Essay 4daysago•Readingtime16-21minutes•Remindmelater In premodern times, truth offered hope of redemption in the afterlife. As modern society emerged, truth brought us hope of a better world for our descendants. In the postmodern era, truth freed us from false authorities and pretentious ideologies. But what does our own truth still aspire to achieve, other than the infinite satisfaction of our needs?

Truth be sold: how truth became a product Foundingeditor

RobWIJNBERG

FromtheseriesDisneyficationbyTheoDerksen.Youcanreadmoreaboutthesephotos,whichwereshotoverthepast20yearsinmetropolisesallovertheworld,attheendofthearticle.

Mentiontheconceptof"eras"toahistorian,andthere’sadecentchanceyou’llbegreetedwithafrownandasigh.Theficklevagariesofhumanhistorydonotlendthemselvestoeasycategorisation.

Readthisstoryinoneminute.Ourowncontemporaryperiodisevenmoredifficulttopindown.Titlesdescribingthezeitgeistabound,butnoneofthemdefinitivelydefinethe"era"inwhichwelive.

Isthistheeraofglobalisation,vanishingbordersanddissolvingnationstates?Orswellingnationalism,immigrationrestrictionsandputtingthehomelandfirst?Isthisatimeofmultinationals,plutocracyandthe1%?Orstartups,crowdfundingandthe99%?Isthisatimeofrevolution,uprisingandprotest?Ortechnocracy,indifferenceandapathy?Isthisatimeofthesustainable,artisanalandlocal?Orfossilfuel,massproductionandoutsourcing?

Theanswermaywellbe:itisthetimeofallthesethingsatonce.Evenso,thequestionofthemostdefiningcharacteristicsofourtimehasgrippedmesinceIfirstembarkedonmystudyofphilosophy,15yearsagonow.

FromtheseriesDisneyficationbyTheoDerksen

Truth has been the centre of attention for years. But what kind of truth?

Mythoughtsonthemattermostlyrevolvearoundwhatcouldbecalledthemostfundamentalandmostheatedlydiscussedconceptofthepastdecade–andlikelythedecadetocome:truth.Somearguethatwithfact-freepoliticsandfakenewsrunningamok,we’veenteredasocietythatisposttruth,butIwouldn’twanttogothatfarjustyet.Tome,thebetterquestionwouldbe:assumingtruthisstillwithusinsomeway,whattypeoftruthischaracteristicofthetimeswelivein?Nowthat,inturn,mightsoundlikearidiculouslygeneralquestion:truthaboutwhat,forwhom,andinwhatsense?

Therolethattruthplaysinpoliticsdiffersquitedramaticallyfromitsrolein,say,science.AndthetypeoftruththatisdominantinNorthKoreaorSaudiArabiaisverydifferentfromthetypeoftruththatcharacterisesacountryliketheUnitedStatesortheNetherlands.

Still,certaintypesoftruthcanbedistinguishedthatweredominantinourcollectivethinkingforlongperiodsofhistory.WhenIsay"ourcollectivethinking",I’mspecificallyreferringtowesternthinking.AndwhenIsay"thinking",Idon’tjustmeanthewayinwhichprominentphilosophersviewedtheworld,butalso–andmaybeevenaboveall–howsocietyasawholeperceivedtheworldaroundit.

Ifyoulookathistoryfromthatperspective,whicherasoftruthliebehindus?Iwouldliketospecifythree:thepremodernera,themodernera,andthepostmodernera.Fromthatstartingpoint,Iwanttoaskthequestion:ifitisthecasethattheseerasarebehindus,thenwhattypeoftruthischaracteristicofthetimeswelivein?

The premodern era: truth as faith ThehistoryofwesternthinkinghasbeensummarisedbyBritishphilosopherAlfredWhiteheadas"aseriesoffootnotestoPlato".NotbecausePlatosupposedlysaidalltherewastosayabouttheworldinaphilosophicalsensebutbecausehewasthefirsttointroducethedistinctionthatwoulddominatewesternthinkingaboutwhatis"true"and"real"fornearly20centuries:thedistinctionbetweenappearanceandreality.Thisdistinctionwasbasedontheconceptthattheearthlyrealityarounduswasmerelyanillusion,derivedfroma"pure"realityelsewhere.Truth,thePlatonicmodelessentiallyargues,issomething"supernatural"and"superhuman",inthesenseofmetaphysicalortranscendent.Itisbeyondthegraspofhumanunderstanding.Thisdistinctionhasbeenthefoundationofnearlyeveryreligiouspracticethatwouldgrowtobecomeaworldreligionoverthepast2,000years.Inthatrespect,ChristianityandIslaminparticulararereallyjustmythicalvariationsonPlatonicthinkingbasedontheideathatTruthistobefound"outthere"–outsidehumanandearthlyreality.

Toputitdifferently:Truthisnotfoundinthesensoryrealityaroundus,butgiventousbya"higher"realityaboveandoutsideus.AttainingTruthrequiredaleapoffaith–asurrendertothetranscendent.Beholdthebirthofthefirstera:TruthasFaith.Life on earth was so hopeless and desperate for most people that there was no reason to think it would ever get any better. The idea that reality on earth was merely an ‘illusion’ offered some comfort ThistypeoftruthwascharacteristicofthewestfromroughlythreecenturiesbeforeChristto16centuriesafterChrist.

TheAmericanphilosopherRichardRortyarguedthatthedominanceofthisconceptcouldbeattributedlargelytothemiserablelivingconditionsduringthatperiod.Lifeonearthwassohopelessanddesperateformostpeoplethattherewasnoreasontothinkitwouldevergetanybetter.TheideathatrealityonEarthwasmerelyan"illusion"offeredsomecomfort,andthe"transcendent"offeredhopeofanescape,accordingtoRorty.

Thedominantframeofmind,orzeitgeist,ofthiserawashopeforredemption.Althoughlifeonearthlackedanyprospects,thosewhohadfaithcouldexpectsalvation.Consequently,theeraoftruthasfaithwasanextraordinarilystaticperiodinhistory.Theconceptof"progress"wascompletelyunknown,aswereconceptslikethe"mouldability"or"controllability"oflifeorthenaturalworld.Infact,mostpeoplebelievedthattheworldhadalwaysbeenthewayitwasatthatverymoment–andthatitwouldremainthatwayforever.Youcanseethisviewexpressedinconceptslike"creation"–foundationaltomostreligions.

Thisperspectivewasalsoreflectedincomparableviewsaboutsocialhierarchy:thosewhowerebornintopovertywoulddieaspoorastheirparents.Therewasnosocialladdertoclimbordescend;thehighestattainablegoalinlifewas,inRorty’swords,"reconciliationwiththenaturalorder"–anaturalorderthathadbeenassignedtotheworldandhumankind.

FromtheseriesDisneyficationbyTheoDerksen

The modern era: truth as knowledge Thistypeofthinkingwaslargelyabandonedaroundthelate16thandearly17thcentury.IfIhadtodescribethismajorshiftinmindsetinspatialterms,Iwouldsaythattruth"camedown",sotospeak–itdescendedfrom"above"to"below"andwentfrom"outofreach"to"withinreach"ofhumanbeings.

Inwhatwenowcallthe"modernera",truthwasnolongerviewedasapurelymetaphysicalconceptelevatedbeyondourgrasp,butsomethingtangible–andindeed,physical–intheearthlyhereandnow.

Truth changed from something that was given to something that could be found ApivotalfigureinthisshiftwasFrenchphilosopherRenéDescartes,theforefatherofrationalism,wholaidthefoundationfortheideathattheTruthcouldinfactbeknown.LogicandreasoncouldbeusedtocomprehendrealityanddiscovertheTruth.Truthchangedfromsomethingthatwasgiventosomethingthatcouldbefound.Thisperiodbroughtusobjectivityasanideal,aswellastheconceptofprogressandamouldableworld.Beholdthebirthofthesecondera:TruthasKnowledge.Thisnewtypeoftruthwasalsoaccompaniedbyanewzeitgeist.Hopeforredemptiongavewaytohopeforprogress.Themiserythathadseemedsoinescapableforcenturieswassuddenlynolongeranestablishedfact.Andtheideathatsocietywasdefinedbyanimmutablesocialhierarchyimposedfromabovegavewaytoegalitarianideologiesthatwouldbringthestatusquotumblingdown,withJohnStuartMill’sclassicalliberalismandAdamSmith’sfirstforaysintofree-marketthinkingleadingtheway.

Reconciliationwiththenaturalorderofthingswasnolongerthehighestattainablegoal;no,comprehendingandcontrollingthenaturalorderwasthenewobjective.

The postmodern era: truth as a construct Truthasknowledgewouldremainthedominantworldviewinthewesternworldforatleastthreecenturies,untilitsdeconstructioninthelate19thandearly20thcentury.

PivotalfiguresinthegradualdismantlingoftheideathatthetruthcouldbefoundincludedsuchFrenchthinkersasJean-PaulSartre,JacquesDerridaandMichelFoucault,aswellastheGermanthinkersMartinHeidegger,LudwigWittgensteinandFriedrichNietzsche.

Nietzscheactuallyreferredtohisworkas"philosophisingwithahammer",andwithgoodreason:whatthesethinkershaveincommonisthattheyall,intheirownway,smashedthebeliefinaknowableorfindabletruthtosmithereens.Truth,asfarasthesepostmodernistswereconcerned,isneithergivennorfound:truth(nowinlowercaseforthefirsttime)iscreatedbyhumans.In the postmodern era, truth was neither given nor found: truth – now in lower case for the first time – was created by humans

Theirrespectiveapproachesdifferedradically:toHeideggerandSartre,truthwasprimarilyaproductofourconsciousness,whileWittgensteinandDerridaprimarilysawtruthasaproductofourlanguage,andNietzscheandFoucaultarguedthattruthwasprimarilyaproductofpowerrelations.

Ifweweretocapturethecollectiveessenceoftheirthinking,thentheirkindredspiritRortyoffersthemostusefulsummary:"Youcannotriseaboveinterpretationsandgettofacts"(thepremodernideal:risingabovetheearthlyrealityandarrivingattheTruth),"andyoucannotdigdownbelowinterpretationsandgettofacts"(themodernideal:diggingintotheearthlyrealityandarrivingattheTruth).Beholdthebirthofthethirdera:truthasaconstruct.InthesamewaythattheIndustrialRevolutionandtheemergenceofmodernsciencehelpedtobringaboutfaithinTruthasKnowledge,thefirstworldwar(andlaterthesecond)causedtheideaoftruthasaconstructtogainmomentumandtakehold.

ThefirstandsecondworldwarsfosteredanenormousdistrustofTruthwithacapitalT.ThedeconstructionofTruthinitiatedbypostmodernthinkersaimedtoundermineitsmobilisingpower:humankindhadtobe"liberated"fromallthosefalseauthoritiesthathadlaidclaimtotruthoverthecenturies.

Wherepremodernitywascharacterisedbyhopeforredemptionandmodernitybyhopeforprogress,postmodernitywascharacterisedbyscepticismaboutboth.Realitywasparenthesisedandthe"endofhistory"proclaimed.Atthesametime,therewasahugesurgeinfaithinthepowerofindividualstomaketheirownreality.Iftruthwasaconstruct,thenyoucouldalsoshapeyourowntruth–andthusyourownlife–accordingtoyourownpreferences.

Theidealsoffreedomofchoice,self-creationandself-fulfilmenttooktheplaceofredemptionbyandknowledgeoftheTruth.Notonlydidtruthbecomeaconstructbut,forthefirsttimeever,lifealsobecameastyle.Reconciliationwith"thenaturalorder"(premodern)orcontrolof"thenaturalorder"(modern)becameobsolete,because,infact,therewasnosuchthingasanaturalorder.Creatingone’sownpersonalorder(postmodern)wastheultimateobjectivefromthatpointon.

FromtheseriesDisneyficationbyTheoDerksen

Are we in a fourth era? Obviously,scientificresearchalsotookplaceinthepremodernera;faithintranscendencenevervanishedentirelyinthemodernera,andthepostmoderneradidnotactuallyheraldtheendofhistory.Therearenofirmboundariesbetweentheeras;atmost,itcouldbestatedthatacertainwayofthinkingisslightlymorecharacteristicofoneerathananother.

Thatsaid,woulditnowbepossibletostatethatweareinanewera?Haveweendedupinwhatcouldbereferredtoaspost-postmodernism?

Thereareplentyofargumentsthatrefutesuchanassertion.Politicsaren’texactlyenlivenedbygreatnarrativesthesedays,anddistrustofallsortsofauthoritiesisbynomeansathingofthepast;self-fulfilmentisstillseenasthesupremeidealinlargepartsofthewesternworld,andironyasadefaultattitudeiswidespread.

Still,Iwoulddaretoarguethatwehaveindeedenteredaneraofanewtypeoftruth.Theeraoftruthasaproduct.

FromtheseriesDisneyficationbyTheoDerksen

Post-postmodernity: truth as a product Thistypeoftruthcantraceitsrootsbacktopostmodernism.Thisworldviewwasthephilosophicalsoilinwhichtheidealofthefreemarket–notthevariantproposedbyAdamSmith,butthefreemarketofMiltonFriedmanandAynRand–flourishedandbecamepopular.

For,iftruthisnotfoundbutcreated,andonlythesubjectiveindividualcanleadthatprocess,then–thereasoninggoes–thefreemarketistheonlywaytoan"ideal"societywithoutaguidingauthorityleadingit.Theideaofa"commoninterest"thatwasstillprevalentinthemodernerawasexchangedforthe"sum"ofindividualinterests.Inthisworldview,thefreemarketwouldleadtoaperfectequilibrium,withouthavingtobeguidedbyaconstructedideologyoriginatingfromafalseauthority.

Neoliberalfreemarketthinkingstartedoutasadeconstructionofideologyandauthority,but,despiteitsorigins,grewintoanideologicaldogmainitsownright,leadingtoafar-reachingeconomisationofourworldview.

Moralandontologicaldogmaswerereplacedbyeconomiccriteria.NoonebelievedinTruth,KnowledgeandMoralitywithacapitalletteranymore;theyweresupplantedbytheso-called"neutral"conceptsofproductivity,efficiencyandreturnoninvestment.

Inpolitics,healthcare,education,science,mediaandthearts:economiccriteriabecamethemeasureofallthingsineveryaspectofsociety.

Now,citizensareconsumers,patients"shop"fortheirhealthcare,students"invest"intheiracademic"career",immigrantsare"fortuneseekers"or"cheaplabour",theelderlyaredubbed"growingexpenses",artistshavetobe"creativeentrepreneurs",andthegrossnationalproductisthegodlymeasureofourcollectivewell-being.

FromtheseriesDisneyficationbyTheoDerksen

The commercialisation of our information Thiseconomisationofourworldviewresultedinthecommercialisationofsociety.Acrucialaspectofthisprocesswasthecommercialisationofourinformationsupply.Evenourmostimportantsourcesofinformation,fromnewsmediatoeducationandresearchagenciesto,morerecently,searchenginesandsocialnetworks:allofthembecameincreasinglybasedon

commerciallogic.Coverage,marketshareandprofitabilitybecamethegaugesusedtomeasuresuccess.

Just as Big Oil, Big Food, Big Pharma and Big Banks would dominate the oil, food, medicine and financial industry, Big Media would take hold in the ‘information market’ Fromthe1980sonwards,thiscommercialisationofourinformationsupplywasaccompaniedbyawaveofmergersandacquisitions.JustasBigOil,BigFood,BigPharmaandBigBankswoulddominatetheoil,food,medicineandfinancialindustry,BigMediawouldslowlybutsurelytakeholdinthe"informationmarket".

Exactfiguresonmarketsharesaredifficulttopinpoint,butatthispointintime,itiscertainthatthemajorityofallnewsmedia,TVandradiobroadcasters,filmstudios,publishinghousesandwebsitesthatproducethenews,TVandradioshows,books,magazinesandfilmsthatfeedandfabricateourworldviewcanbetracedbacktonomorethan30majormultinationalsthatareunprecedentedlyvastinsize–collectively,therepresentover$300bninannualrevenues.

Acrucialparalleltrendwastheprofessionalisationofcommunication.Thephenomenonofpublicrelationsbecameaninstitutionalfeature.Overthecourseofafewdecades,itwouldgrowtobecomeoneofthebiggestandmostinfluentialindustriesintheworld;theadvertisingsegmentaloneaccountsformorethan$500bnayear.

Communicationstrategists,PRexperts,spindoctors,marketeersandadvertisersbecametheall-powerfularchitectsofourinformationsupply.Nearlyallmajorflowsofinformation–fromnewstopolitics,fromsciencetoart–weresubjectedtothelawsofpublicrelations:alignedwithtargetaudiencesandassessedonthebasisofreachandrevenues.

Theeconomisationofourworldview,themarket-basedreframingofsociety,thecommercialisationofinformationandtheprofessionalisationofcommunicationarethefourpillarsonwhichthenewerarests:theeraoftruthasaproduct.Truthisnolongergiven(premodern),found(modern)orcreated(postmodern),truthissold.Or,torephraseit:wewentfromtherevelation,tothediscovery,totheconstruction,totheproductionoftruth.

Truth as a way to satisfy a need Asthingsstand,itisdifficulttomakeafirmdistinctionbetweentruthasaconstruct–whichcharacterisedthepostmodernera–andtruthasaproduct,whichIseeasthedefiningcharacteristicofthetimeswelivein.

Bothwaysoflookingattheworldcantracetheirphilosophicaloriginsbacktotheideathattruthprimarilyisamatterofhowyouexplaintheworld–amatterofperspective,asNietzschewouldsay.Inthatsense,PRandmarketingaredistinctlypostmodernphenomena:theyarefoundedontherealisationthatwhatpeopleassumetobe"true"isnotderivedfromsometranscendentsourceorfactualbasis,butisinsteadamatterofhowtheworldis"perceived".

However,thereisadifferencebetweenthekindofmouldabletruththatwehavecometocallpostmodern,andthemalleabletruththatsurroundsusnow.TruthasaconstructoriginallywasconceivedasawaytoliberatemankindfromfalseauthoritiesandtheuniversalpretensionsofTruthwithacapitalT–inordertoallowtheindividualfreereinforself-creation.

Truthasaproduct,however,servesaverydifferentpurpose:itseeksnottoliberateusbuttosatisfyourneeds.Inotherwords,everythingwedoorcreatethesedaysisbasedonthelogicofaproduct.Whetherweareparticipatinginpolitics,providinginformation,teaching,doingresearchorcreatingart:everythingisassessedonthebasisofwhichneeditsatisfies.

FromtheseriesDisneyficationbyTheoDerksen

Consuming your own opinion Politics,forexample,isnotabout"convincingasmanycitizensaspossibletoembracecertainidealstoserveacommoninterest";it’saboutdetermining,formulatingandimplementingwhatacertainsegmentoftheelectorate(the"targetgroup"or"electoraldemographic")thinksandwants.

Or,astherenownedDutchsociologistWillemSchinkelonceputitsosuccinctly:thegoalis"tohavevotersconsumetheirownopinion".It’snocoincidencethatwedecidehowtovoteinawaythatbearsastrongresemblancetohowwechooseawashingmachine:byfillingoutavotingcompassandpickingthecandidatethatcomesout.

Mostlikely:theonethatwewouldliketo"haveabeerwith".

Ourinformationsupplyfollowsthesamelogic.Google,forexample,wasfoundedasasearchenginebasedonthemodernidealofunlockingandprovidingaccesstoalltheinformationintheworld,butbynowthecompanyhasevolvedintoitspost-postmoderncounterpart:ainformationbrokertailoringitsresultscompletelytotheneedsofthe"informationconsumer"asdeterminedbyalgorithmsandconsumersearchbehaviour.

Theresult:someonewhohasbeenprofiledas"politicallyengaged"willseeresultsfeaturingrevolutionsandprotestswhentheyGoogleawordlike“Egypt”,whilesomeonedeemeda"hedonisticconsumer"willseesummerholidaysandseasideresorts.

Thesamegeneralprinciplesapplytohownewsisgeneratedintoday’smedia.Newsisnot"featuringspecificeventsandtrendsbasedonanunderlyingconceptofsocialrelevance",buttrackingandreflectingon"whatpeoplearetalkingabout"inordertoalignthenewsreportswiththeinterestsandneedsofthe"targetaudience".

Forthesamereasons,educationislessaboutonconveyingknowledgethathasinherentvalue,andmoreaboutaligningknowledgewiththeneedsofthejobmarketforwhichthestudentisbeingtrained.Scienceisincreasinglymovingawayfromresearchtodiscoverfundamentalinsightsandtowardsresearchtobenefiteconomicreturns.Andartislessinclinedtoundermineestablishedconceptsandincreasinglylikelytoseekalignmentwiththeexistinginterestsoftheintendedtargetdemographic.

Inotherwords,wheretruthasaconstructwasstillessentiallyemancipatoryandliberating,truthasaproductispredominantlyawaytoagreewithourselves.

Alsoknownas:bubbles.

FromtheseriesDisneyficationbyTheoDerksen

Truth without a reason why Theabsenceofaliberating,emancipatorycoreis,inmyview,themostimportantcharacteristicthatdistinguishesthetypeoftruthendemicinourtimefromthetypesoftruththatprecededit.Allthosepriortruthsdidseektobeemancipatoryorliberating.

TruthasFaithaimedtofreepeoplefromanunchangingworldplaguedbydiseaseandpovertybyenvisioningatranscendentworldthatofferedtheprospectofredemption.TruthasKnowledgeaimedtoliberatepeoplefromthesubmissivenessandpassivitythataccompaniedthisfaithintranscendencebyenvisioningaknowable,makeableworldwhereprogresswaspossible.AndtruthasaconstructaimedtoliberatepeoplefromthedestructiveforcesofuniversalismandutopianismthathadaccompaniedfaithinTruthwithacapitalTbyenvisioningadeconstructedworldinwhichtheindividualwouldbeincontrol.

Butwhatdoesourtruthaimtoachieve?Our truth seeks neither redemption nor progress nor change, only satiation Whatdoestruthasaproductwantbeyondsatisfyingourneeds–adinfinitum?Youcouldsay:ourtruthhastakenonanewform,butwithoutanewgoal.Theaimisneitherredemptionnorprogressnorchange,onlysatisfaction.

IcouldtrytoexplainexactlywhatImeanbythat,butasketchbythebrilliantUScomedianBillHicks(sadlynolongerwithus)doesitfarbetter.

Inthesketch,Hicksencouragesalltheadvertisersandmarketersintheaudiencetoconsidersuicide.Andhemeansit,too;hekeepssaying:"Really,thereisnojokecoming,killyourself."Thecomedianingeniouslyshowswhatmarketingisbyapplyingittohisownmessage:"DoyouknowwhatBill’sdoing?He’sgoingforthatanti-marketingdollar,that’sagoodmarket!"

"No,"Hicksrepliesangrily,"I’mnotdoingthat,youscumbags!"Towhichthemarketerresponds:"Ah,he’sgoingforthatrighteousindignationdollar!That’sagoodmarket.He’sverysmart."Andsoon.

Thissketchincisivelyshowsthat"truthasaproduct"reallyhasnophilosophicalcore:truthiswhateversells.Itturnspoliticsintoa"pitch",informationintoa"format",artintoa"concept",educationintoa"formula".Nottoconvince,toinform,topromptpeopletothinkorlearn,buttosatisfy.

Herein,Ithink,liestheessenceofourera.Itexplainswhytherearealmostnofundamentalideologicaldifferencesbetweenpoliticalparties,exceptforhowtheycalculatewhatahouseholdwillbeabletospendnextyear.Itexplainswhyschoolsanduniversitieshavebecomediplomafactoriesinsearchofthehighestscoreintherankings.Itexplainswhysolidarityiscrumblingandshort-termprofitreignssupreme.

Anditexplainswhy80%ofpeople(inthewest)aresosatisfiedwiththeirownlives,whileanequallylargepercentagearesoconcernedaboutwheresocietyasawholeisgoing.Ourpersonalneedsaremorethansatisfied,butwehardlyhaveanyideatowhatend.

ThispiecefirstappearedonDeCorrespondent.ItwastranslatedfromtheDutchbyJoyPhillips.

FromtheseriesDisneyficationbyTheoDerksen

About the imagesThephotosinTheoDerksen’sseriesDisneyfication,whichwasover20yearsinthemaking,areratherconfusingatfirstglance.Strangedifferencesinsizesandscalemakeyoublinkonceortwice,onlytodiscoverstrangecollisionsbetweenrealityandthestrangelyoversized,grotesquecommercialimages.Disneyficationconfusesusonwheretherealbeginsandthefakeends.Thislong-termstudyofmetropolises,whichincludesBucharest,Berlin,Egypt,Tokyo,Dubai,Chongqing,Shanghai,Beijing,SingaporeandLasVegas,showcasestheintrusive,overpoweringeffectofthesecommercialimages.(LiseStraatsma,imageeditor)See more work by Theo Derksen