Density Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25212.3.2 Exosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25412.3.3 Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259Reference .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

13 Planetary Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26313.1 Blackbody Radiation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

13.1.1 Luminosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26313.1.2 Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26413.1.3 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26713.1.4 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

13.2 Predicting Planet Temperatures .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26913.3 Atmospheric Heating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

13.3.1 One Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27113.3.2 Many Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27213.3.3 Optical Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

13.4 Interaction of Light with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27413.4.1 Photoionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27513.4.2 Electron Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27613.4.3 Molecular Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

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13.4.4 Molecular Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27813.4.5 Recap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

13.5 Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27913.5.1 Earth .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27913.5.2 Venus .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

14 Stellar Atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28514.1 Atomic Excitation and Ionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

14.1.1 Energy Level Occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28714.1.2 Ionization Stages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28714.1.3 Application to Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

14.2 Stellar Spectral Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

15 Nuclear Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29915.1 What Powers the Sun? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29915.2 Physics of Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

15.2.1 Mass and Energy Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30115.2.2 Requirements for Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30215.2.3 Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30515.2.4 Reaction Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

15.3 Nuclear Reactions in Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31015.3.1 Cast of Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31015.3.2 Masses and Binding Energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31115.3.3 Burning Hydrogen Into Helium .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

15.4 Solar Neutrinos .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31515.4.1 Neutrino Production in the Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31515.4.2 Neutrino Detection (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31615.4.3 Neutrino Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31715.4.4 Neutrino Detection (II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

16 Stellar Structure and Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32516.1 Energy Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

16.1.1 Conduction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32516.1.2 Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

16.2 Stellar Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33116.2.1 Equations of Stellar Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33216.2.2 The Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33416.2.3 Other Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

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16.3 Evolution of Low-Mass Stars (M . 8Mˇ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33816.3.1 Hydrogen, Helium, and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33816.3.2 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

16.4 Evolution of High-Mass Stars (M & 8Mˇ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34116.4.1 Beyond Carbon and Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34216.4.2 Explosion: Supernova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34316.4.3 Beyond Iron .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

17 Stellar Remnants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35117.1 Cold, Degenerate Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35117.2 White Dwarfs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

17.2.1 Equation of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35417.2.2 Polytropic Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35417.2.3 Testing the Theory .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

17.3 Neutron Stars and Pulsars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

18 Charting the Universe with Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36518.1 Stellar Pulsations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

18.1.1 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36518.1.2 Theory .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

18.2 Standard Candles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

19 Star and Planet Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37719.1 Gravitational Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

19.1.1 Equilibrium: Virial Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37719.1.2 Conditions for Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37919.1.3 Fragmentation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38019.1.4 Collapse Time Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

19.2 Gas Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38219.3 Halting the Collapse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

19.3.1 Cessation of Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38519.3.2 Radiation Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38519.3.3 Other Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

19.4 Protoplanetary Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38819.4.1 Temperature Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38819.4.2 Picture of Planet Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

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20 Cosmology: Early Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39520.1 Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

20.1.1 Hot Big Bang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39620.1.2 Theory: Recombination Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39720.1.3 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39820.1.4 Implications .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

20.2 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40120.2.1 Theory: “The First Three Minutes” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40120.2.2 Observations: Primordial Abundances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

20.3 How Did We Get Here? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

Part III Appendices

A Technical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413A.1 Cartesian and Polar Coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413A.2 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415A.3 Rotating Reference Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416A.4 Angular Momentum .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418A.5 Taylor Series Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419A.6 Numerical Solution of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420A.7 Useful Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

B Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

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List of Symbols

Constants of Nature

Speed of light (in vacuum) c D 2:9979 � 108 m s�1

Newton’s gravitational constant G D 6:6738 � 10�11 m3 kg�1 s�2

Planck’s constant h D 6:6261 � 10�34 J sD 4:1357 � 10�15 eV s

„ D 1:0546 � 10�34 J sD 6:5821 � 10�16 eV s

Electron chargea e D 1:5189 � 10�14 kg1=2 m3=2 s�1

Electron mass me D 9:1094 � 10�31 kgProton mass mp D 1:6726 � 10�27 kgNeutron mass mn D 1:6749 � 10�27 kgBoltzmann’s constant kB D 1:3806 � 10�23 J K�1

D 8:6173 � 10�5 eV K�1

Stefan-Boltzmann constant � D 5:6704 � 10�8 kg s�3 K�4

aNote: See Chap. 1 for remarks about the units of charge

Unit Conversions

Energy eV D 1:6022 � 10�19 JTime yr D 3:1557 � 107 sAngle rad D 2:0626 � 105 arcsec

xix

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xx List of Symbols

Astrophysical Scales

Mass Earth mass M˚

D 5:974 � 1024 kgJupiter mass MJ D 1:899 � 1027 kgSolar mass M

ˇ

D 1:989 � 1030 kgLength Earth radius R

˚

D 6:378� 106 mJupiter radius RJ D 7:149 � 107 mSolar radius R

ˇ

D 6:955� 108 mAstronomical unit AU D 1:496� 1011 mlight-year ly D 9:461 � 1015 mparsec pc D 3:086 � 1016 m

Luminosity Solar luminosity Lˇ

D 3:839 � 1026 J s�1

Astrophysical Symbols

ˇ Sun˚ Earth

Mathematical Symbols

Astrophysicists employ a variety of mathematical relations. One skill I hope youwill develop is a sense of how and when they apply. This book uses what I think areconventional symbols to indicate the different relations:

D strict equality� strict equivalence (often used for definitions)/ strict proportionality� close approximation (e.g., Taylor series expansion)� order-of-magnitude estimate

Here are symbols for comparative relations (with similar symbols for ‘less than’):

> strictly greater than& greater than or approximately equal to� much (i.e., order of magnitude) greater than

We sometimes use symbols to indicate logical relationships:

) implies, if and only if

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List of Symbols xxi

We use two symbols to indicate a statistical average (choosing between them basedon which notation is simpler in a given context):

hxi or Nx average of x

In Taylor series expansions, we indicate higher-order terms as follows:

O .xn/ a term proportional to xn